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UrbanArticle  Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  towards Employment Opportunities, Income Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  ds Employment Opportunities, Income  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for towards Employment Opportunities, Income  ation, and Poverty Alleviation for  Improved Livelihoods   Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for    ved Livelihoods  Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi * Improved Livelihoods  ID

ID

itta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected] Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  t of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg, 

* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27-11-559-2429 4, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  ndence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429   P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]   Received: 16* April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 7 July 2018 Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  6 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 

Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban areas n most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  in search of better socio-economic conditions and improved livelihoods is contributing to increased earch  of  better  socio‐economic Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to  unemployment levels, poverty and large scale urban deprivation. Given such poverty situations and unemployment  levels,  poverty areas  and  large  scale of  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  in  search  better  socio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to  the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations in these areas are and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of this poverty trap eas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income-generating purposes. In this ty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers in the city of Jos In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  has been investigated by means of a mixed-method research design. Thus, both quantitative and  of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  qualitative data were fororder  analyses in order tothe  understand ve  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for collected analyses  in  to  understand  various  the various dimensions of small in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city Jos, Nigeria. The results s of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in of order  to  understand  the  various  have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the demographic attributes he results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  of these farmers. Small-scale fish farming a viable source of food, generating local employment hic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  farming  is  a  is viable  source  of  food,  Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of urban deprivation. Some of the  local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  farming  is  a  viable  source  of  food,  rivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  income (above 20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming significantly alleviates poverty, generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  ly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of 18,000 (50.00 USD). Results also show that ults also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  the lack ofsignificantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  reliable water supplies and high production costs are some of the most constraining st  constraining  problems  that that militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  problems militate against operational effectiveness and efficiency, along with poor marketing h poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  of  the  most  constraining  problems  that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  also efficiency,  of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to credit facilities was lities  was  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From  the  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  mentioned as one of the problems besetting this activity. From the perceptions of the respondents s  of  the  respondents  in  study, this credit  study,  a  number  negative  environmental  facilities  was of  also  mentioned  as  one  of  impacts  the  problems  besetting  this  fish activity.  From  the  in this a number of negative environmental impacts associated with small scale farming  with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  perceptions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environmental  impacts  have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth potential of this kind of farming in Jos, of  this  kind  of  farming  in  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is  more integrated local development planning is recommended for addressing the infrastructural and ded  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  resource  of  practicing  for  potential  and  of  this  kind needs  of  farming  in  Jos, farmers  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is  resource needs of practicing farmers for achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmers  for  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  Keywords: urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa; Jos in Nigeria; increased unemployment; :  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food  food insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food  insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods   

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1. Introduction

1. Introduction  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach nited Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  9.6 billion. TheThe United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  most developing countries [1,2]. According to Social  the Department Economic and Social Affairs in the countries  [1,2].  According  to billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Affairs  in  of the  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is thatand  by the same year,in  the  Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department estimated of  Economic  Social  Affairs  66% of the Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  world’s population will be living in urban areas. In Africa and Asia, urbanisation trends 8, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture  Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW   

Agriculture 2018, 8, 110; doi:10.3390/agriculture8070110

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are growing more rapidly than in other regions, and they are forecasted to be 56% and 64% urban by 2050, respectively [3]. It is expected that the countries of sub-Saharan Africa will contribute a larger proportion to the population growth globally, since their urban population is increasing at a faster rate, with an annual growth rate of 3.6% [3]. However, in many African countries, poverty and food insecurity severely affect the urban poor compared to their rural counterparts. The urban poor depend mainly on the market, while rural dwellers have an option to exploit natural resources for income generation and to provide food for themselves [4,5]. In 2011, the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) [6] stated that 960 million people globally are malnourished, with most of them living in Asia and Africa [7]. Moreover, FAO [8] and other sources [9,10] have indicated that about one-third of the sub-Saharan African (SSA) population is malnourished, as they survive on less than 2 USD per day. Furthermore, poor urban dwellers in SSA countries spend approximately 60% to 80% of their monthly salary on buying food in the market, thus rendering them susceptible to food price instabilities [11–16]. Both FAO [8] and Ravallion et al. [17] have indicated that about 33% of urban dwellers in African countries are living in poverty. In fact, cities such as Kampala (Uganda) and Lilongwe (Malawi) have the highest urban poverty levels in Africa, with 60% and 80% respectively of their populations classified as being urban poor [18]. The Nigerian population is estimated to contribute 212 million people to the world’s urban population between the years 2014 and 2050 [3]. In Nigeria, urban poverty and food insecurity are fast becoming major socio-economic problems in urban areas [19], and this is afflicting mostly poor urban dwellers, especially those with weak livelihood strategies [19,20]. Historically, food insecurity at various scales has increased in Nigeria as agriculture was gradually neglected in favor of comparatively more investments in the commercial oil sector [21]. It is therefore, not surprising that 79% of urban households in Nigeria are without food security [22]. According to the Global Hunger Index (GHI), Nigeria was ranked number 41 in 2000 amongst 119 countries in terms of the prevalence of malnutrition and rising food prices [23]. The GHI is an indication of the commonness of food insecurity in any country. It is also an indication of the extreme suffering to which millions of poor people are subjected to [23]. The provision of adequate food supplies at a reasonable cost represents a great challenge, especially in the light of ongoing decline in per capita food supply, while the proportion of undernourished people living in urban areas is increasing. In Central Nigeria, where the city of Jos is located, poverty levels have increased consistently, from 50.8% in 1985 to 67.0% in 2004 [12]. One way to address poverty levels and under-nutrition in some of the poor communities located in developing regions involves small-scale fish farming as part of a diversified livelihood strategy. As indicated by Kawarazuka and Béné [24], compared to other food sources, “fish offer advantages as they may be more affordable, more available and consumed for preference in various regions of the developing world”. Available evidence shows that most research associated with fish farming in Nigeria has focused on private commercial fishing, as well as the role played by small-scale fish farming, towards sustaining livelihoods in rural areas. For instance, James and Tunde [25] have reported on the increase of peri-urban aquaculture in Nigeria, and have documented the national experience, along with critical processes and technological innovations responsible for sustained growth in this sector. Indeed, given increased national demand for fish in Nigeria and inadequate supplies, the role of technological innovations necessary for increased fish production is widely recognized [25–30]. When it comes to fishing communities, many Nigerian studies have concentrated on their role and activities in predominantly rural areas with largely subsistence economies and associated vulnerabilities [31–34]. The operations and activities of such fishing communities are not similar to those involved in fish farming as conceptualized in this paper. Fishing at community level simply means wild fishing from freshwater and marine ecosystems, without any systematic effort towards increased production and personal incomes. For instance, Adelekan and Fregene [33] have studied how the livelihoods of fishing communities living near coastal waters are susceptible and

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impacted by flooding incidences, and the need for policy-driven interventions that can enhance their current and future adaptation strategies against adverse environmental and erratic climatic factors. On the other hand, there is limited literature on the socio-economic contribution of small-scale fish farming and attendant fishing practices which are aquaculturally-based, thus aiming towards increased productivity and profitability in some of the urban areas in Nigeria. Such activities are undertaken by local farmers who are either operating alone on a non-formal basis, or formally, as members of local agricultural cooperatives. More research in this study area is highly warranted, as it would help to identify factors that are constraining increased farming productivity and personal incomes, as well as the kinds of policy interventions that are required to stimulate such farming so that urban poverty and food insecurity are reduced. In responding to this research gap, the role of small-scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers in the city of Jos has been investigated in this paper. Addressing this main aim was undertaken by means of formulating the following research objectives: (1) to characterize the spatial distribution of fish farm sites in the city of Jos; (2) to explain farmer’s perceptions on the role of urban fish farming on their own social and economic conditions; (3) to explain existing fish farming practices and characteristics; (4) to summarize the employment patterns relevant to fish farming; (5) to describe perceptions on the most important problems confronting fish farmers, as well as attendant environmental impacts of this activity; and (6) in order to gauge the order of severity and intensity of these problems, some measure of ranking was calculated based on analyses of the feedback obtained from respondents. In giving a theoretical contextualization for urban fish farming in Africa, a brief literature study is provided, and thereafter, a description of the study area, research design, and methods is provided. Then, the results of the study are presented and discussed before conclusions and recommendations are given. 2. Literature Review This literature review starts with a broad overview of urban agriculture before examining several aspects of fish production such as food security, income, and employment, with special reference to a few African countries, including Nigeria. Although urban agriculture can serve as a viable livelihood strategy to reduce food insecurity and poverty amongst urban residents [10,35–37], its socio-economic importance has been recognized by both governments and non-governmental organizations over the last few decades (International Development Research Centre (IDRC) [38]. Urban agriculture is comprised of “mostly crop and livestock rearing on private, leased, or rented land in urban areas, in backyards, on vacant public lands, and in semi-public areas” [39]. Such agriculture supplies food to households during periods of shortage and uncertainty [40–42], and is an income-generating activity amongst urban farmers, who, in selling their surplus products, are able to supplement their household income [16,43]. Urban farming also serves as a source of nutritious food which can improve the health status of city dwellers [44]. The socio-economic role that urban agriculture plays in urban settlements should not be under-estimated. In Nairobi (Kenya), it is estimated that more than 650 hectares of land is devoted to urban agricultural practices, and approximately 300,000 households depend on urban agriculture for their income, food, and employment [44]. Fish Production: Employment Levels, Food Security, and Incomes Recent studies by the World Bank [45,46] have showed that 25.4 million people are employed in the fish farming sector in Africa. Relatively few (7.8 million people) are employed in the actual fishing process, whereas the large majority (17.6 million) are employed in the processing, marketing, distribution, and supply industries associated with fishing [46]. Most of those employed in the actual fishing process (7.4 million of the 7.8 million) are small-scale fish farmers, while only 0.4 million are large-scale farmers [46]. In Tanzania, 10,802 people are employed in the fish farming sector, while in Egypt, the number is 586,123 [46]. The estimated number of farmers employed in the fish farming sector in Uganda is about 1.2 million people [47]. In Benin-City, Nigeria, 214,202 people are employed in fish farming [46].

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The practice of fish farming in urban areas has played a vital role in contributing to food supply, and the livelihood of urban dwellers [47,48]. According to the FAO [49], fish is known to be the best source of animal protein, is rich in amino acids, and low in cholesterol. Moreover, fish farming is a vital means for the supply of nutrients such as calcium, iron, iodine, and vitamins [50]. In fact, fish products account for 20% of the protein consumed in Africa, 30% in Asia, and 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean [51]. Fish farming is also regarded as an important source of food to more than 400 million Africans, and contributes essential micronutrients, proteins, and minerals to their meals [10,52–55]. Fish constitutes 40% of the animal protein consumed in Nigeria [56]. The Federal Department of Fisheries (FDF) [56] has noted that Nigeria produced just over 800,000 metric tons of fish. Yet 600,000 metric tons of fish must be imported annually to supply the large demand for protein in this country [57]. These statistics show that fish products in Nigeria have not been sufficient to satisfy domestic demand for animal protein, thus bearing testimony to the fact that fish production has not been given the attention it deserves by the government [58]. Aquacultural fish production serves as a means of generating revenue from production and related processing and marketing activities [50,59]. By 2002, developing nations earned more foreign exchange from exports of fish products than sugar, rice, and coffee combined [60]. For instance, fish production serves as a significant sector of Uganda’s economy. The exports of fish from Uganda increased from 1664 tons in 1990 to about 24,965 tons in 2008. This generated revenue of about 124.4 million US Dollars, or 7.2% of Uganda’s total exports [60]. Fish production also occupies an important position in the Nigerian agricultural sector; its contribution to the agricultural gross domestic product (GDP) was approximately 1.3% in 2010 [61,62]. 3. Study Area and Methodology Jos, the capital city of Plateau State in Nigeria, has a population of 736,016 people [63], and covers an area of 249.9 km2 . It lies at an altitude of around 1290 m above sea level [64]. The climate is influenced by height above sea level and spatial position across the seasonal migration belt of the Inter-Tropical Discontinuity (ITD). Jos falls within the wet and dry climatic type classified by Köppen [65] as a Tropical Rainy (AW) climate. Mean annual rainfall is 1260 mm, and peaks between July and August; meanwhile, the mean annual temperature is about 22 ◦ C [66]. Jos owes its origin to the introduction of tin mining and the convergence of railway lines that connect with several cities, thus integrating this urban settlement with regional economic networks [67]. The urban area of Jos has undergone a remarkable transformation as a result of the local tin mining industry, which flourished for several decades. However, the decline and subsequent collapse of the tin industry in the 1960s led to the widespread acceptance and practice of urban farming as an alternative source of livelihood [67]. Amongst the various types of urban farming in Jos designed to cope with the negative socio-economic impacts from the collapsed tin mining industry and other economic problems, this research has focused specifically on the small scale urban fish farmers in this area. The fish farming species involved include African catfish such as Clarias gariepinus and C. nigrodigitatus, as well as the clariid catfish, known as Heterobranchus bidorsalis, all of which thrive in freshwater habitats [68–70]. Almost 81% of small scale fish farmers in Jos are growing and rearing the Clarius gariepinus species rather than other species such as Clarias nigro-digitatus and Heterobranchus bidorsalis produced by 19% of farmers. The Third National Fadama project (a World-Bank assisted project) in Jos is comprised of a total of 125 farmers, of which 40% were randomly selected to obtain a sample size of 50 respondents for the current research. A mixed method approach was used to address our research aims and related objectives. Within this research design, quantitative and qualitative data are collected and analyzed within a single research study, thus providing deeper insights and new knowledge about the phenomena being investigated [71]. In the research reported in this paper, questionnaires with both close-ended and open-ended questions were used to collect both numerical or quantitative data, as well as qualitative data from the selected fish farmers. The questionnaire-administered interviews were undertaken from

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October 2015 to February 2016. These interviews were conducted only after prior informed consent was obtained from the responding farmers. Close-ended questions were mainly numerical and focused on the demographical attributes of respondents, employment patterns, and incomes. Furthermore, other numerical data on the various aspects of farming practices such as operational problems and environmental impacts were presented in a Likert scale to assess trends or degrees of severity and intensity. All data collected in this manner were then subsequently analyzed statistically to yield the percentage (%) of responses, thereby yielding the research results. Furthermore, quantitative data obtained by means of the Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to characterize the spatial distribution of fish farms in Jos. This quantitative exercise produced a map showing the position of fish farms in relation to arterial routes in the study area. On the other hand, qualitative data were collected from respondents by means of addressing open-ended questions during semi-structured interviews. In such interviews, different narratives from respondents were transcribed into the questionnaires to help understand the socio-economic contributions and ramifications of fish farming towards livelihoods, as well as their perceptions of problems besetting their operational successes. These qualitative data were then subjected to content analyses whereby the main ideas, salient points, and meanings were identified and summarized as part of the results in this paper. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Spatial Distribution of Fish Farms As shown in Figure 1, fish farms are scattered across the study area located in Jos. However, the location of at least 18 of these (50) farms is situated close to main roads, and this spatial pattern may be related to the ease of transporting produce to nearby markets, thus affording farmers the opportunity to sell their produce directly to buyers. This spatial pattern also imply that members of the public passing along these routes can access these farms to buy fish without much hindrance. Furthermore, some of these fish farms, besides proximity to road networks, are located nearer to previous tin mining ponds, which are sometimes exploited for water supplies during the dry seasons. Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW

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Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fish farms along main roads.

Figure 1. Spatial distribution of fish farms along main roads.

4.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Farmers

Most (62%) of the respondents in Jos were male (Table 1). This is in line with results obtained by Ogunlade [72] in Osun State (Nigeria), where it was found that urban fish farming is predominantly a male-dominated activity. Forty percent (40%) of the respondents were in the 41–50 years age category, and 54% of them have acquired tertiary educational qualifications. This indicates that smallscale fish farmers in Jos are literate and have received basic education (Table 1). Sixty percent (60%) of the respondents had five years of fish farming experience, which may not be enough to gain the necessary skill set required for increased production levels. According to Aphunu et al. [73], experience played an important role in understanding fish farming in the Delta State (Nigeria). In an

Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for    towards Employment Opportunities, Income  Improved Livelihoods  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for    Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 6 of 16 Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Improved Livelihoods  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected] 

4.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Fish Farmers Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  *  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  Most (62%) of the respondents in Jos were male (Table 1). This is in line with results obtained by Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  Ogunlade [72] in Osun State (Nigeria), where it was found that urban fish farming is predominantly a P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  male-dominated activity. Forty percent (40%) of the respondents were in the 41–50 years age category, *  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to u and 54% of Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  them have acquired educational qualifications.conditions  This indicates that small-scale areas tertiary in  search  of  better  socio‐economic  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributin poverty  and  urban  deprivation.  fish farmers in Jos are literateincreased  and haveunemployment  received basiclevels,  education (Table 1).large  Sixtyscale  percent (60%) of the Given  such  pov situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local popula respondentsAbstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  had five years of fish farming experience, which may not be enough to gain the necessary in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way o skill set required increased production levels. According to and  Aphunu et al. [73], experience played areas for in  search  of  better  socio‐economic  conditions  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to  this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐genera increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  an important role in understanding fish farming in the Delta State (Nigeria). In an interview with one respondent situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  on the 10 Januarypurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban far 2016, the following points were made: in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus,  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  quantitative  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  “If I had better knowledge of this fishand  farming business two years ago, I would not have lost to  understand  the  var this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city o my firstpurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  stock of 4000 fingerlings”. Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well a in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both      it can From this statement, be confirmed that collected  personal experiences are very critical to successful attributes  of  these  farmers.  farming  is  a  viable  source  of  f quantitative  and  demographic  qualitative  data  were  for  analyses Small‐scale  in  order  to fish  understand  the  various  fish farming and for minimizing losses. Fifty-two percent of respondents were part-time farmers. generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environme dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  Article  All respondents in the currenturban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farm study reported a monthly income of above 20,000 (55.60 USD), earned Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (5 directly from fish farmingattributes  (Table 1).of  Such anfarmers.  activity is not only affording these source of  of food,  demographic  these  Small‐scale  fish  farming  is farmers a  viable asource  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are s income, but also provides a source of protein to urban residents who buy the produce. Furthermore, generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  towards Employment Opportunities, Income  of  the  most  constraining  problems  militate  operational  effectiveness  and  efficie the incomesurban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  were above the national minimum wage of 18,000that  (50.00 USD)against  which was approved by Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for    along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of acce the Nationalsignificantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  Salary, Wages Commission (NSWC) [74], thus confirming the income-generation potential facilities  was  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  of small-scale fish farming, ascredit  mentioned in other studies [75]. Improved Livelihoods  perceptions  of  the that  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environmental  imp of  the  most  constraining  problems  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the gro along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  Table 1. The socio-economic characteristics of urban fish farmers in Jos. Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  potential  of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  From  development  plannin credit  facilities  was  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  the  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmer Variables of Respondents Responses perceptions  of  the  respondents  in  Number this  study,  a  number  of Percentage negative of environmental  impacts  P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  Gender of respondents *  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  Male 31 62% potential  of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is  Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Female Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  19 38% Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmers unemployment;  for  Age of farmers insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoo Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  ≤30 years 6 12%   31socio‐economic  to 40 years 24% areas  in  search  of  better  conditions  and  improved 12livelihoods  is  contributing  to  41 to 50 years 20 40% unemployment;  food  increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  ≥51 years 12 24% situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  Educational level of respondents in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  1. Introduction    No formal education (and primary education) 7 14%

this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  Secondary education 16 32% The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reac purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  Tertiary education 27 54% billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  Experience of respondents 1. Introduction  developing  countries  [1,2].  to  the  Department  ≤ 5 years 30 to  understand  60%of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in According  order  the  various  6 to 10 years 15 30% Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same  dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  ≥11 years 5 10% Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  Occupation of respondents Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agric demographic  developing  attributes  of  these  fish  of  food,  Full time farmers.  24 is  a  viable  48% Social  Affairs  in  the  countries  [1,2]. Small‐scale  According  to farming  the  Department  of source  Economic  and  generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  Part time 26 52% Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  Income from fish farming activities ( ) 20,000 (55.60 USD) and above 50 100% significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  of 4.3. the Fish most Farming constraining  problems  that  militate Characteristics against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  Practices and Associated along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  credit  facilities  was percent also  mentioned  as  one  of  practiced the  problems  this  activity.  From  the  land (Table 2). Sixty eight of respondents fishbesetting  production on family-owned perceptions  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  negative  environmental  impacts  However,of  relatively few respondents use either theirof  own land (28%) or rented land (4%). Apart from associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  these trends, 82% of respondents also practice fish farming at other locations. Most (68%) of the potential  of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is  respondents work on their farms for about seven days per week (Table 2), and 48% of them are recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  farmers  for  occupied by this activity on a full time basis. These findings clearly demonstrate the commitment of achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. 

the respondents to small-scale fish farming, and how important is this activity to their livelihoods. Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  in pond Nigeria;  increased  68% unemployment;  food  Those respondents with more than 500 fishJos  per constituted of the total, whereas those with insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods   

1. Introduction  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6 

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301 to 400 fish amounted to 8%. Regarding the number of fish ponds on individual farms, the majority (68%) of respondents had 6–10 ponds. Different types of ponds utilized by fish farmers are shown in Figures 2–4. Most (70%) of the respondents practiced fish production in concrete ponds (built vertically up from the ground with cement blocks), as shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, the average mass of fish sold by 90% of the respondents was 2 kg or less per buyer (Table 2). Large masses of fish were seldom (4–6%) sold to individual buyers. Table 2. Fish farming practices and characteristics in Jos. Variables Land tenure Family-owned land Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW Own land Rented land fish farms NumberLocation of daysof attending to fish farms Practiced farming at home 5 tofish 6 days per week Practiced fish farming at other locations 7 days per week Number of days attending to fish farms Number fish ponds on the farm 5 toof 6 days per week 1 toper 5 ponds 7 days week Number of fish on the farm 6 toponds 10 ponds 1 to≥11 5 ponds ponds 6 to 10 ponds Number of fish per pond ≥11 ponds ≤300 Number of fishfish per pond ≤301 300 to fish400 301 to to 500 400 fish 401 401 to 500fish fish >500 >500 fish Type of pond Type of pond Concrete pond Concrete pond Concrete stone pond Concrete stone pond Earthen pond Earthen pond Marketed weight of of fish Marketed weight fish ≤2≤2kgkg 2 to 3 kg 2 to 3 kg 4 to 5 kg

4 to 5 kg

Number of Respondents

Percentage of Responses

34 14 2

68% 28% 4%

169 41 34

32%18% 82% 68%

16

32%

1434 34 214

28%68% 68% 4%28%

7 47 54 345

14% 8%14% 10%8% 68%10%

3535 1212 33

70%70% 24%24% 6%6%

4545 2 2 3 3

90%90% 4% 4% 6% 6%

34 2

34

Figure 2. Earthen ponds.

Figure 2. Earthen ponds.

68% 4%

68%

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  Figure3.3. Concrete Concrete pond. Figure pond. Figure 3. Concrete pond.

ming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  yment Opportunities, Income  d Poverty Alleviation for    ihoods 

saac Tebogo Rampedi * 

vironmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  006, South Africa; [email protected]  c.za; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429 

ted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 

eas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  ocio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to  evels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  ce of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  ly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  ng small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds. Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds. role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  Figure 4. Concrete stone ponds. 4.4. Employment Opportunities Generated through Fish Farming nvestigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  4.4. Employment Opportunities Generated through Fish Farming e  data  were  collected  analyses  in  order  to  understand  the  various  ItIt was found that most (75%) of the respondents employed 3–4 workers, while a smaller 4.4. for  Employment Generated through Fish Farming was Opportunities found that most (75%) of the respondents employed 3–4 workers, while a smaller sh farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  proportion (25%) of them employed 1–2. While 43.8% of respondents hadfull-time full-timeworkers, workers,nearly nearly proportion of them employed 1–2. While 43.8% of respondents had It56% wasemployed found(25%) that most (75%) of the respondents employed 3–4Seventy-five workers, while a smaller proportion hown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). percent (75%) the 56% employed their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). Seventy-five percent (75%) ofofthe (25%) of them Whilesource  43.8% of had full-time workers, nearly 56% employed these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  employed farming  is 1–2. a  viable  of respondents food,  their work force on a part-time basis (Table 3). Seventy-five percent (75%) of the respondents pay over nt opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  15,001 (41.67 USD) in salaries to their employees per month (Table 3). Even though these salaries rty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  at the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  roblems  that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  From  the  dents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environmental  impacts 

P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  *  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  *  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  to  understand  the  various  Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018 

dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  to  Agriculture 2018,areas  8, 110 in  search  of  better  socio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  9 of 16 areas  in  search  of  better  socio‐economic  conditions  and  fish  improved  livelihoods  is  contributing  to  demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  farming  is  a  viable  source  of  food,  increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  such  poverty  generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  are lower than the national approved minimum wage of 18,000 (50.00 USD) per month [74], in an in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  environment of urban poverty, this is better than nothing. this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  Agriculture 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17 this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  respondents pay over ₦15,001 (41.67problems  USD) in salaries to their fish employees per 3). Even and  efficiency,  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  Table 3. Employment generated farming in month Jos. (Table of  the  most  constraining  that through militate  against  operational  effectiveness  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  though these salaries are lower than the national approved minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00 USD) the  various  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  to  understand  per month [74], in an environment of urban poverty, this is better than nothing. 1–2 Workers 25.0% quantitative  and  qualitative  data  were  collected  for  analyses  in  order  to  understand  the From  various  credit  facilities  was  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  the  dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  Number of Employees per Respondent 3–4a workers 75.0% dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  perceptions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  number  of  negative  environmental  impacts  Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  Table 3. Employment generated through fish farming in Jos. Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  Part-time demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  farming  is 56.2% a  viable  source  of  food,  Type of employment 1–2 Workers 25.0% Full-time demographic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  farming  is 43.8% a  viable  source  of  food, is  potential  of  this  kind  of per farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  Number of Employees Respondent 3–4 workers 75.0% generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  recommended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  resource  of  practicing  farmers  for  urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  ≤ 15,000and  (41.67 USD) needs  25.0% Salaries of employees per month Part-time 56.2% urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  75.0% > 15,001 (41.67 USD) achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  Type of employment significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  Full-time 43.8% significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  ≤₦15,000 (41.67 USD) 25.0% Salaries of employees per month Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  of  the  most  problems  that  militate  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  4.5. Farmers Perceptions onconstraining  the Socio-Economic Contributions of against  Urban Fish Farming >₦15,001 (41.67 USD) 75.0% insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  of  the  most  constraining  problems  that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and  efficiency,  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  The different perceptions regarding theContributions socio-economic contributions of urban fish farming   along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  4.5. Farmers Perceptions the Socio-Economic Fish Farmingbesetting  this  activity.  From  the  credit  facilities on was  also  mentioned  as  one  of of Urban the  problems  towards thecredit  improvement of social and economic conditions in Jos are portrayed in FigureFrom  5. facilities  also  mentioned  as  one  of  the  problems  besetting  this  activity.  the  perceptions  of  was  the  respondents  in socio-economic this  study,  a contributions number  of of negative  environmental  impacts  The different perceptions regarding the urban fish farming All respondents strongly of  agreed that fish farming is serving as anumber  source of income to them, while most perceptions  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  of  negative  environmental  impacts  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  towards the improvement of social and economic conditions in Jos are portrayed in Figure 5. All 1. Introduction  (98%) mentioned that thisthis  activity providing forasmore  the urban In addition, of associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  potential  of  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  integrated  development  planning  is  respondents strongly agreed thatisfish farming isfood serving a source ofpopulation. incomelocal  to them, while most 96% respondents expressed strong views that fish serves as a good source of nutrition for people. Moreover, potential  of  this  kind  of  farming  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  planning  is  (98%) recommended  mentioned that this is providing food for the urban In addition, 96% of farmers  for  for activity addressing  the  infrastructural  and population. resource  needs  of  practicing  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  expressed strong views serves as a good source of nutrition people. recommended  for  addressing  the fish infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of forpracticing  many ofrespondents them (90%) strongly agreed thatthat urban fish farming is contributing positively towards farmers  local for  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  Moreover, many ofJos them (90%) strongly agreed that urban fish farming is contributing positively achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  economic growth in the metropolis. developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in  the  towards local economic growth in the Jos metropolis. Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food  Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemployment;  food  insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture  insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods    Perceptions of farmers regarding contribution of fish farming to socio  economic conditions in Jos (Percent of responses - %) 98 96 1. Introduction  100 90 86 100 1. Introduction  80 The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  60 The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  40 billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Affairs  in  the  10 4 Department  20 2 developing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  of  Economic 6 and  Social  Affairs  in  the  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  0 Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  Source of Food provision Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW   Source of income Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    nutrition Strongly disagree

Disagree

Undecided

local economic development Agree

Poverty www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture  reduction www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture 

Strongly agree

Figure 5. Farmers’ perceptions concerning the contribution of urban fish farming in Jos towards

Figure 5. Farmers’ perceptions concerning improving economic and social conditions. the contribution of urban fish farming in Jos towards improving economic and social conditions. Finally, 86% of the respondents strongly asserted that fish production is helping to ameliorate poverty levels amongst the urban poor (Figure 5). This assertion is supported by some pertinent Finally, 86% of by theone respondents strongly asserted that fish remarks made of the respondents during an interview held production on Novemberis20,helping 2015: to ameliorate

poverty levels amongst the urban poor (Figure 5). This assertion is supported by some pertinent “Fish farming has really helped me and my family to survive the five months without remarks made by Although one of the interview held 20 November 2015: salary. therespondents income is notduring much, Ian was able to solve myon family’s financial needs from the profit I obtained”.

“Fish farming has really helped me and my family to survive the five months without salary. Another positive is testimony fromI was a respondent (3 December 2015) that lends credence to thethe Although the income not much, able to solve my family’s financial needs from importance of urban fish farming as a source of livelihood, especially during difficult economic times, profit I obtained”. is summarized below:

“I have been testimony working on from this farm for the past two years and for four that months I had no Another positive a respondent (3 December 2015) lends credence to the problems with my employer. I used the money I earned here to address my family needs. importance of urban fish farming as a source of livelihood, especially during difficult economic times, is summarized below:

“I have been working on this farm for the past two years and for four months I had no problems with my employer. I used the money I earned here to address my family needs.

an Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributions  Urban Fish Farming in Jos, Nigeria: Contributio towards Employment Opportunities, Income  towards Employment Opportunities, Income  ards Employment Opportunities, Income  towards Employment Opportunities, Income  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for      eration, and Poverty Alleviation for  Generation, and Poverty Alleviation for      Agriculture 2018, 8, 110 10 of 16 Improved Livelihoods  Improved Livelihoods  roved Livelihoods  Improved Livelihoods 

Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  MyAgriculture employer even provided me with a dwelling unit, as you can see; and at least I am 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 17 n Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Solomon Zitta Wuyep and Isaac Tebogo Rampedi *  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Joha surviving most of my challenges here”.

P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  ment of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johannesburg,  Department of Geography, Environmental Management and Energy Studies, University of Johan My employer even provided me with a dwelling unit, as you can see; and at least I am *  These Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  *  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  x 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  P.O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa; [email protected]  survivingsupport most of my here”. findings thechallenges results that have been mentioned in other research [10,75,76], that fish espondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  *  Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +27‐11‐559‐2429  farming is aThese vitalfindings source support of livelihood to many people in developing countries, as it provides Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  the results that have been mentioned in other research [10,75,76], that local employment, a source of nutrition, and an income to urban farmers. countries, as it provides local fish farming is a vital source of livelihood to many people in developing d: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Received: 16 April 2018; Accepted: 26 June 2018; Published: 3 July 2018  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from ru employment, a source of nutrition, and an income to urban farmers.

4.6.areas  Perceptions of the Problems That Constrain Fish Farming in  search  of Most better Important socio‐economic  areas  in conditions  search  of  and  better  improved  socio‐economic  livelihoods  conditions  is  contributing  and  improved  to  livelihoods  is  con ct: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rural to urban  Abstract: In most urban areas of sub‐Saharan Africa, the migration of people from rur 4.6. Perceptions of the Most Important Problems That Constrain Fish Farming increased  unemployment  levels,  poverty  increased  and  unemployment  large  scale  urban  levels,  deprivation.  poverty  and  Given  large  such  scale  poverty  urban  deprivation.  s n  search  of  better  socio‐economic  conditions  and  improved  areas  in  livelihoods  search  of  is  better  contributing  socio‐economic  to  conditions  and  improved  livelihoods Given  is  cont In Figure 6, the most important problems that constrain fish farming based on feedback from situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local  In Figure 6, the most important problems that constrain fish farming based on feedback from ed  unemployment  levels,  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  increased  deprivation.  unemployment  Given  such  levels,  poverty  poverty  and  large  scale  urban  deprivation.  Given  su respondents in Jos are indicated. Most of the respondents (98%) expressed the view that there is a respondents in Jos are indicated. Most of the respondents (98%) expressed the view that there is a in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. On ons and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local populations  situations and the prevalence of people who survive on less than 2 USD per day, local p serious serious problem in terms of of the water production 6). This problem problem in terms theavailability availability ofofwater for for fish fish production (Figure (Figure 6). This problem was this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and incom e areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One way out of  in these areas are increasingly vulnerable to food insecurity as well as malnutrition. One waspurposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  ranked number degree of intensity amongst respondents. Indeed, most ranked number11 in in terms terms ofofitsits degree of intensity amongst respondents. Indeed, most streams andstreams purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by ur verty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income‐generating  this poverty trap is practicing small scale agriculture both for subsistence and income ponds aroundthe thestudy study area area dry up, notably during thethe January-April period, which which is the dry and ponds around dry up, notably during January-April period, is the dry in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design es. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urban farmers  purposes. In this paper, the role of small scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy by urb season. Inevitably, as a mitigation step, farmers augment their ponds with tap water (chlorinated season. Inevitably, as a mitigation step, collected  farmers augment their ponds with tap water (chlorinated quantitative  and  qualitative  data in the city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design.  were  quantitative  and  for  qualitative  analyses  in  data  order  were  to  collected  understand  for the  analyses  various  in  order  to  understand city of Jos has been investigated by means of a mixed‐method research design. Thus, both  water) from regional water boards or suppliers. In the worst circumstances, water from the remaining water) from regional water boards or suppliers. In the worst circumstances, water from the remaining dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in th ative  and  qualitative dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  data tin were  collected  for  quantitative  in  to  and  understand  qualitative  the  data  various  were  collected  analyses  mining ponds in theanalyses  study area isorder  used. Similar production constraints associated withfor  poor water in  order  to  understand  tin Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  mining ponds in the study area is used. Similar production constraints associated with poor water Nigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as sions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the city of Jos,  supplies have been mentioned dimensions of small scale fish farming amongst 50 respondents randomly selected in the in the Niger State [75]. Another major (98%) hindrance militating supplies have effective been mentioned ininNigeria. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as  the Niger State [75]. fish  Another major (98%) hindrance demographic  attributes  of  these  demographic  farmers.  Small‐scale  attributes  of farming  these  farmers.  is  a  viable  Small‐scale  source  fish  farming  is  a  viable  sou a. The results have shown the spatial distribution of these farming practices, as well as the  against fish farming Jos is the high production costs, which were ranked number of  2militating infood,  against effective fish farming in Josfarming  isgenerating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an env theaverage high production costs, which were ranked number 2 in terms is  a  viable  sour terms of severity. Farmers spend on about ₦42,235 USD) on feeds, ₦32,990 (91.64 generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  raphic  attributes  of  these  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  demographic  is  a  viable  attributes  source  of (117.32 these  of  food,  farmers.  Small‐scale  fish  farming  USD) on fingerlings, and ₦22,449 (62.36 USD) on medication annually; meanwhile, ₦8,716 (24.21 urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this  of severity. Farmers spend on average about 42,235 (117.32 USD) on feeds, 32,990 (91.64 USD) ting local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an environment of  generating local employment opportunities as well as much needed income in an envi USD) is consumed by miscellaneous expenses. During the interviews in this survey, one of the significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦ deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this fish farming  on significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  fingerlings, and 22,449 (62.36 urban deprivation. Some of the income (above ₦20,000 or 55.56 USD) derived from this f USD) on medication annually; meanwhile, 8,716 (24.21 USD) is respondents had this to say on the January 8, 2016: USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production co cantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦18,000 (50.00  significantly alleviates poverty, as it exceeds the Nigerian national minimum wage of ₦1 consumed by miscellaneous expenses. During the interviews in this survey, one of the respondents “Animal fish8 feeds alone take 40% 60%constraining  of against  the total operational  cost of production. I realizedand  (that) the to most  constraining  problems  of that  the  to militate  most  problems  effectiveness  that  militate  against  efficiency,  operational  effectiveness  an Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production costs are some  USD). Results also show that the lack of reliable water supplies and high production cos hadof this say on the January 2016: frommilitate  the last stock I sold”. along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack most  constraining  problems  that  against  operational  of  the  most  effectiveness  constraining  and problems  efficiency, that  militate  against  operational  effectiveness  and credit  facilities  was  also  mentioned  credit  as facilities  one  of  the  was  problems  also  mentioned  besetting  as this  one activity.  of  the  problems  From  the besetting  this  activity with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack of access to  along with poor marketing of their produce and lack of preservation facilities. The lack  perceptions  the  respondents  in  perceptions  this  study,  of problems a  the  number  respondents  of  negative  in  environmental  study,  a  number  impacts  of besetting  negative this  environmen facilities  was  also  mentioned  as  of  one  of Perceptions the  problems  credit  besetting  facilities  this  was  activity.  also  mentioned  From  the  as  one  of  the  problems  activity of the most important faced by urban fishthis  farmers in Jos associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and tions  of  the  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  perceptions  negative  of  environmental  respondents  in  this  study,  a  number  of  negative  environment (Percent ofthe  responses - %)impacts  No problem problem Neutral Moderate Serious problem potential  of  this  kind  of  Minor farming  potential  in  Jos,  of more  this  kind  integrated  of problem farming  local  development  in  Jos,  more planning  integrated  is  local  development  ted with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and the growth  associated with small scale fish farming have been highlighted. Given these results and  98 98 for more  addressing  the  recommended  infrastructural  for  and  addressing  resource  needs  the  infrastructural  of  practicing  and  farmers  resource  for  needs  of  practicing p 100 in  Jos,  al  of  this  kind  of  recommended  farming  integrated  potential  local  development  of  this  kind  planning  of  farming  is  in  Jos,  more  integrated  local  development  90 90 achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  mended  for  addressing  the  infrastructural  and  resource  recommended  needs  of  practicing  for  addressing  farmers  the  infrastructural  and  resource  needs  of  practicing  f 76 for  74 80 70 ng long term sustainability in small scale fish farming. achieving long term sustainability in small scale fish farming.  Keywords:  urbanization  in  Sub‐Saharan  Keywords:  Africa;  urbanization  Jos  in  Nigeria;  in  Sub‐Saharan  increased  Africa;  unemployment;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  food  increased  unemplo 60 insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved li ords:  urbanization  in insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  Sub‐Saharan  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  Keywords:  increased  urbanization  unemployment;  in  Sub‐Saharan  food  Africa;  Jos  in  Nigeria;  increased  unemploy 40    insecurity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved liv rity; small scale fish farming; source of food; employment; incomes; improved livelihoods  20   16 16 20

1. Introduction  0

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1. Introduction  duction  1. Introduction  Water Production Marketing of Preservation Credit facilities Government Capacity The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world w availability costs produce facilities policy building billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the c e United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world will reach 9.6  The United Nations (UN) has predicted that by 2050, the population of the world w Figure 6.[1,2].  Perceptions of the most problems faced by urban fishand  farmers in Jos.Affairs  in  developing  countries  According  developing  to important the countries  Department  [1,2].  of According  Economic  to  the  Social  Department  of the  Economic  and  Social  A The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cities of most  billion. The greater part of this increase in population is projected to occur within the cit Figure 6. Perceptions of the most important problems faced by urban fish farmers in Jos. Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by th ing  countries  [1,2].  According  to  the  Department  of developing  Economic  countries  and  Social [1,2].  Affairs  According  in  the  to  the  Department  of  Economic  and  Social  Af In different studies [77,78], it has been confirmed that animal feed costs a lot of money. Also, on Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the same year,  Population Division of the United Nations (DESAPDUN) [3], it is estimated that by the Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW  Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture    of adequate preservation www.mdpi.com/jour almost all (90%) respondents expressed serious concerns around the lack “Animal fish feeds alone take 40% to 60% of the total cost of production. I realized (that) facilities (ranked number 3). Agriculture 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW  This problem involves inadequate storage e 2018, 8, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW    www.mdpi.com/journal/agriculture    of their produce, which www.mdpi.com/journ from the lastaffects stockthe I sold”. inevitably shelf-life of their stock. In trying to circumvent this challenge, most fish farmers in the Jos study area use the traditional smoking method for preserving fish on their farms. As

In reported differentbystudies [77,78], it in has beenBengal confirmed that animal costs a methods, lot of money. Rahaman et al. [79] a West study, without properfeed preservation high Also, almost all (90%) respondents expressed concerns around the lack oftowards adequate preservation perishability of stored fish becomesserious an important constraining problem increased Apart from lack problem of preservation facilities, 76% of respondents experienced serious which facilitiesproductivity. (ranked number 3).the This involves inadequate storage of their produce, problems accessing credit from local financial (Figure this 6). This problem was ranked inevitably affectsinthe shelf-life offacilities their stock. In trying to banks circumvent challenge, most fish farmers in the Jos study area use the traditional smoking method for preserving fish on their farms. As reported by Rahaman et al. [79] in a West Bengal study, without proper preservation methods, high perishability of stored fish becomes an important constraining problem towards increased productivity. Apart from the lack of preservation facilities, 76% of respondents experienced serious problems in accessing credit

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facilities from local financial banks (Figure 6). This problem was ranked number 3 in terms of severity. In the absence of the required loans, small scale fish farmers are not able to cater for their various business needs for optimal production and even expansion possibilities. Similarly, small-scale fish 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17 farmersAgriculture in West2018, Bengal encountered the same difficulties in obtaining funds from government and financialnumber institutions for the purpose of expanding their farming businesses [79]. 3 in terms of severity. In the absence of the required loans, small scale fish farmers are not Furthermore, most (74%) of business the fishneeds farmers in Jos who were included in this study lamented the able to cater for their various for optimal production and even expansion possibilities. Similarly, small-scale fish farmers in for West Bengal encountered theinsame difficulties obtaining lack of supportive government policies enabling fish farming the region, let in alone subsidizing funds from government and financial institutions for the purpose of expanding their farming their production costs. However, the severity of this problem was less intense, as it was ranked numberbusinesses 4 based [79]. on the analyses of feedback from respondents. This situation is similar to the Furthermore, most (74%) of the fish farmers in Jos who were included in this study lamented findings expressed by Mwangi as well as Shitote et al. [80,81], who stated that there are no supportive the lack of supportive government policies for enabling fish farming in the region, let alone government policies for sustaining fish farmingthe inseverity Kenya.ofThe of capacity building and subsidizing their production costs. However, this lack problem was less intense, as it wastraining opportunities for small scale production was from regarded as a very serious isproblem ranked number 4 based on fish the analyses of feedback respondents. This situation similar to by the 70% of findings expressed by6). Mwangi as well asthat Shitote et al. [80,81], who stated that there are no supportive respondents in Jos (Figure This implies these farmers are not adequately informed and enabled sustaining fishefficient farming in Kenya. The lack of capacity building fish and training vis-a-visgovernment the more policies recent,for effective, and modern methods for successful farming, thus opportunities for small scale fish production was regarded as a very serious problem by 70% of disadvantaging them from reaching increased productivity levels. Nonetheless, this problem was the respondents in Jos (Figure 6). This implies that these farmers are not adequately informed and least severe, as it occupied the fifth rank in terms of the order of importance. Previous research findings enabled vis-a-vis the more recent, effective, and efficient modern methods for successful fish farming, in Kenya and Tanzania [82–84] that inadequate training ineffective extension thus disadvantaging them also from indicated reaching increased productivity levels.programs, Nonetheless, this problem services,was andtheinefficiency knowledge to fish farmers are retarding the least severe,inasdisseminating it occupied the technological fifth rank in terms of the order of importance. Previous research in Kenya and Tanzania [82–84] also indicated that inadequate training programs, development offindings fish-related industries in these developing nations. ineffective extension services, and inefficiency in disseminating technological knowledge to fish farmers are retarding theEnvironmental development of Impacts fish-related industries in these developing nations. 4.7. Farmers Perceptions of the of Fish Production

The4.7. results based on farmer’s perceptions aboutofthe impacts of fish production are Farmers Perceptions of the Environmental Impacts Fishenvironmental Production summarizedThe in Figure 7. According to perceptions the perceptions andenvironmental viewpoints of all respondents in this study, results based on farmer’s about the impacts of fish production fish production processes exert7.aAccording negative to impact on receiving water resources. Ninety percent are summarized in Figure the perceptions and viewpoints of all respondents in this (90%) study, fish production processes exert a practices negative impact on receiving water resources. Ninety of respondents blamed their fish farming for local environmental pollution, aspercent waste waters (90%) of respondents blamed their fish farming practices for local environmental pollution, as waste are released into the environment without any mitigating controls. waters are released into the environment without any mitigating controls.

Figure 7. Respondents’ perceptions on the most important environmental impacts of urban fish

Figure 7. Respondents’ production in Jos. perceptions on the most important environmental impacts of urban fish production in Jos. Other negative environmental impacts of fish farming entailed pollution of groundwater (86%), soil (84%), and a decline in the aesthetic quality or natural beauty (68%) of the surrounding Other negativeInenvironmental of fish farming entailed of environmental groundwater (86%), environment. many countries, impacts fish farming has been associated with pollution such negative soil (84%), and a decline in the aesthetic quality or natural beauty (68%) of the surrounding environment. impacts and even undesirable nutrient enrichment, which may lead to accelerated eutrophication of In manyreceiving countries, fish farming water bodies [85]. has been associated with such negative environmental impacts and

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even undesirable nutrient enrichment, which may lead to accelerated eutrophication of receiving water bodies [85]. 5. Conclusions and Recommendations The main research aim of this paper was to examine the role of small-scale fish farming as a livelihood strategy amongst urban farmers in the city of Jos in Nigeria. Like other towns and cities in sub-Saharan Africa, Jos is experiencing accelerated migration of people from rural areas, growing unemployment levels, and, because of high poverty levels and lack of personal incomes, residents are particularly vulnerable to urban deprivation, including food insecurity. However, urban agriculture can make a positive contribution towards improving livelihood sources, thereby reducing the intensity of these vulnerabilities. Apart from characterizing the demographic profile of selected urban fish farmers in Jos, the results of this study have confirmed that small scale fish farming is an important livelihood strategy towards poverty alleviation and increased food security. Given the high number 7 of working days set aside by respondents (68%) for their farming activities, and the number 6–8 of fish ponds per individual farmer (68%), it is clear that this type of farming is playing an important role in improving local social and economic conditions and well-being amongst participants of the Third National Fadama project. These farming practices are providing much needed formal and part time employment opportunities, alternative sources of income, and food supply, thus contributing positively towards poverty alleviation. Nevertheless, to transform the current small scale fish farming practices into a path of sustainable productivity and positive outcomes, there is an urgent need for government interventions that can empower and enable participants with resources and skills. Many respondents in this study have highlighted the high costs of production which are affecting their effectiveness and efficiency in a negative manner. To help circumvent these problems, these farmers need to be enabled through training interventions that emphasize business and financial planning skills, so that they can make informed decisions. Also, the need for extension services to these farmers cannot be over emphasized. Most crucially, given the lack of access to reliable supplies of clean or potable water, credit facilities, as well as adequate storage facilities, governments and other stakeholders should prioritize the improvement of local infrastructure, thus helping these farmers to avoid unnecessary food losses in their production value chain. To be successful, these interventions must be integrated into the local development planning to ensure that land is provided for small-scale fish farming, while also taking measures to address the negative environmental impacts of such activities through proper mitigation plans. Author Contributions: S.Z.W. collected the primary data needed for this paper and has carried out the data analyses as well as writing the entire paper. I.T.R. supervised the primary data collection process in Jos, Plateau State of Nigeria, during site visits and field trips. He also supervised the data analyses and interpretation, along with critiquing and writing this paper. Funding: This research received funding from the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) agreement between the Plateau State University (Bokkos) and the University of Johannesburg (South Africa). Acknowledgments: This paper originates from the Ph.D. (Geography) research programme conducted by Solomon Zitta Wuyep, under the supervision of Nico Kotze and co-supervision of both Isaac T. Rampedi at the University of Johannesburg in South Africa and Ayodeji P. Ifegbesan at Olabisi Onabanjo University in Nigeria. We would also like to express our sincere gratitude to all small scale fish farmers in and around the Jos metropolis, Plateau State, in Nigeria for their prior informed consent and valuable time they gave to our questionnaire-administered interviews. We are also thankful for the funding received from the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the University of Jos (Nigeria) and the University of Johannesburg (South Africa). Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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