Using Drama to Engage Language Learners in

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language teachers taking the sampled drama activity in a literacy-education .... opportunities not only to improve their language communication skills, but also.
e 44, Number 1 2014

Contents Ohio Reading Teacher Volume XLIV, Number I, Fall 2014 A journal of the Ohio Council of the International Reading Association www.ocira.org

Senior Editor Jennifer L. Nigh, Kent State University

Co-Editors Dr. Kristine L. Still, Cleveland State University Dr. Kristin Webber, Edinboro University Letter from the Editor ........................ ...................................... ........................... Jennifer L. Nigh Notice of Errata ................................................................................................... ORT Looking Back, and Forward: IRA@CSU ............................................................ Kristine L. Still Ohio Science Trade Book Annual Reading List (OH-STAR): ........................... Joyce Gulley A Resource to Support the Ohio Revised Science Standards Jeff Thomas and Model Curriculum April Wulbur Angela McMurry Putting a Face to Science: Using Biographies .................................................... Donna E. Werderich Pamela J. Farris as Mentor Texts to Teach Science and Literacy Alice B. McGinty Not all Girls Like to Write: The Writing ............................................................. Hannah Chai Self-Perception of One Girl Writer Using Drama to Engage Language Learners ...................................................... Yang Gao in Literacy Activities Joanne K. Dowdy Culturally Responsive Pedagogy and Cultural .................................................... Natasha Chenowith Scaffolding in Literacy Education The Perfect Book Talk: Teaching Tips ......................... :......... .............................. Glen Russell Laurie Elish-Piper & Susan K. L'Allier: The Common Core ............................. Jennifer L. Nigh Coaching Book: Strategies to Help Teachers Address the K-5 ELA Standards: A Book Review Ohio Reading Teacher: Call for Manuscripts ...................................................... OCIRA

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Using Drama to Engage Language Learners in Literacy Activities Yang Gao, Doctoral Student Kent State University Dr. Joanne K. Dowdy, Professor Kent State University

Abstract

Introduction

Drama, as a powerful transmediator used in a language class, has been studied for decades. This paper first introduces why and how drama should be encouraged in English language classrooms to motivate students to read and write. Then, theoretical reasons from a psycholinguistic perspective are analyzed to explain how drama can help language learners develop their motivation, self-esteem, empathy and as well as reduce their sensitivity to rejections. Next, primary categories of dramatic activities that have been successfully used in language instruction are elaborated on. In addition, an activity sample with instructional materials, teaching steps and specific standards are introduced to provide language teachers with hands-on guidance. Three major contributions acknowledged by a group of language teachers taking the sampled drama activity in a literacy-education program are then tentatively concluded: first, the drama technique used in the sample is more interesting and attractive to the language learners. Second, the drama activity is not particularly designed for a single language skill, but instead for a set of combined skills. Third, the drama technique also "challenges" language teachers to brainstorm with more effort, which in turn develops their teaching techniques. Alongside the benefits of using drama in the language classroom, the author finally reflected on the limitation of this theatrical practice. Key Words: English language learners, drama, language activities.

Reading engagement is an accurate predictor for evaluating students' reading motivation and reading achievement (Wigfield et al., 2008). Jones and Brown (2011) stated: "children's reading engagement is enhanced when they are provided with instruction in cognitive strategies associated with reading" (p. 6). Compared with English native speakers, English as a second/foreign (ESL/EFL) learners are relatively more introverted and dependent, due to their limited English proficiency (Gao, 2013; 2014). Therefore, they need more scaffolding from their language teachers, motivating them to read and write in class. This paper introduces why drama as a type of trans-mediator can be used in ESL/EFL classrooms to engage language learners in language activities. Theoretical rationale and empirical literatures on applying mediators in language education are elaborated upon. In addition, a sampled class design with specific ESL/EFL standards is also introduced in the study, which provides ESL/ EFL teachers with detailed instructional guidance. Tentative conclusions from the language teachers who were involved in the sample activity are then made, followed by suggestions for future classroom design. Why Drama in ESL/EFL Classroom? From a psycholinguistic perspective, Stern (1980; 1983) explained why drama is effective in a second language (L2) classroom: first, drama provides L2 learners with "a strong instrumental motivation for language learning" (Stern, 1983, p. 210). Hsu ( 197 5) found that drama used in their experiments provided language learners with the context for meaningful exchange and thus helped them improve

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da rated or: • e ... hni ue- and the merits of process drama. a role-p:a: a ri\ ity. in the language class. Further. Brauer m pre- ha edited a volume about rhe onne ion- among language. writing. and drama. Coming ro rhe 2010 . rudie on drama in language cla room not only focus on theoretical and practical perspectives. but also aim to develop tudent · en e of aesthetics and social j ustice. Coming from a performing arts background, Dowdy and Kaplan (2012) have taken this initiative in their book Teaching Drama in the Classroom : A Toolbox for Teachers. Combining writing and acting talents, Dowdy and Kaplan created a practitioner-friendly "toolbox" for classroom teachers. This new addition to literacy education is very practical for classroom teachers who intentionally teach for students' creativity, imaginations and moral development.

their conversational abilities. Second, based on Heyde ( 1979), who found a predictive correlation between a language learner's self-esteem and his/her L2 speaking ability, Stem further proposed that drama helps L2 learners enhance their self-esteem. Third. as "L2 learners who are afraid of what others may think of their less-than-perfect command of the language will be inhibited using it" (Stem, 1983, p. 21 0). Stern concluded that using drama in L2 classrooms reduces L2 learners' sensitivity to rejection. Last but not least. Stem also stated that the use of drama has a certain emphatic act, which helps make ego boundaries possible for everyone in the language classroom. By developing Stern's rationale, Maley and Duff (2005) even summarized L2 points for why drama is encouraged in language classrooms. Apart from the four points proposed by Stem, drama also helps language learners develop their language in a natural way, promotes risk-taking and exerts positive effects on classroom dynamics.

Drama Techniques in Designing Language Classes The importance of drama to stimulate students' motivation and engagement led researchers and teachers to make efforts to incorporate drama into language classrooms. This section introduces basic types of drama that help teachers design their language class. Role-play: Budden (2004) defined role-play as any speaking activity when you either put yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when you stay in your own shoes, but put yourself into a fictitious situation. Role-play activities have been regarded as a worthwhile learning experience for students to improve not only their language proficiency, but also their communicative skills (Huang, 2008). Especially in L2 contexts, role-play activities prepare L2 learners for L2 communication in different social and cultural contexts (Kodotchigova, 2001). Recently, Kist (2010) also found that some literacy teachers prefer setting up virtual role-play activities in the social networking platforms by making use of Web 2.0 tools. Improvisation: Landy (1982) defined improvisation as unscripted and spontaneous actions students make under the minimal guidance of a teacher. Maples (2007) argued that the improvisation provides learners with opportunities not only to improve their language communication skills, but also to improve their confidence and self-esteem. Dundar (2013) summarized merits of improvisational exercises from three main perspectives: student pronunciation improvement, proper use of grammatical structure, and vocabulary reinforcement.

Studies on Drama Application in L2 Classrooms Drama in language learning classrooms has been applied for decades. Hines (1973) stated that drama, role-play in particular, "has long been recognized as a valuable and valid means of mastering a language" (p. ii). Via (1976) concluded that students have acted in plays during his entire career as an ESL teacher; Maley and Duff (1982) collected and designed myriad activities in language classrooms and provided teachers with hands-on advice on how to use them; Smith (1984), by developing an analogy between first language (LI) and L2 students, introduced a great number of theatrical activities to language teachers. Drama is also advocated in the LI classroom. Heathcote (1984) encouraged teachers to integrate the theatre into all that they did. Bolton (1984) also advocated the use of drama in classes for all content area. All these ideas were soon transferred to L2 contexts. Wessels ( 1987) and Ladousse ( 1987) similarly explained why drama or theatrical activities should be used in language classrooms and offered suggestions on how a class should be designed in order to stage a play in the target language. Scholars in 1990s began to discuss theories behind theatre techniques and language learning. Byram and Fleming (1998) contributed by explaining how teachers have used drama to promote cultural understanding and raise cultural awareness among their students. In addition, Kao and O'Neill (1998) The Ohio Journal of Teacher Education

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Mimes: Dougill (1987) defines mime as a nonverbal representation that expresses stories through gesture and bodily movement by emphasizing the paralinguistic features of communication. Miming is a good method for language teachers to think about how to integrate students whose English proficiency is at a low level into the classroom activities (Culham, 2002). While no language is used during the mime, the mime itself can act as a stimulus to generate and elicit language before, during and after the activity (Dougill, 1987). Besides, Savignon ( 1983) also proposed that the mime helps learners become comfortable with the idea of performing in front of peers without concern for language, which in tum helps them shape their selfconfidence and self-esteem. Simulation: A simulation as a case study requires learners become participants in an event and shape the course of the event (Jones, 1980). Generally, simulations are a structured set of circumstances that mirror participants or performers' real-life experiences. A simulation activity provides a specific situation within which students can practice various communication skills like asserting oneself, expressing opinions, convincing others, arguing eliciting opinions, group-problem solving and analyzing situations (Smith, 1984). To some extent, role-play and simulation are difficult to distinguish from each other. Role-play is frequently nestled within simulation, when participants are required to react to a simulated task with their own personal experiences. However, in language teaching the differences between role-play and simulation are not that important (Livingston, 1983), as the main concern for language teachers is to provide learning opportunities. The above-mentioned types of drama have been long applied in language classrooms. Recently, however, there are multiple new forms of drama that teachers favor in their instruction (Dundar, 2013). Examples include: frozen image building and skits. Frozen image building: Jarayseh (2010) defined frozen image building as a technique where participants initially create "frozen pictures" and then developed into animated situations involving "a series of interviews with the characters incorporated in the respective images" (Dundar, 2013, p. 1428). Athiemoolam and associates (2004) stated that this technique helps L2 learners gain more confidence, as they are encouraged to share ideas and to collaborate with others. Thus, they advocated that L2 learners who lack the confidence to communicate in the target

language are gradually encouraged to use the language by "first enabling them to create their still images and later to add words to their presentations" (p.14). Liu (2002) summarized that as frozen image activities encourage students to produce linguistic output freely from anxiety, they in turn allow teachers to diagnose the forms the students have already mastered and tho e they still need to learn as well. Skits: Dundar (2013) introduced skits as activitie with various lengths and purposes from acting out a scene in a storybook to presenting a full theatrical production. Skits created and performed by students can be helpful in fostering students' language learning experiences, as these skit tasks require students' cooperation, communication and creativity in the process of language learning. Dundar also found motivation is the most important reason why teachers use skits in EFL and ESL classes, as skit activities help L2 learners relieve flagging interest and frustration (Hsu: 1975; Via: 1976). Skit activities can also foster cultural proximity, which guides learners to participate in the new culture, thus developing sensitivity to speakers of the target language. Nolan and Patterson (2000) stated that skit drama acts as a good intermediate point between practicing the language form and communicating the message.

A Sample of Drama Application in ESL/EFL Classrooms This section provides a detailed sample of drama activity in ESL/EFL classrooms. This design was inspired by Robinson, Nadon and Resh (2011), whom created activities for students in literacy or American Sign Language education. This activity was revised for the ESL/EFL context.

Materials needed The activity may involve the following materials: • papers/writing logs; • pencils/pens; • scenario cards; • tools/instruments for play.

ESL/EFL Standards ESL/EFL learners at the high-intermediate level begin to utilize the English language in more complex, cognitively demanding situations and are able to use English as a means for learning in other academic areas. Specific standards can be listed as follows (Figure 1):

Figure 1

Standard

instructional P"""'""--'""' school etting: 2

ESL student compreh nd et:iile information with fewer ontexrual clues on unfamiliar topi -:

3

ESL students produce. initiate. and sustain spontaneous language interactions using circumlocution when necessary;

4

ESL students write to satisfy limited social and academic needs through the recombination of learned vocabulary and structures;

5

ESL students participate actively in all content areas. (TESOL Standards, 2004)

Refi

The drama e en tentati\ ely implemented in a : era.::: -ed .:a-; n cla sroom with a group of language teachers m the United States. This is not a research-based article. However, it is a practical paper that aims to provide language teachers with helpful teaching techniques or insights. Included is feedback from these teachers, which proved that the drama activity is indeed beneficial to the language learners in several aspects. First, compared with the traditional class design, the drama technique used in the sample is more interesting and attractive to language learners. The involved language teachers all found that as students they were more engaged in the classroom. Some of the teachers in this classroom are international students born and educated outside the United States; therefore, they largely represent ESL/EFL students. They revealed that they were accustomed to being educated under direct instruction. In other words, the teachers took more control of the classroom. However, by participating in the drama activity, they found as students they played a more active role in the classroom. Second, these involved teachers also reported that the drama activity is not particularly designed for a single language skill (e.g., reading OR writing), but instead for a set of combined skills (e.g., reading, writing AND speaking). To be more specific, in the above sample, students are first required to READ the scenario card, WRITE the story or plot, and PERFORM the card. The sequential steps develop not only a specific skill, but also multiple skills as a whole. Third, the drama technique also "challenges" language teachers to brainstorm with more effort, which in tum develops their teaching techniques. Traditional teaching methods often create teacher bum out at some point during the semester, as procedures are repeated almost in the same manner for each class. By designing and implementing the drama activities, language teachers are "forced" to be more creative .

Steps for the teacher to follow I.Before presenting this activity to the class, write down three different scenarios on notecards. The scenarios should be everyday activities that people participate in. An example of a scenario would be driving in a car and hearing a favorite song on the radio. 2.Explain the activity to the students. 3.Give a short demonstration of how the activity works. 4.Divide the class into groups of three. 5.Give each member of the group a different scenario card. Tell the students not to share their card with the other members of their group. 6.Have one of the members from each group act out what is written on their card for the rest of the group. The performer may not use words while acting out the scenario. 7. The other members of the group will have a few minutes to write down a short narrative about what they think the group member was acting out. . The groups will continue acting out scenarios and writing short narratives until all three members have performed their scenario. ~e Ohio Journal

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to rejections. Types of drama, which can be used in language instruction, were also elaborated on in thipaper. The authors also made tentative reflections on the sample activity used in a literacy-education classroom, concluding three major contributions involving teachers who implemented the sample activity. First, the drama technique used in the sampl is more interesting and attractive to the language learners. Second, the drama activity is not particular}_ designed for a single language skill, but instead for a set of combined skills. Third, the drama technique also "challenges" language teachers to brainstorm with more effort, which in tum develops their teach ~:: techniques. Alongside with the benefits brought a by using drama, the authors also reflected on the cautions of using drama in the language classroom Future study or application of this topic should take both the motivating features and the limitations of drama use into consideration.

While drama is encouraged to be used in language classrooms to motivate language learners to read, write, listen, speak, and act as well (Dowdy & Kaplan, 2011 ), certain suggestions and cautions should be addressed to teachers who intend to implement drama instruction in their language classrooms. However, these suggestions should not leave readers wondering if drama use is worthwhile, but instead give readers more room to improve their drama design in the language classroom. First, the traditional view of drama reminds us that some approaches to drama can be static and lack the kind of creative dynamism that the participants often expect. Providing students with creative drama activities requires teachers ' deliberation. Second, it is noted that drama in the language classroom does not necessarily require drama techniques, which should be learned by the performers however, provides opportunities to learn the language. The performance per se of participating learners is irrelevant, as the classroom is not necessarily the stage to present the dramatic talents of learners. Another issue is that drama as a teaching technique brings out a number of deeper pedagogic challenges for L2 teachers; therefore, it moves teachers and students away from familiar structures and routines, which may feel safe in traditional classrooms. Moreover, in terms of the younger language learners, dramatic instruction, if used inappropriately, can result in problems of discipline. Even for the older learners, their unwillingness and embarrassment to participate may also cause teachers' issues. Alongside with the substantial merits of drama instruction, teachers sometimes fail to implement the class design successfully due to complex reasons. What might be an additional barrier for language learners in ESL/ EFL context is their limited language proficiency. While these above-mentioned points are negative, they indeed provide language teachers with a realistic picture of the challenges in language classrooms where drama may be used as a transmediator.

References Athiemoolam, L. (2004). Drama in education and · effectiveness in English second/foreign language classes. Retrieved on January 1, 2012 from http: www.zsn.unioldenburg.de/ download/Logan_ Malaysia_Conference. pdf Bolton, G. M. (1984). Drama as education: An argument for placing drama at the centre of the curriculum. Burnt Mill, Harlow: Longman Hig'"' Education. Budden, J. (2004, July 4). Role-play. Retrieved fro http://www. teachingenglish. org/uk/think, an· role-play. Bryam, M., & Fleming, M. (1998). Language learnin:: in intercultural perspectives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Culham, C.R. (2002). Coping with obstacles in drama-based ESL teaching: A nonverbal approa - . In Bauer, G. (ed.). Body and language: InterC1. · learning through drama. (pp. 95-112). Westport CT· Ablex Publishing.

Conclusion The authors of this paper briefly introduced the rationale of why and how drama should be implemented in the English language classroom to motivate students to read and write. A synopsis on the theoretical reasons from a psycholinguistic perspective was presented to explain how drama can help language learners build their motivation, selfesteem, empathy and as well as reduce their sensitivity The Ohio Journal of Teacher Education

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Dougill, J. (1987) . Drama activities for language activities for language learning. London: ~lac Publishers Ltd. Dowdy, J. K., & Kaplan, S. (2011), Teach ing dra the classroom: A toolbox for teachers. Rotterd Netherlands: Sense Publishers.

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Dunar S (2013) . Nine drama activities for foreign language classrooms: Benefits and challenges. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 70, pp. 1424 -1431. Gao, Y. (2013). Incorporating Sociocultural Theory into Second Language (L2) Reading Instruction: A Unit Plan for EFL Learners, (2014), US-China Foreign Languages, 11 (11), 859-869. Gao, Y. (2014). Using reading logs to motivate English language learners from multicultural backgrounds to read and write. In Dowdy, J. & K. Cushner (Eds.), Otherness and Equity: Practical Strategies in Addressing Social Justice in Teacher Education, Rowman Littlefield Publishers. Heatcote, D. (1984). Collected writings on education and drama. In Johnson, L., & C. O'Neill (Eds.). Illinois: Northwestern University Press. Heyde, A. (1979). The relationship between self-esteem and the oral production of a second language. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Hsu, V. (1975). Play production as a medium of learning spoken Chinese. Paper presented at the Asian studies on the Pacific Coast Conference, ERIC ED 112667. Huang, Y. I. (2008). Role play for ESL/EFL children in the English classroom. The Internet TESOL Journal, 14(2), Retrieved on January 1, 2012 from http:// iteslj.org/Techniques/Huang-RolePlay.html Jarayseh, S. (2010). The Impact of Using Drama on 8th Grade Students of Herman Gmeiner School/SOS in Bethlehem and 7th Grade Students of Talitha Kumi School in Beit Jala in Proficiency and Fluency in English as a Foreign Language. [Online]: Hebron University. Hebron,[Palestine]: Hebron University, 22-24. Jones, K. (1980). Simulations: A handbook for teachers. London, UK: Kegan Paul Ltd. Jones, T., & Brown, C. (2011). Reading engagement: A comparison between e-books and traditional print books in an elementary classroom. International Journal of Instruction, 4(2), 5-22. Kodotchigova, M.A. (2001). Role play in teaching culture: Six quick steps for classroom implementation. Retrieved on January l, 2012 from http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Kodotchigova-RolePlay

Ladousse, G. P. (1987). Role-play. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Landy, R. J. (1982). Handbook of educational drama and theatre. London, UK: Greenwood Press. Livingston, C. (1983). Role-play in language learning. Singapore: Longman. Liu, J. (2002). Process drama in second and foreign language classrooms. In Brauer, G. (Ed.) Body and language: Intercultural learning through drama. Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing. Maples, J. (2007). English class at the improve: Using improvisation to teach middle school students confidence. Community and Content, 80(6), 273277. Maley, A., & Duff, A. (1982). Drama Techniques in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Maley, A., & Duff, A. (2005). Drama Techniques: A resource book of communication activities for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Nolan, R. E., & Patterson, R. B. (2000). Curtains, lights: Using skits to teach English to Spanish-speaking adolescents and adults. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 44 (1), 6-14. Robinson, C. L., Nadon, D., & Resh, N. M. (2011). A lesson for merging populations. In J. K. Dowdy & S. Kaplan (Eds.), Teaching drama in the classroom: A toolbox for teachers. Rotterdam, The Netherland: Sense Publishers, pp. 139-143. Savignon, S. (1983). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Smith, S. M. (1984). The theatre arts and teaching of second languages. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Stern. S. L. (1980). Drama in second language learning from a psycholinguistic perspective. Language Learning, 30(1), 77-100. Stern, S. (1983). Why drama works: A psycholinguistic perspective. In J. Oller & P. Richard-Amato (Eds.), Method that works. (pp. 207-225). Rowley, Mass: Newbury House.

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Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Perencevich, A. T., Kl ~ S. L., Mcrae, A., & Barbosa, P. (2008). Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of rea - - _ comprehension instruction on reading outcom Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 432-445.