VISUAL ATTENTION DYNAMICS AND COGNITIVE ENGAGEMENT

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Krzysztof Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Łukasz Jonak doing so disregarding their linear structure. Using hyperlinks the readers are free to choose the order of information ...
Studia Psychologiczne. t. 53 (2015), z. 4, s. 25–35 PL ISSN 0081-685X DOI: 10.2478/V1067-010-0145-9

Krzysztof Krejtz

Cezary Biele

Łukasz Jonak

SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland

National Information Processing Institute, Warsaw, Poland

National Library Warsaw University

VISUAL ATTENTION DYNAMICS AND COGNITIVE ENGAGEMENT DURING HYPERTEXT READING +\SHUWH[WLVDIRXQGDWLRQRIPXOWLPHGLDOHDUQLQJPDWHULDOV+RZHYHULWVLPSDFWRQWKHOHDUQLQJ SURFHVVFRPSDUHGWRSODLQOLQHDUWH[WLVVWLOOQRWFOHDU7KLVSDSHUSUHVHQWVWKHUHVXOWVRIDQH\H WUDFNLQJH[SHULPHQWZKLFKVKRZVWKHVWURQJLQÀXHQFHRIK\SHUWH[WRQYLVXDODWWHQWLRQSDWWHUQV GXULQJOHDUQLQJ$QDO\VLVRIH\HPRYHPHQWDFWLYLW\LQGLFHVOLNH¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQVDFFDGHOHQJWK and pupil size show decreasing cognitive engagement in the task. This decrease stems from the higher cognitive load caused by the need to structure obtained information and make navigational GHFLVLRQVGXULQJWKHUHDGLQJRIK\SHUWH[W1RGL൵HUHQFHVZHUHREVHUYHGLQOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHV EHWZHHQK\SHUWH[WDQGOLQHDUWH[W7KHUHVXOWVDUHGLVFXVVHGIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRI&RJQLWLYH /RDG7KHRU\DQGPLQLPDOFRJQLWLYHH൵RUWGXULQJOHDUQLQJ Keywords: visual DWWHQWLRQG\QDPLFVFRJQLWLYHORDGWKHRU\K\SHUWH[WPXOWLPHGLDOHDUQLQJ

Modern interactive and multimedia learning materials are becoming increasingly popular among pupils, teachers and educational policy makers. Many countries, such as South Korea and Great Britain, have made this kind of materials a basic form of educational content, replacing traditional books and notebooks. There is a call for the wider introduction of educational multimedia in Poland as well (Polish Government Decree, 2012). The proponents of the usage of newest technologies in education stress that multimedia-based education processes are visually attractive, multimodal, interactive and customizable to individual needs. However, reports from research on the H൵HFWVRIOHDUQLQJYLDWKHXVHRIVXFKDLGVDUH ambiguous. Many studies point to the high effectiveness of multimedia educational materials, HVSHFLDOO\LQFRPSDULVRQZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOWH[WXDO Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

forms (Paas, Gerven, & Wouters, 2007) used in YDULRXV¿HOGVRINQRZOHGJHIRUH[DPSOHFKHPLVWU\ (Lee, 2007), history (Williams, 2009), or physics (Stelzer, Gladding, Mestre, & Brookes, 2009). Some reports, however, point to a considerable increase in cognitive cost of learning when using multimedia educational materials (Hegarty, Quilici, Narayanan, Holmquist, & Moreno, 1999; Hegarty, Kriz, & Cate, 2003; Narayanan & Hegarty, 2002; %RXFKHL[ /RZH ,WVFDXVHLVEHLQJDWWULEXWHGWRWKHFRPSOH[LW\RIPXOWLPHGLDFRQWHQW PDNLQJLWGL൶FXOWWRVHOHFWNH\LQIRUPDWLRQDQG to structure the knowledge being acquired. The former aspects are being considered especially LQWKHFRQWH[WRIPDWHULDOVXVLQJK\SHUWH[W HJ O’Hara & Sellen, 1997). +\SHUWH[WLVDPRGHRILQIRUPDWLRQUHSUHVHQtation that allows for navigating documents, in

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Krzysztof Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Łukasz Jonak

doing so disregarding their linear structure. Using hyperlinks the readers are free to choose the order of information acquisition. This is currently the GRPLQDQWWH[WXDOWHFKQRORJ\XVHGLQDOPRVWDOO interactive media. This form of information presentation is also attractive for educational content, mainly because of its interactivity (Jacobson & Spiro, 1995) and freedom to individually customize the learning process. On the other hand, these SRWHQWLDODGYDQWDJHVRIK\SHUWH[WKDYHUDLVHG GRXEWVDERXWLWVH൶FDF\DVDZD\RISUHVHQWing educational materials, mainly because of the FRJQLWLYHUHTXLUHPHQWVK\SHUWH[WGHPDQGVIURP the reader (Moreno & Mayer, 2007; DeStefano & LeFevre, 2007). 7KLVZRUNGHVFULEHVGL൵HUHQFHVLQWKHG\QDPics of cognitive engagement during learning using K\SHUWH[WDVFRPSDUHGWROLQHDUWH[W7KHJRDORI the study was to analyse eye tracking visual attention measures associated with the varying level of FRJQLWLYHHQJDJHPHQWGXULQJUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WDQG OLQHDUWH[W7KHPDLQFODLPLVWKDWK\SHUWH[WPRGL¿HVWKHSDWWHUQRIYLVXDODWWHQWLRQLQFRPSDULVRQ WRUHDGLQJOLQHDUHGXFDWLRQDOWH[WV:HDOVRH[SHFW WRREVHUYHLQFUHDVHGFRJQLWLYHH൵RUWZKLOHUHDGLQJ K\SHUWH[WZKLFKFDQFRQVHTXHQWO\UHGXFHOHDUQLQJ HQJDJHPHQWDQGUHVXOWV1H[WLQWKHFRQWH[WRI Cognitive Load Theory (CLT), we will discuss eye tracking measures of cognitive load and engagement and present the results of our eye tracking H[SHULPHQWDOVWXG\ &RJQLWLYHSV\FKRORJ\SRVWXODWHVWKHH[LVWHQFH of limited pool of generic attentional resources UHVSRQVLEOHIRUH[HFXWLQJFRJQLWLYHWDVNV .DKQHPDQ 7KHWHUPµFRJQLWLYHRYHUORDG¶ UHÀHFWVVLWXDWLRQVZKHUHFRJQLWLYHV\VWHPFDQQRW compensate for task requirements using available UHVRXUFHV FIĝSLHZDN 'LDR&KDQGOHU 6ZHOOHU  GH¿QHG&RJQLWLYH/RDG7KHRU\ (CLT) as a theory concerned with how the relationship between short-term and long-term memory LQÀXHQFHVWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVV&RJQLWLYH/RDG Theory distinguishes three types of cognitive ORDGLQWULQVLFH[WUDQHRXVDQGJHUPDQH 0D\HU

 ,QWULQVLFFRJQLWLYHORDGVWHPVIURPWH[W GL൶FXOW\IRUDJLYHQSHUVRQH[WUDQHRXVORDG LVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHZD\WKHWH[WLVSUHVHQWHG and germane cognitive load is related to other cognitive resources the subject utilizes in order to understand presented material (Kruger, Hefer, & 0DWWKHZ :HH[SHFWWKHLQFUHDVHRIH[WUDQHRXVFRJQLWLYHORDGGXULQJOHDUQLQJZLWKK\SHUWH[W VHH&RQNOLQ LQFRPSDULVRQWROLQHDUWH[W due to the greater need for structuring information and decision-making regarding reading order (cf. Khan & Locatis, 1998). We also predict that one of the consequences of increasing cognitive load GXULQJOHDUQLQJZLWKK\SHUWH[WZLOOEHDGHFUHDVH in the subjects’ cognitive engagement. Cognitive HQJDJHPHQWLQWKHOHDUQLQJSURFHVVLVGH¿QHGDV WKHLQYHVWPHQWRIDVWXGHQW¶VUHVRXUFHVDQGH൵RUW in learning, memorizing and understanding the material they are presented with (see Newmann, Wehlarge, & Lamborn, 1992; Marks, 2000). Among the most common eye tracking measures RIFRJQLWLYHORDGDUH¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQVDFFDGH speed, and changes in pupil size, as well as visual DYRLGDQFHRIFRQWHQWUHTXLULQJFRJQLWLYHH൵RUW (Holmqvist et al. 2011). It is worth mentioning that these are not diagnostic measures, such as those used in standardized tests. Therefore there are no threshold values of eye movement indices that would allow for making inferences about absolute FRJQLWLYHORDG%HORZZHR൵HUDVKRUWRYHUYLHZRI how eye tracking indices are used to infer levels of cognitive load. )L[DWLRQGXUDWLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHGHSWKRI YLVXDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ6KRUWHQLQJRI¿[Dtions over time can be considered a consequence of cognitive fatigue which results in avoiding deeper acquisition of new information (decreased cognitive engagement). The speed of saccades is also considered to be a measure of cognitive fatigue (Di Stasi, Catena, Cañas, Macknik, & MartinezConde, 2013). The speed of saccades decreases with time when solving tasks involving cognitive H൵RUW 'L6WDVLHWDO'L6WDVLHWDO +LUYRQHQHWDO ,QVKRUWERWKORQJHU¿[DPsychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

Visual attention dynamics and cognitive engagement during hypertext reading

tions and shorter saccades can be associated with increasing cognitive load (Holmqvist et al. 2011; Chen et al., 2008). On the other hand, while showing changes in SXSLOVL]HGXULQJVROYLQJWDVNRIYDU\LQJGL൶FXOW\ Hyönä, Tommola, and Alaja (1995) observed that more complicated, cognitively demanding tasks, resulted in an increase in pupil dilation. At the same time, pupil constriction usually indicates decreased engagement in processing and acquisition of new LQIRUPDWLRQ,QWKHFRQWH[WRIPDWKHPDWLFDOWDVNV Hess and Polt (1964) demonstrated that changes LQSXSLOVL]HGLUHFWO\FRUUHODWHZLWKWKHGL൶FXOW\ of mathematical assignments. Avoiding gazing at VWLPXOLGHPDQGLQJLQFUHDVHGFRJQLWLYHH൵RUWLV relatively rarely used as a measure of cognitive load. )RUH[DPSOHDGXOWVDQGFKLOGUHQDYHUWHGWKHLUJD]H more often during answering question (DohertySneddon & Bruce, 2002; Glenberg, Schroeder & Robertson, 1998). Gaze aversion allows for decreasLQJWKHOHYHORIH[WHUQDOLQIRUPDWLRQDQGDYRLGLQJ GLVWUDFWRUV (KUOLFKPDQ ZKLOHFRQFHQWUDWLQJ on drawing conclusions and structuring acquired knowledge (Doherty-Sneddon & Phelps, 2005). 7KHJRDORIWKHH[SHULPHQWGHVFULEHGEHORZLV to verify the hypothesis that the process of learning XVLQJK\SHUWH[WLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDQLQFUHDVHRI H[WUDQHRXVFRJQLWLYHORDG5HJDUGLQJWKHG\QDPLFV of cognitive load indices, we predict decrease of SXSLOVL]HOHQJWKRI¿[DWLRQVDQGVDFFDGHVSHHG ZKHQUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[W$WWKHVDPHWLPHZHH[pect that in order to deal with cognitive demands, UHDGHUVZLOODYHUWWKHLUJD]HIURPK\SHUWH[WPRUH RIWHQWKDQLQWKHFDVHRIOLQHDUWH[W Research Method Participants Thirty nine students participated in the study. The results of 9 subjects were removed from analyses due to eye tracking measurement errors: Two subjects were removed from analysis due to the fact that their eye tracking ration score fell below 80%. Seven additional subjects were removed due to poor eye tracking calibration scores (higher than Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

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2O error on X or YGLPHQVLRQ 7KH¿QDOVDPSOH resulted in 30 participants with mean tracking ratio equal to 98.41%, mean calibration scores on the vertical dimension equal 0.74 and horizontal dimension equal to 0.64. All subjects were aged between 18 and 25 years old. Thirteen participants had higher education while 17 were still college VWXGHQWV$IWHUUDQGRPDOORFDWLRQWRH[SHULPHQWDO conditions, participants were distributed between K\SHUWH[WDQGSODLQWH[WJURXSVHTXDOO\ DQG subjects). All participants declared that they were internet users. Method After signing the consent form and familiarizaWLRQZLWKHTXLSPHQWDQGH[SHULPHQWDOSURFHGXUH a 9-point calibration of the eye tracking system was SHUIRUPHG7KHH[SHULPHQWODVWHGDERXWPLQXWHV ,QWKH¿UVWSKDVHRIH[SHULPHQWSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUH DVNHGWRFDUHIXOO\UHDGWKHWH[WSUHVHQWHGRQWKH computer screen and to try to memorize as much information as possible. Time on this task was not limited and participants could decide when to VWRSUHDGLQJ'XULQJWKLVSKDVHRIWKHH[SHULPHQW participants’ eye-movements were recorded. After ¿QLVKLQJWKLVSKDVHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHDVNHGWR complete an online questionnaire administered XVLQJ/LPH6XUYH\ /LPH6XUYH\3URMHFW7HDP Carsten Schmitz, 2012). During the whole procedure DQH[SHULPHQWHUZDVSUHVHQWLQWKHODERUDWRU\WR answer any participants’ questions. Research Materials Text presented in the reading task. During the reading task participants were presented with DSRSXODUVFLHQFHWH[WGHVFULELQJOLIHDQGZRUNRI 1LNROD7HVOD7KHWH[WZDV¿UVWSXEOLVKHGLQD3ROLVKSUHVVPDJD]LQH -DORFKRZVNL 7KHWH[W was prepared as 12 web pages (mean 162 words ORQJ6'± (DFKSDJHFRQWDLQHGWKHWLWOHDQG RQHSDUDJUDSKZULWWHQZLWKEODFNWH[WRQDZKLWH EDFNJURXQG7KHWH[WZDVSUHSDUHGLQWZRYHUVLRQV ±OLQHDUWH[WDQGK\SHUWH[W3DJHVLQWKHOLQHDUYHUVLRQLQFOXGHGWZRQDYLJDWLRQK\SHUOLQNV¶QH[W¶DQG ’back’, located at the bottom of the pages. In the K\SHUWH[WYHUVLRQWKHVHOLQNVZHUHQRWDYDLODEOHDQG

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Krzysztof Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Łukasz Jonak

the in-line hyperlinks leading to other pages were SODFHGLQVLGHWKHWH[W7KHQXPEHURIK\SHUOLQNV UDQJHGEHWZHHQWKUHHDQGVL[&OLFNLQJRQDK\SHUOLQNRSHQHGDQHZSDJHRIWKHWH[WLQWKHVDPH browser window. Hyperlinks allowed navigation through all the pages. In both conditions (linear WH[WDQGK\SHUWH[W OLQNVKDGWKHVWDQGDUGIRUPDW RIEOXHXQGHUOLQHGWH[W 7H[WUHFDOOWHVW7KHWHVWFRQVLVWHGRIPXOWLSOH choice questions about the information in the preVHQWHGWH[W([DPSOHTXHVWLRQVZHUH³:KDWZDV WKHVHFRQGDU\H൵HFWRIWKHUHVHDUFKRQHOHFWURQLF music theory?” and “In which year did Tesla die?”. (YHU\TXHVWLRQKDGSRVVLEOHDQVZHUV)LQDOO\ SDUWLFLSDQWVUDWHGWKHIRUPRIWKHWH[W$QVZHUV were given using a 7 point Likert type scale rangLQJIURP³GH¿QLWHO\\HV´WR³GH¿QLWHO\QRW´7KH most important items concerned the feeling of FRQWUROZKHQUHDGLQJ³,KDGFRQWURORYHUWKHWH[W´ “Sometimes I felt lost and missed something” and XQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHWH[W³,WZDVHDV\WRXQGHUVWDQG WKHPHDQLQJRIWKHWH[W´ Apparatus Participants’ eye movements were recorded at +]ZLWKDQ60,5('H\HWUDFNLQJV\VWHP Stimuli were presented by a PC-class computer HTXLSSHGZLWKDÀDWVFUHHQPRQLWRU [ UHVROXWLRQíLQFK/&'+]UHIUHVKUDWH 7KH spatial resolution of the eye tracking system was UHSRUWHGE\WKHYHQGRUDVƕYLVXDODQJOHZLWK JD]HSRVLWLRQDFFXUDF\RIƕYLVXDODQJOH60,¶V ([SHULPHQW&HQWHUVRIWZDUHZDVXVHGWRSUHVHQW stimuli synchronized with recorded eye movements. )RUGHWHFWLRQRI¿[DWLRQVDQGVDFFDGHVIROORZLQJ raw data cleaning SMI’s BeGaze software was HPSOR\HG:HXVHGVHWWLQJVIRUGHWHFWLQJ¿[DWLRQV DQGVDFFDGHVZLWKLWV+LJK6SHHG(YHQW'HWHFWLRQ method. With this method saccades are treated DVSULPDU\HYHQWVDQG¿[DWLRQVDUHGHULYHGIURP them. In order to capture saccades the method uses a velocity-based algorithm. With this algorithm the SHDNYHORFLW\WKUHVKROGLVVHWWRƕVDQGPLQLPXP saccade duration is set to 22 ms, while minimum ¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQLVVHWWRPV

Experimental design 7KHH[SHULPHQWIROORZHGDPL[HGIDFWRULDOGHVLJQ [[ ZLWKWZRPDLQZLWKLQVXEMHFWVIDFWRUV (Reading sequence and Area of Interest) and one PDLQEHWZHHQVXEMHFWVIDFWRU ([SHULPHQWDO&RQdition). Independent factors used in data analysis were: A) Experimental condition - participants were allocated in two between-subjects conditions: ZLWKK\SHUWH[WVWLPXOLDQGZLWKOLQHDUWH[WVWLPXOL B) Reading sequence,QWKHSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQ WKHZHESDJHUHDGLQJVHTXHQFHZDV¿[HG,QWKH K\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQHDFKSDUWLFLSDQWEXLOWWKHLURZQ path through the web pages. Therefore, the reading sequence factor was built individually for each participant from their individual sequence of visit to the web pages. The sequence was then divided into three equal parts: beginning (1), middle (2), and end (3), C) Area of Interest factor consisted of two OHYHOWH[WYVZKLWHVSDFH DUHDEH\RQGWKHWH[W  The main dependent variables were cognitive load, measured with eye movement characteristics, DQGOHDUQLQJH൵HFWVPHDVXUHGZLWKDTXHVWLRQQDLUH According to the hypotheses, main eye movement indices of cognitive load were: a) dwell time SHUFHQWDJHDQDYHUDJHVXPRIDOO¿[DWLRQVDQG saccades duration on the stimuli multiplied by 100 DQGGLYLGHGE\WKHSUHVHQWDWLRQWLPHE ¿[DWLRQ time in milliseconds, c) saccade velocity in visual GHJUHHVSHUVHFRQGDQGG PHDQSXSLOVL]HLQSL[HOV All the above mentioned indices were measured GXULQJWKH¿UVWSDVVUHDGLQJ VHH5D\QHU  7KLVZDVHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWIRUWKHK\SHUWH[W condition, where participants could see the same page multiple times. The correct answers mean for the information UHFDOOWHVWZHUHXVHGDVDQLQGH[IRUWKHDQDO\VLV of learning outcomes. Answers to questions about WH[WIRUPZHUHDGGLWLRQDOO\DQDO\]HG Results 7KHDQDO\VHVRIWKHGDWDIROORZHGWKHH[SHULmental design and were conducted mainly with twoZD\PL[HGGHVLJQDQDO\VLVRIYDULDQFH $129$  followed by pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

Visual attention dynamics and cognitive engagement during hypertext reading

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correction. All the analyses were performed with R programming language (R Core Team, 2013). Gaze Aversion from Text $FFRUGLQJWRWKHK\SRWKHVLVRQHFDQH[SHFWWKDW because of the higher cognitive demand, hyperWH[WFDXVHVFRJQLWLYHIDWLJXH,QH൵HFWWKHUHDGHUV would avert their gaze from the reading material. In order to verify this hypothesis we conducted an analysis of variance. The design of this analysis of YDULDQFHZDVîZLWKDUHDRILQWHUHVW WH[WYV ZKLWHVSDFH DVDZLWKLQVXEMHFWVIDFWRUDQGH[SHULmental condition as a between-subjects factor. The DQDO\VLVUHYHDOHGVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWPDLQH൵HFW of Area of Interest, F (1, 28) = 47.93, p < 0.001, ȘS 7KHSHUFHQWDJHRIGZHOOWLPHVSHQW RQWKHWH[WZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\KLJKHU 0  6(  WKDQRQZKLWHVSDFH 0 6(   7KHPDLQH൵HFWRIH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQ UHDFKHGRQO\WKHVLJQL¿FDQFHWHQGHQF\OHYHO)  28) = 3.35, p = 0.077. 7KHDQDO\VLVDOVRUHYHDOHGVLJQL¿FDQWLQWHUDFWLRQ WHUP)   S Șp2 = 0.399, which PHDQVWKDWWKHPDLQH൵HFWRIDUHDRILQWHUHVWZDV PRGHUDWHGE\WKHH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQ VHH)LJXUH 6). The subsequent pairwise comparisons showed WKDWSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQVSHQWVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S PRUHWLPHRQWH[W 0 

6(  FRPSDUHGWRSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHK\SHUWH[W FRQGLWLRQ 0 6(  :KHQORRNLQJ DWZKLWHVSDFHZDVFRQVLGHUHGWKHGL൵HUHQFHWRRN WKHRSSRVLWHGLUHFWLRQ3DUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHK\SHUWH[W FRQGLWLRQVSHQWVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S PRUHWLPH RQZKLWHVSDFH 0 6(= 35.62) than in the SODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQ 0 6(  

Interesting changes in the allocation of the visual attention during reading are presented on the Figure ZKLFKVKRZVH[HPSODU\KHDWPDSVFUHDWHGIURP WKH¿[DWLRQVRIWZRVXEMHFWVLQK\SHUWH[WDQGSODLQ WH[WFRQGLWLRQV)RUWKHOLQHDUWH[WFRQGLWLRQWKH

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Figure 2. ([HPSODU\KHDWPDSVRIWZRUHVHDUFKSDUWLFLSDQWVUHDGLQJLQK\SHUWH[WRUOLQHDUWH[WH[SHULPHQWDO conditions. First and last page read by these participants. D +\SHUWH[W±¿UVWSDJH

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Krzysztof Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Łukasz Jonak

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Pupil size. 7KH¿UVWDQDO\VLVRIYDULDQFHIRUSXSLOVL]H UHYHDOHGDVLJQL¿FDQWPDLQH൵HFWRIWKHUHDGLQJ VHTXHQFH)   SȘp2 = 0.084. The post hoc comparisons showed that the pupil VL]HZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S ODUJHUDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHUHDGLQJVHTXHQFH 0 6(  FRPSDUHGWRWKHODVWSDUW 0 6(  0.35). The mean pupil size in the middle part (M 6(  ZDVLQVLJQL¿FDQWO\GL൵HUHQW IURPWKH¿UVWDQGWKHODVWSDUWRIUHDGLQJRUGHU )LQDOO\WKHPDLQH൵HFWRIH[SHULPHQWDOGHVLJQZDV QRWVLJQL¿FDQW)   7KH$129$UHYHDOHGDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW LQWHUDFWLRQH൵HFW)   SȘp2 = ZKLFKPHDQVWKDWWKHPDLQH൵HFWRIUHDGLQJ VHTXHQFHLVPRGHUDWHGE\H[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQ (see Fig. 3). The subsequent pairwise comparisons IRUWKHK\SHUWH[WJURXSVKRZHGWKDWSXSLOVL]H ZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S ODUJHUGXULQJUHDGLQJ of pages at the beginning of the reading sequence 0 6(  WKDQLQWKHODVWSDUW 0  6(  7KHVL]HRIWKHSXSLOLQWKHPLGGOHSDUWRIWKHUHDGLQJVHTXHQFH 0 6(   ZDVQRWVLJQL¿FDQWO\GL൵HUHQWIURPERWKWKH ¿UVWDQGWKHODVWSDUWV Post hoc analyses revealed that there was no VLJQL¿FDQWGL൵HUHQFHVLQSXSLOVL]HEHWZHHQGL൵HUHQW SDUWVRIUHDGLQJVHTXHQFHIRUSODLQWH[W IRUWKH¿UVW SDUW0 6( IRUWKHVHFRQGSDUW0  6( DQGIRUWKHODVWSDUW0  6(  7KHDERYHUHVXOWVVXJJHVWWKDWLQWKH Figure 33XSLOVL]HFKDQJHGXULQJUHDGLQJLQK\SHUWH[WDQG OLQHDUWH[WH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV ZKLVNHUVUHSUHVHQW K\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQWKHFRJQLWLYHSURFHVVLQJRIWKH web pages content deteriorates over the course of FRQ¿GHQFHLQWHUYDOV  Dynamics of cognitive fatigue 7KHDQDO\VHVSUHVHQWHGDERYHVKRZGL൵HUHQFHV in the visual attention distribution during reading of WKHOLQHDUWH[WDQGK\SHUWH[W4XDOLWDWLYHDQDO\VLV of the heatmaps pointed to the dynamical aspect RIUHDGLQJWKHDPRXQWRIYLVXDODWWHQWLRQRQWH[W decreases with the time on reading. In order to verify the hypothesis that cognitive load increases during UHDGLQJHVSHFLDOO\IRUWKHK\SHUWH[WZHFRQGXFWHG WZRDQDO\VHVRIYDULDQFHZLWKPL[HG[IDFWRULDOGHVLJQ H[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQ[UHDGLQJVHTXHQFH $V a dependent variable we used eye tracking measures characteristics for increased cognitive load – pupil VL]HVDFFDGHYHORFLW\DQG¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQ

Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

Visual attention dynamics and cognitive engagement during hypertext reading

WLPHZKLOHLQWKHSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQWKHFRQWHQW LVHTXDOO\SURFHVVHGIURPWKH¿UVWWRWKHODVWSDJH Saccade velocity We hypothesized that saccade speed would GHFUHDVHGXULQJK\SHUWH[WUHDGLQJ)RUWKHOLQHDU WH[WWKHVDFFDGHVSHHGZRXOGUHPDLQXQFKDQJHG during the whole reading process. :HREVHUYHGWKHPDLQH൵HFWRIWKHH[SHULPHQWDO FRQGLWLRQ)   SȘp2 = 0.240, ZKLFKVKRZHGWKDWSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHK\SHUWH[W FRQGLWLRQH[KLELWHGPXFKVORZHUVDFFDGLFPRYHPHQWVZKLOHUHDGLQJ 0 6(  WKDQ SDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQ 0  6(  7KLVVXJJHVWVWKDWK\SHUWH[WUHDGLQJ LQFUHDVHVFRJQLWLYHORDG7KHVLJQL¿FDQWPDLQH൵HFW RIUHDGLQJVHTXHQFH)   SȘp2 = 0.046, revealed that saccade velocity drops while proceeding in the web pages sequence. Saccade velocity was at its highest at the beginning (M = 6(  LWORZHUHGLQWKHPLGGOHSDJHV 0 6(  DQGUHDFKHGLWVORZHVW LQWKHODVWSDJHV 0 6(  6XEVHquent pairwise comparisons showed that there is VLJQL¿FDQWGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQ¿UVWDQGODVWSDUWRI reading g order.

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$QDO\VLVUHYHDOHGDVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWLQWHUDFWLRQH൵HFWVRIH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQDQG reading sequence, F (2,56) = 11.21, p < 0.001, Șp2 = 0.104 (see Fig. 4). The subsequent pairwise comparisons with Bonferroni correction showed WKDWLQWKHK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQVDFFDGHYHORFLW\LQ WKH¿UVWSDUWRIUHDGLQJVHTXHQFHZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S ODUJHU 0 6(  WKDQLQWKH ODVWSDUW 0 6(  6DFFDGHYHORFLW\ in the middle part of the reading sequence (M = 6(  GLGQRWGL൵HUIURPWKH¿UVWRUODVW SDUWV2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQWKHSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQ WKHVDFFDGHYHORFLW\GLGQRWFKDQJHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ DFURVVUHDGLQJRUGHUSDUWV IRUWKH¿UVWSDUW0  6( IRUWKHPLGGOH0 6(  DQGIRUWKHODVWSDUW0 6(   Fixation duration In order to verify the hypothesis about decreasing engagement in new information acquisition GXULQJK\SHUWH[WUHDGLQJZHDQDO\]HGPHDQ¿[DWLRQ GXUDWLRQGXULQJ¿UVWSDVVUHDGLQJ:HH[SHFWHG WKDWLQK\SHUWH[W¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQZRXOGGHFUHDVH GXULQJUHDGLQJEXWLQOLQHDUWH[W¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQ would remain stable. 7KHDQDO\VLVDOVRUHYHDOHGWKHPDLQH൵HFWRI H[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQ)   S Șp2 3DUWLFLSDQWVLQSODLQWH[WFRQGLWLRQ H[KLELWHGORQJHU¿[DWLRQV 0 6(   WKDQSDUWLFLSDQWVLQWKHK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQ 0  6(  )XUWKHUPRUHWKHPDLQH൵HFW RIUHDGLQJVHTXHQFHZDVDOVRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW)   SȘp2 = 0.096. The pairwise comparisons showed that at the beginning RIUHDGLQJRYHUDOO¿[DWLRQVZHUHVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S  ORQJHU 0 6(  WKDQLQWKH ODVWSDUWRIWKHUHDGLQJVHTXHQFH 0 6(   0HDQ¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQLQWKHPLGGOHSDUWRI UHDGLQJVHTXHQFH 0 6(  GLGQRW GL൵HUVLJQL¿FDQWO\IURP¿UVWDQGODVWVHTXHQFHSDUWV ,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKHDQDO\VLVDOVRUHYHDOHGWKHVLJQL¿FDQWLQWHUDFWLRQWHUP)   SȘp2 = 0.075 (see Figure 3). In order to better understand Figure 4'\QDPLFVRIVDFFDGHYHORFLW\LQLQK\SHUWH[WDQG OLQHDUWH[WH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV ZKLVNHUVUHSUHVHQW this interaction we conducted subsequent analyses FRQ¿GHQFHLQWHUYDOV  RIVLPSOHPDLQH൵HFWVIRUH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

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Krzysztof Krejtz, Cezary Biele, Łukasz Jonak

with reading sequence part as the within-subjects IDFWRU)RUK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQWKHVLPSOHPDLQ H൵HFWZDVVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW)    SȘp2 = 0.308. The following pairwise comSDULVRQVVKRZHGWKDWPHDQ¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQGXULQJ UHDGLQJSDJHVDWWKHEHJLQQLQJZDVVLJQL¿FDQWO\ S  ORQJHU 0 6(  WKDQZKHQ UHDGLQJSDJHVDWWKHHQG 0 6(   and marginally longer (p = 0.057) compared to the ¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQIRUWKHSDJHVLQWKHPLGGOH 0  6(  7KHGL൵HUHQFHEHWZHHQWKH EHJLQQLQJDQGWKHPLGGOHLQWKHK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQ ZDVQRWVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQW2QWKHRWKHUKDQG DVH[SHFWHGWKHVLPSOHPDLQH൵HFWIRUWKHSODLQWH[W FRQGLWLRQZDVQRWVLJQL¿FDQW)   S! 0.1, meaning that independently from the position in the reading sequence, the duration of participants’ ¿[DWLRQVIRUDOOSDJHVZDVFRQVWDQW

Figure 5'\QDPLFVRI¿[DWLRQGXUDWLRQLQK\SHUWH[WDQG OLQHDUWH[WH[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQV ZKLVNHUVUHSUHVHQW FRQ¿GHQFHLQWHUYDOV 

Learning outcomes and subjective rating of the text 8QH[SHFWHGO\WKHUHZHUHQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWGL൵HUHQFHVLQSHUFHQWDJHRIUHFDOOVFRUHIRU VXEMHFWVLQERWKH[SHULPHQWDOJURXSVt(26.69)=1.08; p > +RZHYHUPHDQVLQERWKJURXSVGL൵HUHG LQWKHH[SHFWHGGLUHFWLRQIRUWKHK\SHUWH[WWKH recall score was M = 0.52; SE = 0.05, and for the

SODLQOLQHDUWH[WM =0.61; SE =0.06. There were QRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQL¿FDQWGL൵HUHQFHVLQVXEMHFWLYH UDWLQJVEHWZHHQWZRWH[WW\SHV Discussion ,QWKLVSDSHUZHLQWHQGHGWRJUDVSWKHGL൵HUHQFHV LQFRJQLWLYHHQJDJHPHQWZKHQUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WLQ FRPSDULVRQZLWKUHDGLQJWUDGLWLRQDOOLQHDUWH[W:H SUHGLFWHGWKDWLQFUHDVHGFRJQLWLYHH൵RUWDVVRFLDWHG with structuring of acquired information would result in decreased engagement at the beginning of the reading assignment. To test that, we registered eye movements of two groups of students, one of ZKLFKOHDUQWXVLQJK\SHUWH[WDQGWKHRWKHUXVLQJ OLQHDUWH[W$VH[SHFWHGV\VWHPDWLFGL൵HUHQFHVLQ analyzed eye tracking indices occurred. Learners DYHUWHGWKHLUJD]HDZD\IURPK\SHUWH[WPRUHRIWHQ WKDQOLQHDUWH[WOHDUQHUVLQRUGHUWR±ZHDUJXH± structure acquired content. ,QFRPSDULVRQZLWKOLQHDUWH[WK\SHUWH[WGHPDQGV more engagement in information structuring and decision making about the choice of subsequent content (Khan & Locatis, 1998). This can result in increased H[WUDQHRXVFRJQLWLYHORDGZKHQFRPSDUHGWROLQHDU reading tasks (Conklin, 1987). The increase in cogniWLYHORDGFDQLQWXUQIRUFHLQFUHDVHGFRJQLWLYHH൵RUW which contributes, in time, to a decrease in cognitive engagement in new information acquisition. The aim of the paper was the analysis of eye tracking indices RIYLVXDODWWHQWLRQDVVRFLDWHGZLWKGL൵HUHQFHVLQOHYHOV RIFRJQLWLYHHQJDJHPHQWGXULQJUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[W DQGOLQHDUWH[W$VVXPLQJWKDWUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WLV associated with a cognitive load greater than readLQJOLQHDUWH[WZHSUHGLFWWKDWWKHG\QDPLFVRIH\H WUDFNLQJLQGLFHVREVHUYHGGXULQJK\SHUWH[WUHDGLQJ will be typical for decrease of cognitive engagement. 6XPPLQJXSWKHUHVXOWVLQK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQ ZHREVHUYHGDGHFUHDVHLQVDFFDGHVSHHG¿[DWLRQ duration, and also pupil size in connection with subVHTXHQWVWDJHVRIWH[WSURFHVVLQJ6LPLODUFKDQJHV KDYHQRWEHHQREVHUYHGLQOLQHDUWH[WFRQGLWLRQ:H interpret the changes we observed in eye tracking indices as changes in processing depth. Initially WKHWH[WLVEHLQJSURFHVVHGGHHSHUWKDQDWWKHHQG Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

Visual attention dynamics and cognitive engagement during hypertext reading

RIUHDGLQJ,QH൵HFWUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WUHVXOWVLQ JUHDWHUIDWLJXHWKDQUHDGLQJWUDGLWLRQDOWH[W7KLV H[SODQDWLRQLVFRKHUHQWZLWKWKHUHVXOWVRIVWXGLHV on the association between pupil size and fatigue. Geacintov and Peavler (1974) demonstrated that DUHGXFWLRQLQSXSLOVL]HLQWKHFRQWH[WRISHUIRUPHG task can indicate fatigue (compare also Peavler, 1974; Granholm, Asarnow, Sarkin, & Dykes, 1996). Morad et al. demonstrated that the size of pupil is inversely correlated with subjectively evaluated tiredness and sleepiness (Morad, Lemberg, Yofe, & Dagan, 2000). An alternative interpretation, based on the results establishing correlation of pupil GLODWLRQZLWKWDVNGL൶FXOW\ +HVV 3ROW  ZRXOGVWDWHWKDWUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WEHFRPHVHDVLHU ZLWKHDFKSDJHEHLQJUHDG+RZHYHUWKLVH[SODQDtion seems to be less convincing considering the observed changes in saccade speed, which are also interpreted as the measure of cognitive fatigue. In WKHK\SHUWH[WFRQGLWLRQVDFFDGHVJURZVORZHUDV the reading progresses. This indicates increased WLUHGQHVVRIWKHUHDGHU$VLPLODUH൵HFWZDVQRW REVHUYHGLQWKHFDVHRIUHDGLQJWUDGLWLRQDOWH[W The results pointing to an increase in cognitive IDWLJXHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKUHDGLQJK\SHUWH[WDOVR correspond to the comparison of the time spent RQWH[WDQGHPSW\VSDFHZLWKLQERWKH[SHULPHQWDO FRQGLWLRQV5HDGHUVRIWUDGLWLRQDOOLQHDUWH[WVSHQG PRVWRIWKHWLPHUHDGLQJWKHDFWXDOWH[WDQGRQO\ a small amount of time (less than 10%) is spent averting the gaze towards blank parts of the page. 7KLVLVGL൵HUHQWLQFDVHRIK\SHUWH[WUHDGHUV7KH\ VSHQGFRPSDUDWLYHO\PRUHWLPHWKDQUHJXODUWH[W UHDGHUVRQDYHUWLQJWKHLUJD]HDZD\IURPWH[WJD]H aversion being one of indices of increased cognitive processing (Doherty-Sneddon & Bruce, 2002). &RQWUDU\WRH[SHFWDWLRQVQRLQWHUJURXSGL൵HUHQFHVLQWH[WPHPRUL]DWLRQZHUHREVHUYHG7KLVPHDQV that in spite of the decreasing cognitive engagement RIK\SHUWH[WOHDUQHUVWKH\DFKLHYHGVLPLODUOHDUQLQJ UHVXOWVWRWKHPHPEHUVRIWKHOLQHDUWH[WJURXS,WFDQ EHSUHVXPHGWKDWZRUNLQJZLWKK\SHUWH[WLQYROYLQJ the choice of individual path of material processing, VWLPXODWHGJUHDWHUFRJQLWLYHH൵RUWZKLFKLQWXUQ Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

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allows for creation of a mental map of information being acquired. This interpretation can be supported E\WKHFRQFHSWRIGHVLUDEOHGL൶FXOW\RIOHDUQLQJWDVN Bjork (1944) demonstrated that learning becomes PRUHH൵HFWLYHDIWHUEDVLFGL൶FXOWLHVKDYHEHHQLQWURGXFHG HJYHU\VPDOOIRQWVL]H ,QWKHK\SHUWH[W H[SHULPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQWKHQHFHVVLW\RILQGLYLGXDO information structuralization constitutes desirable GL൶FXOW\UHVXOWLQJLQWKHLQFUHDVHRIH[WUDQHRXV cognitive load. Additional cognitive load may not be optimal for every learner; therefore in future VWXGLHVLQGLYLGXDOGL൵HUHQFHVLQZRUNLQJPHPRU\ capacity could be worth considering. 7KHREVHUYHGG\QDPLFDOH൵HFWVDOVRLQGLFDWH that in future studies it might be worth utilizing psychophysical measures of cognitive load, such DVKHDUWUDWHYDULDELOLW\ +59 RUHOHFWURGHUPDO DFWLYLW\ ('$ +59LVDPHDVXUHRIKHDUWDFWLRQ ÀXFWXDWLRQVDQGLVDJRRGPHDVXUHRIFRJQLWLYH load and fatigue (Hansen, Johnsen, & Thayer, 2003, $DVPDQ0XOGHU 0XOGHU (OHFWURGHUPDO activity is a measure of skin conductivity and is a good indicator of agitation, but also of cognitive and decision making processes (Boucsein, 2012). Bechara and collaborators (Bechara & Damasio, 2005; Bechara, Tranel, & Damasio, 2000) demonVWUDWHGWKDWUDSLG('$FKDQJHVFRXOGGL൵HUHQWLDWH a subject’s decisions into good and bad ones. As our study suggests that decision-making is an esVHQWLDOHOHPHQWRIK\SHUWH[WUHDGLQJWKHXVHRI ('$PHWKRGVLQIXWXUHH[SHULPHQWVRIK\SHUWH[W processing seems to be especially interesting. ,QWKHFRQWH[WRIIXWXUHVWXGLHVLWVHHPVWREH necessary to develop more precise tools for measurLQJOHDUQLQJH൵HFWV:HDOVRSURSRVHWKDWDGGLWLRQDO procedures leading to the increase of subjects’ motivation be utilized, which should also contribute to SURGXFLQJPRUHGL൵HUHQWLDWLQJUHVXOWVZLWKUHJDUGV to learning processes. References Aasman, J., Mulder, G. & Mulder, L. J. (1987). 2SHUDWRUH൵RUWDQGWKHPHDVXUHPHQWRIKHDUW rate variability. Human factors, 29(2), 161–70.

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multaneous interpretation and other language tasks. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A: Human Experimental Psychology, 48(3), 598–612. -DFREVRQ0- 6SLUR5-  +\SHUWH[W /HDUQLQJ(QYLURQPHQWV&RJQLWLYH)OH[LELOLW\ DQGWKH7UDQVIHURI&RPSOH[.QRZOHGJH$Q (PSLULFDO,QYHVWLJDWLRQJournal of Educational Computing Research, 12(4), 301–333. -DáRFKRZVNL.  6\OZHWND1LNROL7HVOL Polityka5HWULHYHGIURPKWWSWHFKQRSROLV SROLW\NDSOV\OZHWNDQLNRODWHVOL Kahneman, D. (1973). $WWHQWLRQDQGHৼRUW(QJOHZRRG&OL൵V1-3UHQWLFH+DOO Khan, K., & Locatis, C. (1998). Searching through F\EHUVSDFH7KHH൵HFWVRIOLQNGLVSOD\DQGOLQN GHQVLW\RQLQIRUPDWLRQUHWULHYDOIURPK\SHUWH[W on the World Wide Web. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49(2), 176–182. .UXJHU-/+HIHU( 0DWWKHZ*   Attention distribution and cognitive load in a subtitled academic lecture: L1 vs. L2. Journal of Eye Movements Research, 7(5), 1–15. Lee, H. (2007). Instructional design of web-based VLPXODWLRQVIRUOHDUQHUVZLWKGL൵HUHQWOHYHOVRIVSDtial ability. Instructional Science, 35(6), 467—479. /LPH6XUYH\3URMHFW7HDP&DUVWHQ6FKPLW] (2012). LimeSurvey: An Open Source survey tool. Hamburg, Germany: LimeSurvey Project. 0D\HU5(  &RJQLWLYH7KHRU\DQGWKH 'HVLJQRI0XOWLPHGLD,QVWUXFWLRQ$Q([DPSOH of the Two-Way Street between Cognition and Instruction. New Directions for Teaching and Learning(89), 55–71. Morad, Y., Lemberg, H., Yofe, N., & Dagan, Y. (2000). Pupillography as an objective indicator of fatigue. Curr. Eye Res., 21(1), 535–542. Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. (2007). Interactive multimedia learning environments. Educational Psychology Review, 19, 309–326. Narayanan, N., & Hegarty, M. (2002). Multimedia design for communication of dynamic information. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 57(4), 279–315. Psychological Studies, volume 53, issue 4

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O’Hara, K., & Sellen, A. (1997). A comparison of reading paper and on-line documents. [In] Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI conference on human factors in computing systems (335–342). 3DDV)*HUYHQ93 :RXWHUV3  ,QVWUXFWLRQDO(൶FLHQF\RI$QLPDWLRQ(൵HFWVRI Interactivity through Mental Reconstruction of Static Key Frames. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 783—793. Peavler, W. S. (1974). Pupil size, information overORDGDQGSHUIRUPDQFHGL൵HUHQFHVPsychophysiology, 11(5), 559–566. R Development Core Team. (2011). R: A Language DQG(QYLURQPHQWIRU6WDWLVWLFDO&RPSXWLQJ >&RPSXWHUVRIWZDUHPDQXDO@9LHQQD$XVWULD 5R]SRU]ąG]HQLH rady ministrów w sprawie warunków, form i trybu realizacji SU]HGVLĊZ]LHFLD dotyczącego rozwijania kompetencji uczniów i nauczycieli w zakresie stosowania technologii informacyjno-komunikacyjnych. (2012). Dziennik Ustaw. Stelzer, T., Gladding, G., Mestre, J., & Brookes, D.  &RPSDULQJWKHH൶FDF\RIPXOWLPHGLD PRGXOHVZLWKWUDGLWLRQDOWH[WERRNVIRUOHDUQLQJ introductory physics content. American Journal of Physics, 77(2), 184–190. ĝSLHZDN 6   'ODF]HJR ]XSD ] NDPLHQLDVPDNXMHSV\FKRORJRPVSRáHF]Q\P"2 Z\NRU]\VW\ZDQLXPDQLSXODFMLREFLąĪHQLHP SR]QDZF]\PZEDGDQLDFKVSRáHF]Q\FKPsyFKRORJLD6SRáHF]QD, 3, 1(6), 23-40. Williams, T. (2009). Multimedia learning gets medieval. Pedagogy, 9(1), 77-95. Acknowledgments 5HVHDUFKSURMHFW¿QDQFHE\1DWLRQDO/LEUDU\ Warsaw, Poland and National Information Institute, Warsaw, Poland. We thank Dr. Roman Chymkowski from Reading Culture Institute, National Library, Warsaw, Poland for his help in organizing the research and valuable merit comments. We also thank Ms. Agata Kopacz DQG0U0DUHN0áRGRĪHQLHF 1DWLRQDO,QIRUPDWLRQ Institute) for their help in conducting the research.