Vol. 9 - UNT College of Education - University of North Texas

5 downloads 151466 Views 657KB Size Report
Key words; Unified theory, Information Communication Technology, ..... Bachelor of Arts with Education (86%); studying during the day (51%); aged not more ...
African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

Editorial Board Chief Editor Dr. Marc Cutright Department of Counseling and Higher Education, University of North Texas, USA [email protected] Assistant to the Chief Editor Susan Allen Namalefe [email protected] Editors Prof. Anne L. Sikwibele Institute of Distance Education, Mulungushi University, North Road Campus, Kabwe, [email protected] Dr. Gbolagade Adekambi Department of Continuing Education, University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana [email protected] Prof. Joel B.Babalola Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria [email protected] Juliet W. Macharia Department of Communication Studies, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya [email protected] Dr. Segun Adedeji Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria [email protected] Dr. Afolakemi Oredein Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria; [email protected] Dr. Adesoji Oni Department of Educational Foundations, University of Lagos, Akoka-Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria [email protected] Dr. (Rev) Adams Onuka Institute of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. [email protected]

   

1

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

2

Guidelines for Preparation and Submission of Manuscripts to AHER African Higher Education Review (AHER) is an official journal of the Higher Education Research and Policy Network (HERPNET) 1. African Higher Education Review (AHER) is an annual international peer reviewed journal published in English. AHER provides an international platform for the African community of higher education to share research ideas, information and experience about the role of higher education in society today. The journal is published under the auspices of HERPNET (Higher Education and Research Policy Network).The journal includes and seeks contributions of research articles on any aspect of education generally and on higher education specifically. 2. Manuscripts should be original, clearly and precisely presented in English. Authors should electronically submit a word document. 3. Each submission should not be longer than 7000 words in total, including title, author(s) information, tables, figures, and references. Each article should be accompanied by an abstract of approximately 150 words. 4. AHER adheres to a rigorous double-blind reviewing policy in which the identity of both the reviewer and author are concealed from both parties. All manuscripts are initially reviewed by the editorial board and only those papers that meet the scientific and editorial standards of the journal, and fit within the aims and scope of the journal, will be sent for outside review. 5. Contributions are considered for publication only on the understanding that they are not simultaneously under consideration elsewhere in English, that they are the original work of the author(s), and that any pervious form of publication or any current consideration in other languages are disclosed. Authors assign copyright to HERPNET. Submission Preparation Checklist As part of the submission process, authors are required to check off their submission’s compliance with all the following items. Submissions that do not adhere to these guidelines will be returned to authors  The submission has not been previously published, nor is it under consideration by another journal.  The submission is written in correct English without technical terms and jargon.  Cover page contains title, full name, institution, address, phone and fax numbers and e-mail address.  References strictly follow the most current APA styles guide.  Tables are self- explanatory and inserted where they are supposed to appear in the body of the paper. A short title should be provided with any additional information contained with a lucid form to explain the meaning of the content.  Figures refer to all drawings, diagrams, graphs and photographs. These should be of the highest quality and suitable for direct Reproduction. Each figure should be presented within the body of the paper. 6. Whether or not the manuscript is accepted, and the timing of production is decided by the editorial board. 7. Galley Proof will be sent to the corresponding author if there is sufficient time to do so. The authors are responsible for reading the first galley proof. No change of content of the manuscript is permitted on the galley proof without the consent of the editor- in – chief. 8. Copyright. The articles published in the African Higher Education Review are subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by Higher Education Research and Policy Network (HERPNET) 9. Send the article as an e-mail attachment to [email protected]. The attachment should be readable by Microsoft Word. Detail information about the network and the journal can be downloaded on www.herp-net.org

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

3

Table of Contents Application of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and use of Technology to the use of ICT by Undergraduates in the School of Education, Makerere University: Bakkabulindi, F. E. K; Mugagga, A. M; Shopi, J. M.; & Kabasiita, J. ..................................................................... 4 Relationship between the Curriculum and Attributes of Nigerian Faculty of Education Graduates towards Teaching in Kwara State, Nigeria: David Jimoh Kayode; Nurahimah BtMohd Yusoff; & Arsaythamby Veloo ............................................................................. 18 Accreditation of University Undergraduate Programs in Nigeria from 2001–2012: Implications for Graduates Employability: Dada M.S. & Hauwa Imam (PhD).................. 27 Effective Teaching with ICT in Nigerian Higher Institutions: A Solution to Graduates’ Unemployability: Femi, Sunday Akinwumi (Ph.D) & Etomi Edwin Yemisi .................... 34 Chemistry Students’ Assessment of their Teachers’ Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Benue State: Aduloju, M. O. & Obinne, A. D.E. ................................................................. 44 Fostering an Entrepreneurship Culture in Higher Education and Job Creation in Nigeria: Adeyinka Foluso Modupe & Wahab Bashir Adelowo ...................................................... 50 University Industry Collaboration and Graduates’ Unemployment in Ondo State, Nigeria: Adepoju O.O & Adedeji A.O ............................................................................................... 61 Contemporary Issues Necessitating Reform in Higher Education Programs and Curricula in Response to Challenges of Employability: Adebisi M.A (PhD) & Akinkuowo F. O.......... 71 Required and Possessed University Graduates Employability Skills: Perceptions of the Nigerian Employers: Adebakin, Azeez B; Ajadi, O. Timothy; & Subair, S. ’Tayo .......... 78 Employability of Nigerian Graduates, the Role of Stakeholders: Olayemi Jumoke Abiodun-Oyebanji (PhD). .................................................................................................... 87

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

4

Application of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and use of Technology to the use of ICT by Undergraduates in the School of Education, Makerere University Bakkabulindi, F. E. K1; Mugagga, A. M2; Shopi, J. M3.; & Kabasiita, J4.

This survey sought to establish how performance expectancy (PE), effort expectancy (EE), social influence (SI) and facilitating conditions (FC) related to the use of ICT by undergraduate students in the School of Education at Makerere University. Descriptive analysis was done using percentages and means, while hypotheses were tested using Multiple Regression. The results suggested that EE and FC were significant positive correlates of the use of ICT, while PE and SI were not. These findings imply that to enhance the use of ICT by the undergraduates in the School, the ICT change agents have to enhance and maintain the EE or perceived user friendliness of ICT by acquiring ICTs that are user friendly ICT, that is, whose user interfaces (e.g. screens) give clues to users on what to enter and how to enter, in addition to being accompanied by user manuals. They also have to raise and maintain FC that is the levels of perceived compatibility of ICT among the students by soliciting their views on what hardware and software should be acquired. Key words; Unified theory, Information Communication Technology, Undergraduates Rogers (2003) attributes the start of the study of innovation, diffusion, and adoption to a French lawyer and judge by the names of Gabriel Tarde around 1900. Tarde reportedly “kept an analytical eye on trends in his society as represented by the legal cases that came before his court” (Rogers, 2003, p. 41). The purpose of his scholarly observations was to learn why given one hundred different innovations conceived at the same time, ten will spread while ninety will be forgotten. Tarde observed certain generalizations about the diffusion and adoption of innovations that he called, “laws of imitation” (Tarde, 1903 cited in Rogers, 2003). Tarde’s keyword “imitation” which today is termed as “adoption” of an innovation, implied and still implies that an individual learns about an innovation by copying someone else’s adoption of the innovation. Rogers (2003) observes however, that Tarde’s creative insights were not immediately followed by empirical studies until the 1940s, because social scientists of Tarde’s day (about 1900) lacked methodological tools to conduct the studies. When empirical studies of innovation diffusion and adoption began, “research                                                              1

East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development, College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University; P O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda; Tel +256-783-108263; Email: [email protected] or [email protected] 2 School of Education, College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University; P O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda; Tel +256-772-456245; Email: [email protected] 3 School of Education, College of Education and External Studies, Makerere University; P O Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda; Tel +256-772-080204; Email: [email protected] 4 School of Education, Mountains of the Moon University; P O Box 837, Fort Portal, Uganda; Tel +256-774332237 and +256-712-248064; Email: [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

5

traditions” emerged, which according to Rogers (2003) included anthropology, early sociology, rural sociology, education, public health and medical sociology, communication, marketing and management, geography and general sociology research traditions. Rogers (2003) defines a “research tradition” as consisting of an academic discipline (e.g. anthropology) or a sub-discipline (e.g. early sociology), adding that each research tradition concentrated on investigating the diffusion and adoption of one major type of innovation. For example the “education research tradition” specialized in educational innovations. In particular, while attributing early educational diffusion and adoption studies to one institution, Columbia University’s Teachers’ College, Rogers critiqued the educational research tradition for minimal contribution to innovation diffusion and adoption research. Specifically, he said that “although it is an important research tradition…, education is less important in terms of its contribution to the theoretical understanding of the diffusion [and adoption] of innovations” (p.61), which observation although a bit dated, still calls for more diffusion and adoption researches in educational institutions. Several published past studies (e.g. Huang, Hood & Yo, 2013; Kelleher & Sweetser, 2012; Lule, Omwansa & Waema, 2012; Magro, 2012; Sato & Zouain, 2012; Tyagi, 2012; Veletsianos & Kimmons, 2013; Zafiropoulos, Karavalis & Vrana, 2012) on innovation diffusion and adoption can be cited. However as recent reviews on such studies (e.g. Awa, Ukoha & Emecheta, 2012; BuabengAndoh, 2012) reveal, few of these studies have been done outside the developed world. Further, most of these studies have been done on other innovations (e.g. electronic commerce, banking and tax collection) than educational ones (e.g. electronic learning and digital libraries). Such contextual gaps call for more researches in the developing countries such as Uganda, especially in educational institutions such as Makerere University. Granted, some studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2011a, b; 2012a, b; Bakkabulindi & Oyebade, 2011; Bakkabulindi & Sekabembe, 2010; Bakkabulindi & Ssempebwa, 2011) have been on the adoption of ICT innovations in Makerere University, particularly in the College of Education and External Studies (CEES). However most of these studies have targeted lecturers, administrators and postgraduate students and not undergraduate students. This study was intended to narrow this “sampling gap”, by focusing on undergraduate students this time round. The study took place in a school in Makerere University, which was among the pioneer organizations in Uganda to acquire information and communication technology (ICT) in the form of computers. To be exact, in 1971 Makerere commissioned the third computer in Uganda after the Treasury Department of the Ministry of Finance and Uganda Electricity Board had both unveiled theirs in 1967. However, during the upheavals in Uganda in the 1970s and 1980s Uganda slid into political and economic disintegration, leading to social sector spending being cut, hitting education the hardest (Musisi & Muwanga, 2003). This left Makerere impoverished and almost bankrupt to the extent that there was virtually no application of ICT to either teaching and learning, or institutional management during the 1971-1985 period. Fresh awareness of ICT came to the University in the 1990s, and with the assistance of the International Development & Research Council (IDRC). In 1991 Makerere became one of the first universities in Sub-Saharan Africa to use electronic mail. Furthermore, from 1999, the university adopted ICT as an integral part of its rebuilding. For example, by late 2000, the University had developed an ICT Policy and Master Plan, 2001 - 2004 (Makerere University, 2001; Musisi & Muwanga, 2003). According to the plan, Makerere University committed itself to a number of things such as;    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

6

to assure availability of all anticipated ICT services at any workplace in the University. To assure availability of user-level data communication services such as e-mail, access-tointernet and internet/ intranet services. Thirdly, to promote office computing, fourth, to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of library operations, among others. With those objectives in mind, Makerere University and its donors have sunk large amounts of money on ICT. For example the Makerere Directorate of ICT Support, DICTS (Tusubira, Mulira, Kahiigi & Kivunke, 2008, pp.54–59) reports that the university planned to disburse as much as $13.3 million on ICT projects for the period, 2005 to 2009. This is a staggering sum by the standards of an institution in a young country. The background has underscored the use of ICT as having the potential to benefit the individual user and his/ her organization, and hence the large sums of money committed by Makerere University towards ICT. Unfortunately however, the use of ICT by students in Makerere University has consistently been reported to be low (e.g. “Mamdani calls for reforms at Makerere”, in the Daily Monitor newspaper of July 2, 2012), which quoted the Director of the Makerere Institute of Social Research (MISR) as noting that the more the university avails students of online resources, the more the reading culture of students reduces, implying non-use of the ICT resources. A major question for the study was, what the common characteristics of those individual students that are apparently ahead of others in use of ICT, were. Unearthing those correlates is important to have an idea of the “critical success factors”, CSF (Andersen & Gottschalk, 2001; Hung, Hung, Tsai & Jiang, 2010; Selim, 2007; Tusubira, et al., 2008) that can be manipulated to enhance the use of ICT in the University. Theoretical Framework In this study, the dependent variable (DV) that is, the “use of ICT” was considered as a “use of an innovation”, and hence led to the invocation of a use of innovations theory, namely Venkatesh and colleagues’ (2003) Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). The UTAUT relates the use of innovations such as ICT to four core constructs, namely the “performance expectancy” (PE), the “effort expectancy” (EE), the “social influence” (SI) and the “facilitating conditions” (FC). Studies basing on the UTAUT as their theoretical basis can be found (e.g. El-Gayar, Moran & Hawkes, 2011; Gupta, Dasgupta & Gupta, 2008). However from their analysis of 450 articles, Williams, Rana, Dwivedi and Lal (2011), reported that, “although a large number of studies have cited the [UTAUT] originating article [Venkatesh et al., 2003] since its appearance, only 43 actually utilized the theory or its constructs in their empirical research” (p. 231), implying that so far most researchers just cite UTAUT instead of actually using it. This study was intended to narrow this theoretical gap where UTAUT is generally ignored. On the basis of this theory, it is proposed that the levels of use of ICT will vary with a student’s level of perception of ICT in terms of its “performance expectancy” (PE), “effort expectancy” (EE), “social influence” (SI), and “facilitating conditions” (FC). Hypotheses Performance Expectancy as a Correlate of Adoption of Innovations Venkatesh and colleagues (2003) in their Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) define “performance expectancy” (PE) as the degree to which a potential adopter believes that using an innovation will help him or her improve performance    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

7

on the job. PE is thus what Nov and Ye (2009) refer to as “Job Relevance” (JR) that is the fit between an innovation and the job goals a user needs to accomplish. PE and JR are similar to what Rogers (2003) terms as the Perceived Relative Advantage (PRA) of an innovation, which he defines as the degree to which the innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes, and is often expressed as economic profitability, and as conveying social prestige. PRA can also be measured in terms of the convenience and satisfaction (Kelleher & Sweetser, 2012) that the innovation brings to the adopter or user. In his Technology Adoption Model (TAM), Davis (1989) refers to PE as the “perceived usefulness” (PU) of an innovation, which he (Davis) defines as the “prospective user’s subjective probability that using a specific application system will increase his or her job performance” (cited in Gupta, et al., 2008, p. 144). Thus clearly, apart from using different phrases, the terms performance expectancy (Venkatesh, et al., 2003), job relevance (Nov & Ye, 2009), perceived relative advantage (Rogers, 2003), and perceived usefulness (Davis, 1989) are synonyms. UTAUT (Venkatesh, et al., 2003) assert that the greater the performance expectancy of an innovation, the more rapid its adoption. On the basis of this hypothesis, it is reasonable to expect the PE of ICT to be associated with higher levels of ICT use. Recent past studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; El-Gayar et al., 2011; Gupta, et al., 2008; Lee, Yoon & Lee, 2009; Lule, et al., 2012; Putzer & Park, 2010; Travica, 2008; Zafiropoulos, Karavasilis & Vrana, 2012) positively relate PE and the use of innovations. But studies giving a different result (e.g. Bakkabulindi, Osunsan, Kazibwe, Samanya & Mabonga, 2010) can also be got. Such contentious empirical results make it fitting to test the hypothesis to the effect that; performance expectancy (PE) is positively correlated with the use of ICT. Effort Expectancy as a Correlate of Adoption of Innovations In their UTAUT, Venkatesh and colleagues (2003) coined a new term “effort expectancy” (EE) of an innovation. This is the degree of ease associated with the use of the innovation, that is, the degree to which a potential adopter considers the use of the innovation to be free of effort. In his Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT), Rogers (2003) uses the term “perceived user friendliness” (PUF), which is the “degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use” (p. 257) as the equivalent of EE. In his Technology Acceptance and Adoption Model (TAM), Davis (1989) refers to Venkatesh, et al., (2003)’s EE or Rogers’ PUF as the “perceived ease of use” (PEU) of an innovation, which he (Davis) defines as the “degree to which a prospective user expects the target system to be free of effort” (cited in Gupta etal, 2008, p. 144). Thus apart from using different phraseology, the terms effort expectancy (Venkatesh et al., 2003), perceived user friendliness (Rogers, 2003) and perceived ease of use (Davis, 1989) are the same and are used interchangeably in this paper. Al-Hajri and Tatnall (2008) contend that understanding EE is important because it has implications for the design of training intervention to manipulate the perception of EE. Recent past studies that have positively related EE and the use of innovations are many (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b; El-Gayar, et al., 2011; GarciaValcarel & Tejedor, 2009; Gupta, et al., 2008; Lee, et al., 2009; Lule, et al., 2012; Travica, 2008). However, other studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, Osunsan, et al., 2010; Hung, et al., 2010; Zafiropoulos, et al., 2012) have found EE not to correlate with innovation diffusion and/ or adoption. Hence in this paper it was imperative to test the hypothesis that effort expectancy (EE) positively correlated with the use of ICT.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

8

Social Influence as a Correlate of Adoption of Innovations Social influence (SI) refers to the extent to which an individual is attracted to an innovation on account of how that individual sees others in the society benefiting from the use of the innovation. This term is similar to Rogers’ (2003) “perceived observability” (PO), which is the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. Thus SI or PO can also be referred to as the perceived communicability of an innovation. Rogers (2003) observes that whereas some ideas are easily observed, communicated or described to other people, other innovations are difficult to observe, communicate or describe to others. For example, an innovation such as ICT, has two components; (i) hardware which are the physical parts of ICT, and (ii) software that consists of the instruction base for the technology. Thus the software component of a technological innovation (e.g. ICT) is not so apparent to observation. So innovations in which the software aspect is dominant possess less observability, and usually have a relatively slower rate of use (Rogers, 2003). Different phraseology notwithstanding therefore, the terms social influence (Venkatesh, et al., 2003), perceived observability, communicability (Rogers, 2003), are the same and are used interchangeably in this paper. Several recent studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b) have positively related social influence (SI) or the perceived observability (PO) and the use of innovations. Thus the study being reported on, had enough ground to propose that; social influence (SI) positively correlates with the use of ICT. Facilitating Conditions as a Correlate of Adoption of Innovations UTAUT (Venkatesh, et al., 2003) uses the term “facilitating conditions” (FC) for an innovation to refer to the “degree to which an individual believes that an organizational and technical infrastructure exists to support use of the system” (in Gupta et al., 2008, p. 146). Thus the term FC is synonymous with what Rogers (2003) in his IDT calls the perceived compatibility (PC) of an innovation that is the degree to which the innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. Rogers (2003) contends that an innovation can be compatible or incompatible with (i) the socio cultural values and beliefs (ii) the previously introduced ideas and/ or (iii) the client needs for the innovation. Perceived compatibility is positively related to an innovation’s rate of use (Rogers, 2003) in that an innovation or new idea that is more compatible is less uncertain to the potential user and fits more closely with the individual’s situation. Such compatibility helps the individual to give meaning to the new idea so that it is regarded as more familiar. Recent studies (e.g. Travica, 2008; Zafiropoulos et al., 2012), positively relating facilitating conditions, FC (Venkatesh, 2003) or perceived compatibility, PC (Rogers, 2003) and the use of innovations can be found. Ironically, despite such massive empirical support for the hypothesis, contrary findings (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b; Bakkabulindi, Osunsan et al., 2010) can be cited. Hence empirically, support for and against the hypothesis is almost at par. This suggested the need for further studies to test the postulation that facilitating conditions (FC) positively correlate with the use of ICT. Method The target population in the study constituted all the undergraduate students in the College of Education and External Studies (CEES), Makerere University, in a recent academic year. Thus about 6000 undergraduate students equally divided between the School    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

9

of Education (SoE), and the School of Lifelong Learning (SoLL) were selected. The third school in the college, namely the East African School of Higher Education Studies and Development (EASHESD), had no undergraduates. The figure of about 6000 undergraduate students was arrived at, basing on the fact that each of the SoE and SoLL admits roughly 1000 undergraduates annually, making a total undergraduate admission for the two schools of about 2000. Each undergraduate course in the two schools is three years, hence the total of about 3 X 2000 = 6000. The “sampled or accessible population” for the study constituted only the undergraduate students in the SoE, making a total of about 3000 undergraduates. Krejcie and Morgan (1970)’s table of sample size determination (cited in Gay & Airasian, 2003), suggested a minimum sample of size 341. The “sampled or accessible population” was divided into three strata, namely the years of study that is one, two and three. These three strata were of almost equal sizes of 1000 each. Thus the “stratified random sampling” was used to select the 341 respondents, equally divided between the three strata/years of study. Thus from each stratum at least 341/ 3 = 114 were to serve as respondents. To get the at least 114 from each stratum, “systematic random sampling” involving selecting every 1000/ 114 = 9th student that entered the lecture room on a particular day was used. The SAQ used as the instrument for the survey method started with items to help classify the respondents by year of study, course currently undertaken (either Bachelor of Arts with Education or Bachelor of Science with Education), session of study (Day, Evening or Weekend), age (in years), sex (female or male) and the sponsor who paid the respondent’s fees (government, parents, other relative than parents, self, and other). The instrument had section B on the four independent variables, that is the perceived characteristics of ICT, in terms of its performance expectancy, PE (five items adapted from the four in Gupta et al.,(2008) where they scored (α = 0.814); effort expectancy, EE (three items adapted from Gupta et al.,(2008) where they scored α = 0.812). Social influence, SI had five items adapted from Gupta et al., (2008) where they scored (α = 0.812, and facilitating conditions, FC (three items adapted from Gupta et al., (2008) where they scored (α = 0.809). Each item in Section B being an “attitude or opinion item”, had options scaled using the five-point Likert scale, where 1 = Strongly disagree to 5 = Strongly agree. Section C was on the dependent variable, the use of ICT, operationalized as the use of basic PC applications, UPC (five items adapted from adapted from the six in Bakkabulindi, 2012a that scored α = 0.8174) and internet facilities, UIF (five items adapted from such sources as the eight in Bakkabulindi, 2012a that scored α = 0.8864). Each item in Section C being a “frequency of use item”, had options scaled using the five-point Likert scale, where 1 = Very rarely or never to 5 = Very often or always. The validities and reliabilities of the constructs in the data collected were ascertained using confirmatory factor analysis and Cronbach alpha respectively. Means were used for the descriptive data analysis, while multiple linear regression analysis tested the hypotheses at the multivariate level. Results Details on background characteristics of the sampled undergraduate students, are given in table 1, which suggests that the typical respondent was a second year (56%); doing a Bachelor of Arts with Education (86%); studying during the day (51%); aged not more than 23 (77%); and a male (53%), whose fees were being paid by parents (53%).    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905. Table 1: Demographic characteristics of the respondents Description Category Year of study One Two Three Specialization Bachelor of Arts, Education Bachelor of Sciences, Education Session of study Day Evening Age group (years) Up to 23 23 but below 29 29 and above Sex Female Male Sponsor Government Parents Other relatives than parents Self Other

Frequency 44 146 73 216 36 133 130 185 42 14 123 140 45 138 31 34 13

10

Percentage 16.7 55.5 27.8 85.6 14.3 50.6 49.4 76.8 17.4 5.8 46.8 53.2 17.2 52.9 11.9 13.0 5.0

The study had four independent variables (IVs), namely “performance expectancy” (PE), “effort expectancy” (EE), “social influence” (SI) and “facilitating conditions” (FC). Each IV was multi-dimensional in that while PE and SI had five items each, EE and FC had three items each. The means of all the items of PE suggested good perceptions of performance expectancy of ICT. This was supported by the overall mean for PE of 3.926. For EE, all the three items were fairly rated. This was supported by the overall mean for EE of 3.1756, corresponding to undecided, and hence fair perception of ICT in terms of its effort expectance or user friendliness. With respect to SI, all the items were rated good, and hence its overall mean of 3.6023, corresponding to agree, and hence good perception of the existence of positive social influence for the use of ICT, that is, it’s perceived observability (Rogers, 2003). For FC, except for the second item (FC2) which was only fairly rated, the means for other two items suggested good perception, although the overall mean for FC of 3.4575, corresponded to only fairly good perception of the existence of facilitating conditions for the use of ICT, that is, it’s perceived compatibility (Rogers, 2003). Factor Analysis suggested that items on each IV belonged to only one factor, with the factors having Eigen values of 2.74, 2.178, 2.968 and 1.393 respectively. The respective factors explained almost 55%, almost 73%, over 59% and over 46% of the variance of the respective four constructs. Considering the factor loadings above 0.5 as being high (Foster, 1998), each factor loaded highly on all the items of the construct in question, meaning that all the items in each of the four constructs were valid. Further, except for FC, each of the respective three other Cronbach alphas namely 0.789, 0.811 and 0.826 was high since it exceeded 0.7 (Lee et al., 2009), implying that the respective three IV constructs were reliable. Even the Cronbach alpha (α = 0.423) for FC, although rather low was still acceptable as it exceeded 0.35 (Lee et al., 2009). This implies that the reliability of this fourth IV, though not as good as the others was also acceptable.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905. Table 2. Means, reliability and validity analyses on the independent variables Construct Item Mean Factors on +

PE

EE SI

FC

PE1 PE2 PE3 PE4 PE5 EE1 EE2 EE3 SI1 SI2 SI3 SI4 SI5 FC1 FC2 FC3

4.17 4.06 3.95 3.83 3.61 3.03 3.11 3.37 3.61 3.66 3.54 3.66 3.53 3.58 3.05 3.75

PE 0.740 0.761 0.779 0.720 0.699

11

Cronbach 

EE

SI

FC 0.789

0.832 0.888 0.835

0.811 0.715 0.832 0.809 0.756 0.734

Eigenvalue 2.74 2.178 % variance 54.80 72.59 + Only factor loadings above 0.5 reflected (as per Foster, 1998).

2.968 59.37

0.826

0.663 0.699 0.681 1.393 46.42

0.423

The Use of ICT The use of ICT was conceptualized in terms of the “use of personal computer applications software” (UPC - five items), and the “use of internet facilities” (UIF - five items) respectively. Each item was scaled in such a way that 1 = Very rarely or never, including never heard of it; 2 = rarely use; 3 = neither rarely nor regularly; 4 = regularly; and 5 = very regularly. Table 3 presents the study items for the respective two constructs on the DV, namely UPC and UIF, their means, factors and Cronbach alphas. Except for item UPC1 (Word processing) which attained a fair rating of use, the means on all the other items on UPC in Table 3 were about “2” which on the rating scale used corresponded to “rare”, and hence, poor levels of the use of applications software. Factor analysis suggested that the five items on UPC belonged to one factor, with an eigenvalue of 2.827, and explaining almost 57% of the variance in the construct. Considering the factor loadings above 0.5 as being high (Foster, 1998), it is apparent that the factor loaded highly on all the five items of UPC, meaning that all the five items on UPC were valid. Cronbach alpha on the five items was 0.802, which was high since it exceeded 0.7 (Lee etal, 2009), meaning that the five items constituted a reliable measure. An overall index on the “use of PC applications software” (UPC) yielded a mean of 2.4557, which corresponded to “poor” use of PC applications software. On the use of internet facilities, while the first three items of UIF, namely UIF1 (Email), UIF2 (World wide web/ surfing) and UIF3 (social networking) attained good ratings in terms of levels of frequency of use, the fourth item (UIF4 i.e. electronic journals and books) only attained fair rating, while UIF5 (Electronic databases) scored a poor rating of use. The overall mean of 3.0772 corresponded to only “fair” levels of use of internet facilities. Factor analysis suggested that the five items on UIF belonged to one factor, with an eigenvalue of 2.736. The factor explained almost 55% of the variance in the construct. Considering the factor loadings above 0.5 as being high (Foster, 1998), it is apparent that the factor loaded highly on all the items of UIF. Thus all the five items were considered valid. The Cronbach alpha for the five items of UIF was 0.792, which was high since it exceeded    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

12

0.7 (Lee etal, 2009), meaning that the five items were reliable measures of UIF. An overall index on the “use of ICT” (UIT) from the two indices on the “use of personal computers” (UPC) and the “use of internet facilities” (UIF) yielded a mean of 2.7656, which further lent credence to the earlier finding that the “use of ICT” was only fair. Table 3 Means, validity and reliability analyses on use of ICT Construct Item Mean Factor on UPC + UPC UPC1 2.98 0.652 UPC2 2.42 0.793 UPC3 2.21 0.769 UPC4 2.28 0.766 UPC5 2.49 0.772 UIF UIF1 3.52 UIF2 3.53 UIF3 3.49 UIF4 2.67 UIF5 2.17 Eigenvalue 2.827 % variance 56.54 + Only factor loadings above 0.5 reflected (as per Foster, 1998).

Factor on UIF

Cronbach, α 0.802

0.816 0.738 0.761 0.709 0.666 2.736 54.71

0.792

The independent Variables as Correlates of the Dependent Variable Multiple regression analysis of the aggregate index on the “use of ICT” (UIT) on the four independent variables, yielded the results (table 4) suggesting that the four IVs considered, were collectively good explanatory variables (F = 14.772) of the use of ICT at the one percent level of significance (p < 0.01), accounting for almost 20% of the variation in the aggregate index on the “use of ICT” (Adjusted R square = 0.198). Table 4 further suggests that of the four perceived characteristics of ICT, only two, namely effort expectancy (EE) and facilitating conditions (FC) were significant correlates (p < 0.01) of the use of ICT, leading to the acceptance of the corresponding two research hypotheses (H2 and H4), while H1 and H3 were rejected. Table 4. Regression of the use of ICT on the independent variables Independent Variable (IV) Performance expectancy (PE) Effort expectancy (EE) Social influence (SI) Facilitating conditions (FC) F = 14.772 (p = 0.000); Adj R square = 0.198

Βeta -0.056 0.361 -0.011 0.231

p 0.389 0.000 0.872 0.001

Discussion The study did not uphold the stipulation that the higher the performance expectancy of ICT, the higher the use of ICT, contrary to the contemporary theory in this regard (Nov & Ye, 2009; Rogers, 2003; Venkatesh et al., 2003). The results also did not corroborate several earlier studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b; Drent & Meelissen, 2008; El-Gayar et al., 2011; Gupta et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009; Lule et al., 2012; Putzer & Park, 2010; Travica, 2008; Zafiropoulos et al., 2012), although it was in line with others (e.g. Bakkabulindi, Osunsan et al., 2010). Thus the study added to the already contentious empirical results, which will be the basis of future studies to clarify. Contextually, the finding has implications for ICT change agents in the School of Education at Makerere University such as the Directorate of ICT Support (DICTS), namely; they should not lay undue emphasis on raising    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

13

ICT’s performance expectancy (PE) among undergraduate students in the School as a means of enhancing the use of ICT. Whether PE of ICT is high or low, may have no consequence on the levels of use of ICT. Findings revealed that effort expectancy correlated positively and significantly with use of ICT, a finding conforming to the researcher’s hypothesis and formal theory such as UTAUT (Venkatesh, 2003) that effort expectancy or user friendliness of an innovation, that is the degree to which the innovation is perceived as relatively easy to understand and use by members of a social system, is positively related to its use. This finding corroborated earlier studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b; El-Gayar et al., 2011; Garcia-Valcarel & Tejedor, 2009; Gupta et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2009; Lule et al., 2012; Travica, 2008). In the context of undergraduate students in the school studied, the study finding has one major implication, namely that to enhance the use of ICT in the School, the change agents (e.g. DICTS) should ensure that the ICTs acquired, are high on effort expectancy (EE), that is, that they have user friendliness. Thus they should for example acquire hardware and software whose user interfaces (e.g. screens) give clues to the user on what to enter and how to enter, in addition to being accompanied by user manuals. The study found an insignificant correlation between social influence (Venkatesh et al., 2003) or perceived observability (Rogers, 2003) and the use of ICT. This finding is inconsistent with formal theory that perceived observability of an innovation, that is the degree to which the results of the innovation are visible to others as perceived by members of a social system, is positively related to its rate of use (Rogers, 2003; Venkatesh et al., 2003). The finding was not in consonance with several past studies (e.g. Bakkabulindi, 2012a, 2011b). The finding implies that the undergraduate students in the school under study need not first see “miracles” performed by ICT elsewhere or for other people, in order for them to use the same. Hence the Makerere Directorate of ICT Support (DICTS) and other relevant change agents should not lay undue emphasis on enhancing the social influence (Venkatesh et al., 2003) or perceived observability (Rogers, 2003) of ICT, say during training. Whether they bring out vivid examples of other undergraduate students in other universities that have benefited from using ICT, is immaterial. Results also showed that facilitating conditions, FC (Venkatesh et al., 2003) or perceived compatibility, PC (Rogers, 2003) was a significant correlate of the use of ICT. This result was consistent with the theory that stipulates that FC or PC, which is the degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experience, and needs of potential adopters, is positively related to the rate of the use of the innovation. The observation that an idea that is more compatible is less uncertain to the potential user and fits more closely to the individual’s situation; that such compatibility helps the individual give meaning to the new idea (innovation) so that it is regarded as more familiar (Rogers, 2003; Venkatesh et al., 2003). The study finding was in line with those of several earlier researcher (e.g. Travica, 2008; Zafiropoulos et al., 2012). In the context of undergraduate students in the School of Education at Makerere University, the implication is that those in charge of fostering the use of ICT (e.g. DICTS) should lay due emphasis on ensuring the compatibility of ICT, say when procuring ICT hardware and software. They should consult the individual students on their preferred brands of hardware and software.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

14

Conclusion Basing on the Unified Theory on Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003), this study examined the extent to which performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence, and facilitating conditions were correlates of the use of ICT. The study closed several gaps. For example, the study was among the few that have empirically used UTAUT which has generally been ignored (Williams et al., 2011). The main findings of the study were that expectancy effort and facilitating conditions significantly positively correlated with the use of ICT. These findings have practical significance for ICT change agents at Makerere University. In particular, the findings imply that in their quest to enhance the use of ICT among the undergraduates, the ICT change agents such as the Directorate of ICT Support (DICTS) have to acquire ICTs that have high effort expectancy, that is, that are user friendly (Rogers, 2003). They should for example acquire hardware and software whose user interfaces (e.g. screens) give clues to users on what to enter and how to enter, in addition to being accompanied by user manuals. The ICT change agents should lay due emphasis on enhancing facilitating conditions or perceived compatibility of ICT. For example, when procuring ICT hardware and software, they should consult the individual students on their preferred brands of hardware and software. Despite its contribution, this study had limitations. For example the study used only four perceived characteristics as the independent variables, as dictated by UTAUT. Yet there are other perceived characteristics such as perceived trial ability (Buabeng-Andoh, 2012; Rogers, 2003) and perceived risk (Azmi & Kamarulzaman, 2010) among others that could have been considered. Future studies should integrate more of these independent variables. Like the majority of studies on the use of innovations such as ICT, the data in the study were collected by a field survey with positivistic research assumptions, thus ignoring qualitative methods. Yet as Korpelainen (2011) advises, “such research could gain more if a plurality of research perspectives were effectively employed…. for example, if researchers go into research situations with open questions instead of testing theories, they may have opportunities to identify new topics coming out of the data” (p. 29). In other words, future studies could incorporate qualitative methods of observation and interviewing in their designs. The above shortcomings notwithstanding, the study has contributed to the ongoing debate on factors related to the use of innovations in general, and the use of ICT in particular. References Andersen, E. S., & Gottschalk, P. (2001). Information technology management. Oslo, Norway: Scandinavian University Press. Awa, H. O., Ukoha, O., & Emecheta, B.C. (2012). Integrating TAM and TOE frameworks and expanding their characteristic constructs for e-commerce adoption by SMEs. Proceedings of Informing Science & IT Education Conference (InSITE), 2012, pp. 571-588. Azam, M. S., & Quaddus, M. (2009). Adoption of e-commerce by SMEs in Bangladesh: Effects of innovation characteristics and perceived risk. ANZMAC 2009. Retrieved from: http://www. duplication.net.an/ ANZMAC09/ papers/ ANZMAC 2009-617.pdf. Azmi, A. A. C., & Kamarulzaman, Y. (2010). Adoption of tax e-filing: Conceptual paper. African Journal of Business Management, 4 (5), 599 - 603. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K. (2011a). Individual characteristics as correlates of use of ICT in Makerere    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

15

University. International Journal of Computing and ICT Research, 5 (2), 38 - 45. Retrieved from: http://www. Ijcir.org/ volume5 – number2/ article4. pdf. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K. (2011b). Perceived characteristics as correlates of use of ICT in Makerere University. Journal of Sociology and Education in Africa, 10 (1), 1 - 14. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K. (2012a). Does use of ICT relate with the way it is perceived? Evidence from Makerere University. International Journal of Computing and ICT Research, 6 (2), 75-94. Retrieved from: http://www.ijcir.org/volume6-number2/ article7.pdf Bakkabulindi, F. E. K. (2012b). How do organisational characteristics relate with use of knowledge management systems? Makerere Journal of Higher Education, 4 (1), 71-81. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K., Osunsan, K. O., Kazibwe, S., Samanya, B., & Mabonga, E. (2010). Use of computers by doctoral students in Kampala International University as a function of perception. Journal of Educational Review, 3 (4), 461-467. Retrieved from: http://www. Serialspublications. Com/ contentnormal. Asp? jid =472& jtype =1. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K., & Oyebade, S. (2011). Organizational characteristics and use of personal computer software by graduate students in Makerere University. Journal of US-China Education Review, A3, 331 - 338. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K., & Sekabembe, B. (2010). Age, gender and organisational culture as correlates of use of knowledge management systems in Makerere University, in: Tatnal, A., Kereteletswe, O. C., & Visscher, A. (Eds.), Information Technology and Managing Quality Education. Boston, US: Springer (pp. 30-42). Retrieved from: http://www. springerlink.com/ content/ k26g078024jv2502. Bakkabulindi, F. E. K., & Ssempebwa, J. (2011). Readiness for knowledge creation and sharing in the “University of the Future” by Masters Students in the College of Education and External Studies of Makerere University. Journal of Educational Review, 4 (4), 521 - 529. Retrived from: http://www. Serialspublications. Com/ contentnormal. asp?jid =472& jtype =1. Billon, M., Macro, R., & Lera-Lopez, F. (2009). Disparities in ICT adoption: Multidimensional approach to study cross-country digital divide. Telecommunications Policy, 33, 596 – 610. doi: 10.1016/ j.telpol. 2009. 08. 006 Buabeng-Andoh, C. (2012). Factors influencing teachers’ adoption and integration if ICT with teaching: Review of literature. International Journal of Educational Development using ICT, 8 (1), 136 - 155. Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly, 13 (3), 319 - 340. Drent, M., & Meelissen, M. (2008). Which factors obstruct or stimulate teacher educators to use ICT innovatively? Computers & Education, 51, 187 – 199. doi: 10.1016/ j.compedu. 2007. 05. 01 El-Gayar, O., Moran, M., & Hawkes, M. (2011). Students’ acceptable of tablet PCs and implications for educational institutions. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (2), 58 – 70. Fishbein, M., & Azjen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intentions and behaviour: Introduction to theory and research. Boston, US: Addison-Wesley. Foster, J. J. (1998). Data analysis using SPSS for Windows. London, UK: Sage. Garcia-Valcarcel, A., & Tejedor, F. J. (2009). Training demands of lecturers related to use of ICT. Procedia: Social and Behavioural Sciences, 1, 178 - 183. doi: 10.1016/ j.sbspro. 2009. 01. 033 Gay, L. R., & Airasian, P. (2003). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and application. New Jersey, US: Merrill/ Prentice-Hall.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

16

Gupta, B., Dasgupta, S., & Gupta, A. (2008). Adoption of ICT in a government organisation in a developing country: Empirical study. Strategic Information Systems, 17, 140 - 154. Higgs, M., & Rowland, D. (2011). What does it take to implement change successfully? Study of behaviours of successful change leaders. Journal of Applied Behavioural Science, 47 (3), 309-335. doi: 10.1177/ 0021886311404556 Huang, W. D., Hood, D. W., & Yoo, S. J. (2013). Gender divide and acceptance of collaborative Web 2.0 applications for learning in higher education. Internet and Higher Education, 16, 57 - 65. doi: 10.1016/ j.iheduc. 2012. 02. 001 Hung, S., Hung, W., Tsai, C., & Jiang, S. (2010). Critical factors of hospital adoption on CRM system: Organisational and information system perspectives. Decision Support Systems, 48, 592 - 603. doi: 10.1016/ j.dss. 2009. 11. 009 Kelleher, T., & Sweetser, K. (2012). Social media adoption among university commentators. Journal of Public Relations Research, 24 (2), 105 - 122. doi: 10.1080/ 1062726x. 2012. 626130 Korpelainen, E. (2011). Theories of ICT system implementation and adoption: A critical review. Working paper 2011, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, School of Science, Aalto University, Helsinki, Finland. Krejcie, R. V., & Morgan, D. W. (1970). Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30, 607 - 610. Lee, B., Yoon, J., & Lee, I. (2009). Learners’ acceptance of e-learning in South Korea: Theories and results. Computers & Education, 53, 1320 - 1329. doi: 10.1016/ j.compedu. 2009. 06. 014 Lule, I., Omwansa, T. K., & Waema, T. M. (2012). Application of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) to m-banking adoption in Kenya. International Journal of Computing and ICT Research, 6 (1), 31 – 43. Magro, M. J. (2012). A review of social media use in e-government. Administrative Sciences, 2, 148-161. Retrieved from: www.mdpi.com/ journal/ admsci Makerere University. (2001). ICT policy and master plan, 2001 - 2004. Kampala, Uganda: ICT Implementation Committee. Mamdani calls for reforms in Makerere. (2012, July 2). Daily Monitor, pp. 2, 4, 42. Mullins, L. J. (2010). Management and organizational behavior. London, UK: Pitman. Musisi, B. N., & Muwanga, K. N. (2003). Makerere University in transition, 1993 – 2003: Opportunities and challenges. Kampala, Uganda: Fountain & Oxford, UK: James Currey. Nov, O., & Ye, C. (2009). Resistance to change and adoption of digital libraries: Integrative model. Journal of American Society for Information Science and Technology, 60 (8), 1702 – 1708. Putzer, G. J., & Park, Z. (2010). Effects of innovation factors on smartphone adoption by nurses in community hospitals. Perspectives in a Health Information Management, Winter. Retrieved from: http://www. Perspectives. ahima.org/ index. Php? Rogers, E. M. (2003). Diffusion of innovations (5th Ed.). New York, US: Free Press. Sato, R. C., & Zouain, D. M. (2012). Factor analysis for adoption of nuclear technology in diagnosis and treatment of chronic diseases. Einstein, 10 (1), 62 – 63. Selim, H. M. (2007). Critical success factors for e-learning acceptance: Confirmatory factor models. Computers & Education, 49, 396 – 413. Travica, B. (2008). Influence of information culture on adoption of a self-service system. Journal of Information, Information Technology and organization, 3. Retrieved from: jiito.org/ articles/ JIITOv3p001 – 015Travica470. Pdf.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

17

Tusubira, F. F., Mulira, N. K. Kahiigi, E. K., & Kivunike, F. N. (2008). Transforming institutions through information and communication technology: The Makerere University experience. Kampala, Uganda: Directorate of ICT Support, Makerere University. Tyagi, S. (2012). Adoption of Web 2.0 technology in Higher Education: A case study of Universities in National Capital Region, India. International Journal of Education and Development using Information and Communication Technology, 8 (2), 28-43. Veletsianos, G., & Kimmons, R. (2013). Scholars and faculty members’ lived experiences in online networks. Internet and Higher Education, 16, 43-50. Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27 (3), 425 – 478. Williams, M. D., Rana, N. P., Dwivedi, Y. K., & Lal, B. (2011). Is UTAUT really used or just cited for the sake of it? Systematic review of citations of UTAUT’s originating article. Proceedings of ECIS (Paper 231). Retrieved from: aislel. aisnet. org/ ecis2011/ 231. Zafiropoulos, K., Karavasilis, I., & Vrana, V. (2012). Assessing the adoption of e-government services by teachers in Greece. Future Internet, 4, 528 – 544. Retrieved from: www.mdpi.com/journal/futureinternet. doi: 10. 3390/ fi4020528

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

18

Relationship between the Curriculum and Attributes of Nigerian Faculty of Education Graduates towards Teaching in Kwara State, Nigeria David Jimoh Kayode; Nurahimah BtMohd Yusoff; & Arsaythamby Veloo5

University education in Nigeria has been recognized for its role in pertinent workforce training for the benefit of learners and the community. However, the role of university education in stimulating national economic growth and transformation exacerbates the need to ensure quality within the universities system. The quality and focus of the training offered by the Nigerian universities are not in tune with the needs of society which leads to high unemployment. Soludo (2012) stresses that the problem of unemployment in Nigeria is not because there are no jobs but because there are no competent graduates to do the jobs. This study examines the influence of faculty of education curriculum on the attributes of graduates produced. 12 public and private secondary schools in Kwara State were selected for this study. A total of 100 graduates of education teaching in secondary schools and 100 management members including heads of departments, vice principals and principals were selected for the study. The findings of the study show that the curriculum has a great influence on the quality of teachers produced in faculties of education in Nigerian higher education. Frequent review of teachers training curriculum was recommended. Keywords: Curriculum, Faculty of Education, Graduates, Nigeria University education in Nigeria has been recognized for its role in pertinent workforce training for the benefit of learners and the community (Agabi, Obasi, & Ohia, 2012; FRN, 2004). Currently, school systems around the world are focusing on students’ achievement, empowering school leaders along with the curriculum and accountability frameworks (Gamage, Adams, & McCormack, 2009). The enormous pressure to become accountable and responding to customers’ needs, calls for university institutions to become more effective, efficient and customer centric in their activities (Sahney, 2011; Sahney, Banwet, & Karunes, 2008). The role of University education in stimulating national economic growth and transformation exacerbates the need to ensure quality within the Universities system (Ebuara, 2012; Kim, 2009; Ndiyo, 2007; Ololube, Amaele, Kpolovie, Onyekwere, & Elechi, 2012). According to Okojie (2013), the quality and focus of the training offered by Nigerian universities are not in tune with the needs of the society which has led to high unemployment. According to the executive secretary of National University Commission (NUC) in Nigeria, many of the graduates are perceived to lack the skills needed by the employers of labour. In a study conducted by National Youth Service Corps (NYSC), it was revealed that large portion of the youth corps cannot write a good application letter or effectively communicate in the English language. This warrant the statement said by NYSC coordinator of Kano state, Mr. Sanusi AbdulRasheed to the passing out corps members that they should go and obtain primary and                                                             

5

Department of Educational Studies, School of Education and Modern Languages, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 06010 Sintok, Malaysia.Corresponding e-mail: [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

19

secondary text books in order to learn the fundamentals of writing good application letters (Kawu, 2013). This has abrogated the assumption of University education that is important and basically an industry instituted to produce a quality workforce for national development (Arong & Ogbadu, 2010; Nkang, 2012; Puffer, 2005). Etymologically, the term curriculum sprung from the latin word “Currere” which denotes a racecourse or a runway on which one runs to accomplish a goal (Yarriswamy, 2010). Every institution of learning has pre-determined goals to achieve through the teaching and learning process within and outside the classroom and to facilitate this process, we need a means which in educational terms is called curriculum. The curriculum according to Tyler (1949, 2010), is defined as all learning experiences which a learner is exposeed to under the supervision of the lecturers. Therefore, the curriculum is a means by which lecturers realise their ideals or objectives in the classroom.Traditionally, curriculum meant to train the diverse abilities or faculties of the mind, with the help of discrete subjects included in it. This was very narrow in its approach because the courses were subject dominated, which had to be mastered by the student. However, the modern concept of curriculum is much broader both in its approach to the content of knowledge and also with regard to the needs and abilities of the learner as well as the changing needs of the society. Curriculum for any course of study must consist of some fundamentals of the subjects which are basic without which the higher details cannot be understood properly; these fundamentals are called the core curriculum in secondary school and foundational courses in higher education. Issues of quality have drawn the attention of all nations in the world through the process of popularization of university education. China for instance has taken measures to solve the problems of quality in their higher education by launching the construction and assessment of National Pilot Curriculum (NPC). In Nigeria, concentration on curricular and pedagogy innovation is poor (Ogbogu, 2013). This is evident in the high dropout rate of students from universities as well as the poor quality of university graduates. Dabalen, Oni, and Adekola (2001) affirm that there is high increase of poorly trained university graduates and these deficiencies are in terms of written and oral communication as well as in practical technical expertise. They observe that the provision of education services is not market responsive and admission policies are not related to labour demand requirements. In developed countries, institutions adapt to the problem of labour market mismatch by forming knowledge alliances with different institutes that create knowledge in the country. In addition to this, the government launches additional vibrant labour market communication schemes that are connected to universities’ professional guidance and better participation of private sector in curriculum discussion, lecturers’ attachment, and research financing as well as student employment. In Kpee, Oluwuo, and Baridam (2012), Nigerian universities curriculum are expected to have local content by stressing local values and home based cultural assets while accommodating and absorbing the Global Knowledge Economy (GKE) and technology (without adulterating the local content) to produce and support the development of the community and individuals as balanced local citizens. However, if the result of such curriculum is being put in place; it will make a university to develop a local person with an international outlook. According to Kpee et al. (2012), it is projected that the relevant curriculum for Nigerian universities should be one that develops the students' intelligence to be in tune with the unique self, local and global environment. That is, the university curriculum should be able to develop students to be abreast with social, economic, cultural, political and technological needs of the world as a whole and the country in particular. As maintained by Cheng (2000, 2005), relevant curriculum must aim for the future and provide unlimited opportunities for students’ learning. This is what Cheng refers to as the “triplication of education” which is: individualization, localization and globalization. However, Uche and Kpe (2007), observe that most Nigerian universities professors are disconnected scholars making white elephant collar curricula used in several faculties and colleges which turns out of white elephant graduates whose qualifications cannot be defended in the labour market. According to Philip (2008), employability is a    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

20

curriculum issue and there are various ways of fostering employability through the curriculum. Some will fit some system and circumstances better than the others but the best approach is the one that is best in content. According to Philip, effective learning and employability intentions need to be supported by teaching, learning and assessment techniques that are consistent with the intentions of the curricula. (Aggarwal-Gupta & Vohra, 2010). Purpose of the study The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between faculty of education curriculum and the attributes of graduates being produced. Specifically, the study intended to find out the perceptions of secondary school teachers in Kwara state on the curriculum of faculty of education. To examine the perceptions of HODs, vice principals and principals on the attribute of graduates being produced by teacher training schools; and study the relationship between teacher training curriculum and attributes of faculty of education graduates Research Questions 1. What are the perceptions of the faculty of education graduates about the curriculum of Nigerian universities? 2. What are the perceptions of employers of teachers on the attributes of faculty of education graduates teaching in Kwara State? 3. To what extent does curriculum in Nigerian universities influence graduate attributes? Research Hypotheses H1: The curriculum of faculties of education in Nigerian universities has a positive relationship to the basic skills and understanding of their graduates H2: The curriculum of faculties of education in Nigerian universities has a positive influence on the knowledge and intellectual ability of their graduates H3: The curriculum of faculties of education in Nigerian universities has a positive influence on the workplace skills and applied knowledge of their graduates H4: The curriculum of faculties of education in Nigerian universities has a positive influence on the personal and interactive skills of their graduates Methodology This study adopted a quantitative survey research design to examine the relationship between faculty of education curriculum and graduate attributes of secondary schools in Kwara State. Two sets of questionnaires titled University Curriculum Questionnaire (UCQ) and Graduate Attribute Inventory (GAI), were adapted from Jenkins (2012) and Griesel and Parker (2009) respectively to gather information from faculty of education graduates teaching in secondary schools in Kwara State and their HODs, Vice principals as well as their principals. The UCQ were given to the teachers while the GAI were administered to the HODs, VP and the principals to assess the teachers that were given a copy of the UCQ in the selected secondary schools. The two instruments were standardized instrument with Cronbach alpha value that ranges from 0.69 to 0. 88. However, face and content validity were carried out. Four copies of both instruments were given to experts in curriculum as well as measurement and evaluation to assess the suitability of the instrument as it usability in Nigeria context and some copies were later given to teachers, HODs, VPs and principals who were not part of the selected sample for the study. They were asked to go through the items and identify any ambiguous words in the instrument and final corrected copies were later administered. Independent Variable

 

Dependent Variable Basic skills and understanding (BSU) H2

 Knowledge and intellectual ability (KIA)

  Workplace skills and applied knowledge

CURRICULUM 

 (WSAK)

Fig. 1: Conceptual Framework

 

   

Personal and interactive skills

GRADUATE ATTRIBUTES

(PIS) 

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

21

Data Analysis Statistical Packages for Social Science (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyse research questions 1 and 2 while SmartPLS 2.0 (M3) was applied to test the hypotheses that were formulated. The SPSS was used to analyze the perceptions of faculty of education graduates about the university curriculum while the HODs, principals and employers perception about the attributes of faculty of education graduate was also analyzed using descriptive statistics. The smartPLS was also used to gather information on the pattern of relationship between the variables. Findings Construct validity and reliability was ensured through internal consistency reliability, convergent validity and discriminant validity. This was revealed in Table 1 to Table 3. The AVE which according to Hair Jr, Hult, Ringle, and Sarstedt (2014) should be 0.5, meet the criteria as all the AVEs are within the range 0.54 and 0.70. The composite reliability as well as the Cronbach Alpha was between the range 0.89 and 0.97 which are greater than the recommended value of 0.7. Therefore, the instrument are said to be valid and reliable. Table 1 Result of reliability test

BSU CURRICULUM KIA PIS WSAK

Loadings 0.781-0.905 0.739-0.860 0.760-0.877 0.716-0.888 0.879-0.954

Table 2 Discriminant validity (Latent Variable Correlation) BSU CURRICULUM 1 BSU 0.6688 1 CURRICULUM 0.8871 0.6651 GA 0.8477 0.6495 KIA 0.7081 0.5622 PIS 0.7141 0.5684 WSAK

Cronbachs Alpha 0.8957 0.8969 0.8900 0.8505 0.9191

R Square 0.8969 0 0.8837 0.8211 0.8548

GA

KIA

PIS

1 0.9671 0.926 0.8918

1 0.9115 0.7818

1 0.7805

Table 3 Component-based factor loadings (Bolded) and Cross Loadings BSU CURRICULUM KIA BSU1 0.781 0.479 0.607 BSU2 0.884 0.615 0.776 BSU3 0.905 0.647 0.797 BSU7 0.796 0.496 0.657 CUR10 0.652 0.847 0.612 CUR11 0.405 0.739 0.387 CUR4 0.523 0.817 0.585 CUR6 0.625 0.860 0.593 CUR9 0.443 0.754 0.390 KIA1 0.743 0.524 0.807 KIA2 0.740 0.425 0.760 KIA3 0.591 0.523 0.855 KIA5 0.694 0.602 0.864 KIA7 0.780 0.614 0.877 PIS1 0.615 0.451 0.783 PIS2 0.647 0.359 0.709 PIS3 0.510 0.501 0.742 PIS5 0.602 0.545 0.797 WSAK1 0.610 0.583 0.758 WSAK2 0.558 0.425 0.563 WSAK3 0.645 0.524 0.737 WSAK4 0.733 0.493 0.731

PIS 0.495 0.622 0.684 0.548 0.517 0.337 0.531 0.497 0.351 0.671 0.654 0.852 0.773 0.823 0.842 0.716 0.888 0.869 0.796 0.554 0.761 0.680

   

WSAK 0.543 0.552 0.651 0.660 0.442 0.515 0.462 0.508 0.374 0.528 0.514 0.713 0.703 0.775 0.609 0.497 0.747 0.731 0.902 0.879 0.954 0.852

WSAK

1

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

22

Results Research Question 1 What are the perceptions of the faculty of education graduates about the curriculum of Nigerian universities? Table 4 Graduates’ perception about faculty of education curriculum in Nigerian universities Minimum S/N Statement N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

The present curricular reflect what the students will come across after graduation The curriculum is well designed and up to date The curriculum integrates subject matter and high thinking skills The curriculum content are situated in real world tasks The curriculum is designed based on a variety of research The curriculum is relevant to graduates seeking additional education in the same area. The curriculum is relevant to graduates seeking employment. The curriculum is relevant to graduates working in the field. The curriculum is likely to enhance a high program graduation rate. The curriculum is likely to lead to a high quality of instruction within the program. The curriculum is likely to lead to a high quality assessment within the program.

Maximum

Mean

Std. Deviation

132

1

6

4.54

1.21

132 132

1 1

6 6

4.48 4.52

1.26 1.14

132

1

6

4.27

1.28

132

1

6

4.47

1.07

132

1

6

4.15

1.30

132

1

6

4.20

1.22

132

1

6

4.64

1.17

132

2

6

3.94

0.89

132

1

6

4.57

1.06

132

1

6

4.33

1.15

From Table 4, it is seen that the faculty of education graduates perceived their universities curriculum to be helpful when seeking additional qualification, relevant to graduate seeking employment or graduate working in the field. The graduate teachers also perceived the faculty of education curriculum to be well designed and up to date; and it also reflects what the students will come across after graduation. The mean score of various items as shown in Table 4 are within the range 3.95 and 4.64. Research Question 2 What are the perceptions of employers of teachers on the attributes of faculty of education graduates teaching in Kwara State? In order to answer research question 2 raised in this study, faculty of education attributes were expressed in four major components: basic skills and understanding; knowledge and intellectual ability; workplace skills and applied knowledge; and personnel and interactive skills. These are illustrated in tables 5-8. Table 5 Employers’ perception of basic skills and understanding possessed by faculty of education graduate in Kwara State S/N Statement N Minimum Maximum Mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Proficiency in English Written communication skills Oral communication skills Understanding the world of work Technical ability Computer literacy Ability to find and access information

132 132 132 132 132 132 132

1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 1.00

6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00

4.53 4.89 4.83 4.27 4.61 4.25 4.52

Std. Deviation 1.11 1.06 1.16 1.35 1.16 1.39 1.09

As shown in Table 5, it is evidence that faculty of education graduates possess good written and oral communication skills; have the ability to find and access information; have technical ability    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

23

and they were computer literate. This shows that faculty of education graduate teaching in kwara state secondary schools have the basic skills and understanding required of their job. Table 6 Employers’ perception of knowledge and intellectual ability of faculty of education graduate in Kwara State S/N Statement N Minimum Maximum Rapid conceptualization of issues 132 1.00 6.00 1 Ability to follow and construct logical 132 2.00 6.00 2 argument Understanding of core principles 132 2.00 6.00 3 General knowledge about local affairs 132 1.00 6.00 4 General knowledge about global affairs 132 2.00 6.00 5 Subject/discipline knowledge 132 2.00 6.00 6 Interest in ideals and desire to continue 132 2.00 6.00 7 learning

Mean 4.85 4.67

Std. Deviation 1.11 1.00

4.52 4.79 4.44 4.84 4.89

1.08 1.05 1.13 1.18 1.21

The result in Table 6 indicate that faculty of education graduate teaching in Kwara State secondary schools possess the knowledge and intellectual ability needed in their job. These were judged by their employers, principals, vice principals and head of departments. The result shows that the faculty of education graduate teaching in Kwara State has the ability to follow and construct logical argument, have a rapid conceptualization of issues, possess general knowledge about local and global affairs, as well as having their various subject/discipline knowledge. It is also very interesting to note that the teachers have interest in ideals and desire to continue learning. Table 7 Employers’ perception of workplace skills and applied knowledge possessed by faculty of education graduates in Kwara State S/N Statement N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Understanding of changing workplace practice 132 1.00 6.00 4.18 1.32 1 Ability to recognize a problem situation 132 2.00 6.00 4.59 1.27 2 Ability to choose appropriate information to address problems 132 2.00 6.00 4.39 1.39 3 4

An appropriate approach to problem solving

132

3.00

6.00

4.55

1.06

As shown in Table 7, it is evident that faculty of education working in Kwara state secondary schools possess the workplace skills and applied knowledge needed by the schools. The result shows that the teachers understand the changing workplace practice, have the ability to recognize problem situations, have the ability to choose appropriate information to address problems as well as using appropriate approaches to problem solving. Table 8 Employers’ perception of personnel and interactive skills possessed by faculty of education graduate in Kwara State S/N Statement N Minimum Maximum Mean Std.Dev. Sense of identity and self- confidence 132 1 6 4.77 1.19 1 Negotiation and mediation skills 132 2 6 4.59 1.06 2 Contribution to team building and work 132 2 6 4.41 1.10 3 Ability to relate to a wide range of people 132 3 6 4.98 0.87 4 Appreciation of different cultural contexts 132 2 6 4.48 1.14 5 Openness and flexibility 132 2 6 4.82 1.22 6

It is evident from table 8 that faculty of education graduates teaching in Kwara State secondary schools possess the personal and interactive skills needed by the secondary schools. This was revealed in the mean score of the six items listed to measure personnel and interactive skills. Their mean score was between 4.41 - 4.98. Research Question 3 To what extent does curriculum in Nigerian universities influence graduate attributes?    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905. Table 9 Path coefficients and hypothesis testing Hypotheses Relationship CURRICULUM -> BSU H1 CURRICULUM -> KIA H2 CURRICULUM -> PIS H3 CURRICULUM -> WSAK H4

Coefficient 0.6703 0.6522 0.5657 0.5706

t-value 11.178 11.2157 8.432 9.4204

24

Decision Supported Supported Supported Supported

Discussion This study explored the influence of curriculum on graduate attributes. The findings of the study imply that curriculum has a positive and significant relationship with the attributes of faculty of education graduates. This research work has three significant contributions to the body of knowledge. Firstly, it highlights the relevancy of faculty of education curriculum to graduate of education teaching in secondary schools. Secondly, the study reveals the attributes of faculty of education graduates teaching in secondary schools. Thirdly, the study helps to reveal how related is the current faculty of education curriculum to graduate attributes. Three research questions were raised in this study. The first research question explored the perceptions of the graduate on the faculty of education curriculum. It was revealed that graduates working in their field of study (Education) perceive the curriculum in school to be effective and up to date. This is in line with Gwany (2007) who stated that the program and curricula of higher education are designed to produce high level manpower for the labour markets in an economy. The second research question examined the attributes of faculty of education graduates. It was revealed that the faculty of education graduates teaching in Kwara state secondary schools possess the basic skills and understanding; have the knowledge and intellectual abilities; possesses workplace skills and applied knowledge; and have the personnel and interactive skills needed in secondary schools. The result of these findings was contrary to Okojie (2013), Dabalen et al., (2001) and Okebukola (2005). This may be because, the research of Okojie (2013) was on higher education but this study only focuses on faculty of education graduates that pass through the university system. It may also be because other teachers that do not pass through faculty of education were involved in previous research. Therefore, appointment of teachers who are not trained by faculty of education may be a contributary factor to poor teachers attributes as observed in previous studies. The result of the study supports the motion that graduates’ perception of faculty of education curriculum is positively and significantly related to graduate attributes as perceived by managers, HODs and employers of teachers in Kwara state secondary schools. From the statistical results, it is shown that there is a positive and significant relationship between faculty of education curriculum and attributes of faculty of education graduates (β=.529, p˂0.01). The findings further demonstrated that the curriculum as a construct was positively and significantly related to each component of graduate attributes (basic skills and understanding; knowledge and intellectual skills; workplace skills and applied knowledge; and personal and interactive skills). Four operational alternate hypotheses were tested. The first alternate hypothesis which stated that faculty of education curriculum has a positive and significant relationship on the basic skills and understanding of its graduate was supported (β=.562, p˂0.01). The second alternate hypothesis which stated that faculty of education curriculum has a positive and significant relationship on graduate knowledge and intellectual ability was also supported (β=.507, p˂0.01). The third alternate hypothesis which stated that faculty of education curriculum has a positive and significant relation on graduate workplace skills and applied knowledge (β=.474, p˂0.01). The fourth alternative hypothesis which stated that the curriculum of faculty of education has a positive and significant relationship on the personal and interactive skills of its graduate was supported (β=.458, p˂0.01).

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

25

Conclusion and Recommendations There is no doubt that the faculty of education curriculum (development, design and implementation) with other factors determines the quality of graduates. Therefore, the curriculum of the university system most especially that of the faculty of education; should not be compromised. As shown in this study, it becomes pertinent that employers of teachers to secondary schools by both private and public enterprise should always take into consideration the professional qualification of candidates as these will affect their job performances.This study focuses on faculty of education graduates and therefore, it is suggested that further study should be conducted to focus on other disciples with respect to the institutional type, as this will help the educational administrators, policy makers and stakeholders to identify areas of concern in the educational system with regards to quality of graduates References Agabi, O., Obasi, K., & Ohia, A. (2012). Academic program development and the participation of relevant interest groups for quality manpower production in Nigeria higher education. World Journal of Education, 2(3), p. 87. Aggarwal-Gupta, M., & Vohra, N. (2010). Measuring Effectiveness of Schools in India: A Multiple Stakeholder Framework. e-Journal of Organizational Learning and Leadership all, 8(2), 113. Arong, F., & Ogbadu, M. (2010). Major causes of declining quality of education in Nigeria from administrative perspective: A case study of Dekina local government area. Canadian Social Science, 6(3), 183-198. Cheng, Y. C. (2000). A CMI-triplization paradigm for reforming education in the new millennium. International Journal of Educational Management, 14(4), 156-174. Cheng, Y. C. (2005). New paradigm for re-engineering education: Globalization, localization and individualization (Vol. 6): Springer. Dabalen, A., Oni, B., & Adekola, O. A. (2001). Labor market prospects for university graduates in Nigeria. Higher Education Policy, 14(2), 141-159. Ebuara, V. O. (2012). Quality Control Measures and Sustainable Development in Higher Education System in Cross River State, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 3(7), 81-95. FRN. (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos. Gamage, D., Adams, D., & McCormack, A. (2009). How does a school leader’s role influence student achievements? A review of research findings and best practices. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 4(1), 1-15. Griesel, H., & Parker, B. (2009). Graduate attributes: A baseline study on South African graduates from the perspective of employers: Higher Education South Africa & The South African Qualifications Authority Gwany, D. M. (2007). Issues in the Nigerian Higher Education system. In A. A. N. Fajonyomi, I. A. (Ed.), Reforms in higher education in Nigeria (pp. 25-43). Maiduguri: Faculty of Education, University of Maiduguri. Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2014). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Washington DC: SAGE Publications, Incorporated. Jenkins, M. D. (2012). The Effects of State System Wide Curriculum on Retention, Graduation, Employment, and Faculty Beliefs in a Large, Urban Institution of Higher Education. (3518167 Ph.D.), Cardinal Stritch University, Ann Arbor. Retrieved from http://eserv.uum.edu.my/docview/1033339650?accountid=42599 ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text database.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

26

Kawu, I. h. M. (2013, October 17). When 89% of corps members cannot write a letter, Vanguard. Retrieved from http://www.vanguardngr.com/2013/10/when-89-of-corps-members-cannotwrite-a-letter/ Kim, S.-U. (2009). Three essays on economic growth, education, and human capital. (3377148 Ph.D.), Brown University, United States -- Rhode Island. Retrieved from http://eserv.uum.edu.my/docview/304841640?accountid=42599 ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Full Text database. Kpee, G. G., Oluwuo, S. O., & Baridam, D. (2012). Academic renewal and relevance in south-south Nigerian universities: Curriculum prospects and challenges. Global Voice of Educators, 1(1), 1-8. Ndiyo, N. A. (2007). A dynamic analysis of education and economic growth in Nigeria. The Journal of Developing Areas, 41(1), 1-16. Nkang, I. E. (2012). Challenges of globalization and quality assurance in Nigerian university education. International Education Studies, 6(1), p207. Ogbogu, C. O. (2013). Policy issues in the administration of higher education in Nigeria. World Journal of Education, 3(1), p32. Okebukola, P. (2005). Quality assurance in teacher education. Ilorin: Committee of Deans of Education of Nigerian Universities. Okojie, J. (2013). Why Nigerian graduates are not employable. Punch newspaper. http://www.punchng.com/news/why-nigerian-graduates-are-not-employable-okojie/ Ololube, N. P., Amaele, S., Kpolovie, P. J., Onyekwere, L. A., & Elechi, G. E. (2012). Quality higher education for improved knowledge essential for national and regional development. International Journal of Education Economics and Development, 3(2), 179-204. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJEED.2012.047109 Puffer, G. R. (2005). Graduates, employers and the academy [electronic resource]: perceptions of the quality and utility of external degrees over twenty five years/by Glenn Robert Puffer. Montana State University-Bozeman, College of Education, Health & Human Development. Sahney, S. (2011). Delighting customers of management education in India: a student perspective, part II. The TQM Journal, 23(5), 531-548. Sahney, S., Banwet, D., & Karunes, S. (2008). An integrated framework of indices for quality management in education: a faculty perspective. The TQM Journal, 20(5), 502-519. Soludo, C. C. (2012). The university, citizenship and national development in Nigeria . A founder's day lecture delivered at American University of Nigeria (AUN), Yola. The Eagle online. http://theeagleonline.com.ng/news/the-university-citizenship-and-national-development-innigeria-by-chukwuma-charles-soludo/ Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instructionUniversity of Chicago Press. IIIinois, USA. Tyler, R. W. (2010). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction: University of Chicago press. Uche, C., & Kpe, G. (2007). The labour market and skill oriented graduates in Port Harcourt City, Rivers State. Journal of Educational Administration and Planning, 7(2), 133-142. Yarriswamy, M. C. (2010). Curriculum design/transaction for quality teacher education. In A. K. Natesan, B. A. Jahitha & S. Sridevi (Eds.), Quality concerns in teacher education (pp. 100113). New Delhi: A.P.H. Publishing Corporation.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

27

Accreditation of University Undergraduate Programs in Nigeria from 2001–2012: Implications for Graduates Employability Dada, M.S. & Hauwa Imam (PhD)6

This study analysed accreditation exercises of universities undergraduate programs in Nigeria from 2001 – 2013. Accreditation is a quality assurance mechanism to ensure that undergraduate programs offered in Nigeria satisfies benchmark minimum academic standards for producing graduates with requisite skills for employability. The study adopted the ex post facto design. The population for the study comprised 27 federal universities in Nigeria. Data for the study came from the accreditation results of universities of programs taught in Nigerian universities. Findings revealed that records of accreditation report indicated that from 2001 to 2013 accreditation exercises of universities’ undergraduate academic programs were not regular. Undergraduate academic programs in specialized universities were even more grossly under accredited. It was recommended that the NUC should embark on regular accreditation of universities undergraduate programs to assuage the concerns of the general public and employers that academic programs offered in the universities satisfy Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) for graduate employability. Key Words: Accreditation, Universities, Programs, graduate, Employability. University education in Nigeria began with the setting up of the University College of Ibadan (UCI) in 1948. The establishment of the university was based on the recommendation of the Elliot Commission’s report of 1943. (Ajayi & Haastrup, 2008). In 1959, the federal government set up the Ashby Commission to among other things, advise on the education needs of the country for its first two decades after independence in respect of higher education. The Commission’s recommendation led to the establishment of four universities and a university coordinating agency in Nigeria (Fafunwa, 1995). The agency was to have undisputed control over the affairs of the multi-universities with specific reference to finance, staff, and courses offered at the universities (Fafunwa, 1995). This was a land mark achievement in the development of university education in Nigeria. The number of universities in Nigeria has increased to 103 as of 2014. In order to ensure that quality was not compromised for quantity in university education, the federal government promulgated Decree No. 16 in 1985, NUC amended Decree 49 of 1988, and establish the National Minimum Standards and Establishment of Institutions’ Act of 1993, empowering the NUC to lay down Minimum Academic Standards (MAS) and to conduct accreditation for all undergraduate programs in Nigeria for quality assurance (FGN, 1995).

                                                             6

University of Abuja, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Management [email protected]; [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

28

Concept of Quality Assurance in University Education- a Factor for Graduates’ Employability Quality assurance is a system which includes all policies, procedures, processes and actions intended to lead to the achievement, maintenance, monitoring and enhancement of quality through inspection or testing of samples (Rami & John, 2008). It comprises planned activities and actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a program, service or product satisfies given requirements for quality (Olorunfemi & Ashaolu, 2010). Quality assurance helps to establish an institution’s good reputation and image by defining standards of achievements, documented procedures for all identified processes, establishing ways of responding to issues and clear accountability for outcomes (Akerele, 2008). Quality assurance of university education has to do with meeting acceptable standards as defined by quality assurance bodies or appropriate academic and professional associations so as to garner greater public confidence, more satisfied students, efficient processes and staff who are confident in their jobs (Oyebade, 2008). Quality assurance in education consists of two aspects; internal and external. The internal aspect is concerned with the implementation of the school objectives while the external aspect deals with the implementation of national objectives, which are pre-requisites to the achievement of quality in any educational institution (Oderinde, 2004). Through accreditation, the quality assurance mechanism, employers, Nigerian public and the international communities are guaranteed that university graduates have attained an acceptable level of competence in their areas of specialization and so are prepared for employment and further studies (Okebukola, 2004). Problem Statement The accreditation of undergraduate programs by the National Universities Commission is directed at ensuring that universities’ academic programs meet Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS). It entails ascertaining that universities do not over shoot their admissions’ quota and their carrying capacities, as well as observe the laid down basic entry requirements in their admissions’ exercise. Also, that academic content of programs meet specified standards for award of degrees for graduate employability. That universities achieve the academic staff mix and teacher/student ratios for all academic programs, and have adequate human resources, materials and physical facilities for the establishment of new programs (NUC, 2004). The accreditation of undergraduate programs is expected to be carried out every four years to ensure quality of university education in Nigeria. Globalization has brought about unprecedented knowledge expansion. The speed and the rate of knowledge expansion in the world today requires every society to be on their ‘toes’ to match the pace of development in the knowledge world. In order to ensure that the quality and currency of university education meet the growing and emerging demand for graduate employability, regular accreditation of academic institutions is essential to assuage pubic concerns and employers of labour, that academic programs offered at universities satisfy Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) and adequately equip graduates with basic skill required for employment. This is to ensure that the academic programs offered at Nigerian universities adequately prepare Nigerian students for employment and post graduate studies in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world. However, there are doubts about the regularity of accreditation exercises in the Nigerian university system. This has heightened public concern about the quality of university education and graduate employability for the development of Nigeria’s economy.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

29

Today graduates are subjected to all sorts of tests and pre-employment training before being offered jobs or admitted for graduate progams in many universities in Nigeria and other parts of the world. The purpose of the study is to analyse the regularity of accreditation exercises and the accreditation status of university academic programs towards enhanced graduate employability for the development of Nigerian economy. This study analyses the trends in accreditation of universities’ undergraduate programs in Nigeria from 2001 - 2013.In specific terms, the objectives of the study were to assess the regularity of NUC’s accreditation of universities’ academic programs from 2001 to 2013 in order to establish the accreditation status of selected universities from 2001 2013. It tested the premise that there is no significant difference in NUC’s regularity of accreditation of undergraduate academic programs in conventional and specialized universities. Research Questions The following research questions guided the study; 1. What was the trend in NUC’s accreditation of universities’ undergraduate programs from 2001 - 2013? 2. Are there differences in the accreditation status of academic programs in the universities? Methodology The study adopted the Ex Post Facto design. The samples of the study came from four (4) federal universities in Nigeria. The sample was selected by proportionate stratified sampling random technique. It comprised two (2) conventional and two (2) specialized universities. The four (4) universities had a total of 267 programs which constituted the subjects of study. Data on NUC’s accreditations of the selected universities’ programs from 20001-2013 were obtained from the audited records of the NUC. Three statistical techniques were employed in the data analysis; percentages, mean score and t-test. The percentages and mean were used to answer the research questions of the study and the t-test was used in the hypothesis testing. First the accreditation results were grouped, and assigned numerical values based on the likert type scale. 4 points was assigned to programs that were accredited a record of three times during the period of study. Programs with two accreditation visits were assigned 3 points, while programs with only one accreditation visit were assigned 2 points. Programs which did not receive any accreditation visits during the period of study were assigned 1 point. A mean accreditation visit of 2.50 and above was considered moderate for producing graduate employability, while below 2.50 was adjudged weak for quality graduate output for employability. Results Research Question 1 What was the trend in NUC’s accreditation of universities’ undergraduate programs from 2001 - 2013? Table 1 shows the results of the analysis of data on trends in NUC’s accreditation of universities’ undergraduate programs.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905. Table 1 Analysis of NUC’s Accreditation of Undergraduate Programs from 2001-2013. University of Nigeria, Nsukka Faculty n Mean Faculty n Mean Arts 10 2.00 Arts 13 2.23 Administration 4 2.75 Administration 6 2.66 Education 21 2.19 Education 16 2.18 Agriculture 2 2.00 Agriculture 7 1.37 Engineering 9 2.66 Engineering 7 2.14

Fed Univ of Tech, Akure Faculty n Agric. &Agri Tech 5 Eng. & Eng. Tech 6 Earth & Mineral Sci. 5 Envrn. Tech 8 Management gt Tech. 4

Mean 1.62 3.00 2.20 2.62 1.50

Science

13

2.61

Overall 82 2.35 44 Key: n=Number of programs in Faculty Source: NUC Results of Accreditation of Undergraduate Programs taught in Nigerian Universities (2001-2013).

2.23

Science Social Sc. Environmental Design Medicine Pharmaceutical Sc. Veterinary Sc. Law

12 6 10

2.25 2.83 2.20

Physical Sciences Social Science Environmental Studies

7 8 5

2.57 2.37 2.80

4 1 1 2

2.50 3.00 3.00 3.00

Medicine Pharmaceutical Sc. Veterinary Medicine Law Biological Sc. Health Science Tech. Child Dental Health

1 6 1 3 4 7 3 94

4.00 1.50 3.00 2.00 2.00 2 .14 1.00 2.13

30

Fed Univ of Tech , Minna Faculty n Agric. Tech 6 Eng. & Eng. Tech 5 Environ. Tech 11 Education 14 Natural &Applied 9 Sci.

Mea 1.3 2.8 2.0 1.9 2.3

47

2.06

The results of the data analysis in table 1 indicate a poor trend in the general NUC accreditation of undergraduate programs across the four (4) universities of the study. On average NUC did not record mean scores of up to 2.50 in program accreditation in the selected universities of study. The average mean score for the universities ranged from 2.06 to 2.35. Details of the analysis indicated that NUC recorded a mean of above 2.50 in the accreditation of professional programs such as Engineering, Medicine, and Veterinary Medicine in the conventional universities. Research Question 2 Are there differences in the accreditation status of academic programs in the selected universities? Table 2 Analysis of NUC’s Accreditation Status of Programs by university between 2009 and 2013

Type of University Conventional

N

Name of University Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria University of Nigeria, Nsukka Federal University of Tech., Akure Federal University of Tech., Minna

82 94 Specialized 44 47 Total 267 Source: NUC Results of Accreditation of Undergraduate Programs 2001-2012.

Accreditation Status of Programs Full Interim Awaiting Accreditation Accreditation Accreditation n % n % n % 14 16 2 11 43

17.14 17.02 4.54 23.49 16.1

0 3 0 8 11

0 4 0 17 4.11

68 75 42 28 213

82.9 79.79 95.45 59.57 79.77

Table 2 indicates that out of 267 programs in the four universities, only 43 programs representing 36.46% had full accreditation during the period of study. A total of 11 programs which was 4.11% had interim accreditation, and 223 were awaiting the NUC accreditation. From the records of accreditation available, many of the programs with full accreditation have been due for re-accreditation since 2010/ 2011 academic year. Further analysis indicated that in ABU, Zaria only 14 programs representing 17.10% had full accreditation    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

31

with 68 (82.90) awaiting accreditation. The University of Nigeria, Nsukka, had 16 programs representing 17.02% with full accreditation status, three programs (3.19%) had interim accreditation, and 75 programs representing 79.79% were awaiting accreditation. In the specialized universities; Federal University of Technology, Akure, had only two programs representing 4.54% with full accreditation and 42 programs (95.45%) awaiting accreditation. Finally, in the Federal University of Technology, Minna, 16 programs (23.41%) had full accreditation, while eight programs (17.02%) had interim accreditation and 28 programs representing 59.57% awaiting accreditation. There was also a significant difference in the accreditation status of undergraduate academic programs in conventional and specialized universities. Table 3 Difference in the in Accreditation of Undergraduate Programs in Conventional and Specialized Universities Type of University *Sig. (2 Tailed- Test) Decision SD T df Conventional

2.24

.73

Specialized

2.16

.95

1.10



+/_1.96

Reject the null hypothesis

*p ≤ α=.05 Source: NUC Results of Accreditation of Undergraduate Programs 2001-2012. Table 3 shows the results of the hypothesis testing the difference in accreditation status of undergraduate academic programs in conventional and specialized universities.The calculated t-value is 1.10 which was greater than the critical t-value of 1.96 (df= ∞).The implication is that a significant difference exists. The hypothesis which states that there is no significant difference in accreditation status of undergraduate academic programs in conventional and specialized universities was thus rejected. Discussion The study finds that regular accreditation visits of undergraduate programs in the universities leaves much to be desired. Quite worrisome is the fact that undergraduate programs in specialized universities were even more grossly under accredited. This finding confirmed Ayodele and Awe’s (2007) findings that NUC’s accreditations have not translated into effective teaching and learning interactions because Nigeria is a partisan state driven by quality assurance agencies imposed on universities. Furthermore its accreditation procedures fail to take cognizance of the peculiarities of different universities, neither does it engender a quality culture to enhance graduate employability. Accreditation is a quality assurance tool in university education, through which academic programs are assessed to ensure that they meet set acceptable standards (Oyebade, 2008). Accreditation is necessary to ensure an effective teaching/learning process and enhanced learning outcomes. Accreditation of programs provides a basis for public confidence on the quality of programs offered at universities. Oyebade (2008) reiterates that when university education meets acceptable standards as defined by quality assaurance bodies or appropriate academic and professional associations, it engenders public confidence, more satisfied students, efficient processes and graduates confident in their jobs, thus increasing their employability. Regular accreditation is necessary for curriculum content review; accreditation provides a basis for quality relevance in curriculum contents. Where university academic    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

32

programs are not reviewed, the university curriculum contents would be deficient in many respects, with miss-match between what universities produce and what the employers need (Oyebade’s, 2012). This appears to be the trend in the Nigerian universities. This argument was further stressed by Archibong’s (2013) who contended that the university curriculum is ‘obsolete’ and does not satisfy the needs of students. Also, that this development has led to a growing number of unemployed graduates, due to the problem of relevance of courses to which students are exposed to. It is on this premise that Adekunle, Tayo, and Olugbenro (2012), and Archibong (2013) have advocated constant review of the university curriculum to keep pace with national and global needs and to provide graduates with the training to enable them to be creative, innovative, self-employed and self-reliant. In a globally competitive knowledge economy, there is a need for continuous updating of curriculum content in order to ensure that the content taught and learnt reflects the rapidly advancing frontiers of scientific knowledge (Saint, Hartnett, & Strassner, 2003). One of the roles of universities is to produce manpower needed to drive the economy, if the curriculum contents of university academic programs are not reviewed in line with current events, the cardinal goal of university education which is producing the right calibre of manpower will not be realized. Conclusion and Recommendations Analysis of accreditation results indicated that from 2001 to 2012, accreditation visits to universities for undergraduate programs has not been good. Only few programs had full accreditation status with many programs overdue for reaccreditation. This development does not support access and quality graduate output of university to support the economic development in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world. It was recommended that; the NUC should embark on regular accreditation of university undergraduate programs to raise public confidence that courses offered in the Nigerian university satisfy Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) for graduate employability and study in Nigeria and elsewhere in the world. In this era of globalization and technology, NUC should ensure regular accreditation of academic programs in specialized universities toward ensuring currency of the curriculum contents and to ensure programs satisfy best practices in the world for employability and self reliance. In order to ensure that universities meet Benchmark Minimum Academic Standards (BMAS) especially in maintaining carrying capacity in admission quota, and availability of human and material resources for accreditation therefore, government should adequately fund universities so as to increase the carrying capacities, and upgrade infrastructural facilities to cope with the high demand for university education and graduate employability. Implications of Finding for Educational Management The regular accreditation of undergraduate programs in the Nigerian universities is key to the quality of university education and thus has serious implications for graduate employability in Nigeria. Without regular accreditation of university undergraduate programs, quality access to university education would continue to decline and universities would be producing graduates that do not meet the labour market demands for a sustainable economic growth in Nigeria and who may be ill prepared for postgraduate studies, both locally and abroad.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

33

References Archibong, I. A. (2013). Strengthening internal quality assurance for improvededucation delivery in Nigeria public universities. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences. 3 (1): 172-177. Ajayi, I. A. and Haastrup, E.T. (2008). Management of university education inNigeria: Problems and Possible Solutions. InAkpa, G.O.; Udoh, S.U. & Fagbemiye, F.A. (Eds). Deregulating the provision and management of education in Nigeria. Jos M.P. Ginac Concept Ltd: 222 -235. Akerele, W.O. (2008). Quality assurance in Nigerian’s universities system. In Akpa, G.O.; Udoh, S.U. & Fagbemiye, F.A. (Eds). Deregulating the provision and management of education in Nigeria. Jos M.P. Ginac Concept Ltd.: 84-121. Ayodele, J.B. and Awe, B. (2007). Quality assurance: an appraisal of accreditation in Nigerian universities. In Babalola, J.B.; Akpa, G.O.; Ayeni, A.O. & Adedeji, S.O. (Eds). Access, equity and quality in higher education: NAEAP: 371 – 281. Adekunle, A.A; Tayo, S.S. and Olugbenro A.O. (2012). Effective management of tertiary education and national transformation in Nigeria. In Ayeni, A.O; Emetarom, U.G; Okwori, A.O. and Okon, (Eds). Managing education for national transformation, Ibadan: Nigerian Association for Educational Planning: 197 – 209. Fafunwa, B. A. (1995). History of education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Edu. Pub. Ltd. Federal Government of Nigeria- FGN (1995) National Minimum Standards and Establishment of Institutions Act of 1993 Olorunfemi, A. I. Ashaolu, M. O. (2010).Quality assurance and engineering education development: appraisal of regulation models in Nigeria. Retrieved on 24 March, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-driven_development Okebukola, P. (2003). Issues in funding university education in Nigeria. Abuja: National Universities Commission. Oyebade, S.A. (2012). Curriculum reforms and employability of graduates of educational institutions. A lead paper presented at 2012 biennial conference of school of education Federal College of education Abekuta, Ogun State. National Universities Commission (2004). Report on the performance of the Federal University system in2002 presented at the special meeting convened by the Honourable Minister of Education on ThurStandard deviations ay, December 12. Rami, J. & John, L. (2008). Multiplicity of methods in assessment as a form of quality assurance, quality control & quality improvement. In implementing and using quality assurance: strategy and practice. A selection of papers from the 2nd European quality assurance forum. ENQA: European University Association.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

34

Effective Teaching with ICT in Nigerian Higher Institutions: A Solution to Graduates’ Unemployability Femi, Sunday Akinwumi (Ph.D) & Etomi Edwin Yemisi7

This study investigated effective teaching with the aid of ICT in Nigerian higher education institutions as a proposed solution to graduates’ unemployability. The survey method was utilized for this study. Respondents were randomly selected from students and teachers of selected higher institutions in Nigeria. The findings reveal that, even though there is availability of ICT facilities in Nigeria tertiary institutions, the use of ICT as a means of teaching is very low. The research reveals that respondents only use ICT to get information for their studies and some other activities, but not as learning aids in class. Lack of funds, inadequate ICT facilities are among the factors identified as challenges to the effective use of ICT in teaching. It was recommended that school administrators and the government should provide necessary facilities for the adequate utilization of ICT for teaching in Nigerian institutions. Key Words: Teaching, ICT, higher institutions, unemployability Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been described as a powerful tool that enables educational change and reform (Blurton, 1999). While we recognize that the use of instructional technology in higher education teaching and learning processes is still in its infancy in Nigeria, instructional use of ICT is vital to the progress and development of both faculty and students. Higher education institutions, especially those in the west, have adopted ICT as a means to impart upon students the knowledge and skills demanded by 21st century educational advancement (UNESCO, 2002). The role of ICT in the teaching and learning process is not in doubt and the impact of ICT cannot be underestimated in this 21st century. ICT plays a major role in ensuring quality education in Nigeria. It is a means whereby value is contributed to every sphere of government and the most essential part is the educational sector. The widespread availability of ICTs has led to the globalization process and continues to have a large influence on social, economic, political and cultural structures around the world. The increasing digitalization of global activities has left societies with the only option of joining the ICT mobility. It is obvious that the ICT capabilities of a nation to some extent determine its performance in all ramifications, especially in global sociopolitical activities, education, health and socio-cultural playing field of the 21st century. These technologies have been incorporated into the daily activities of the western world including, the educational sector. These same technologies have however found expression in the developing countries. ICT in Nigeria is an experiment in progress. Reading the wealth of literature on ICT, it is easy to forget that it is not a panacea for problems facing developing nations. Normative assumptions about ICTs tend, in most cases to outstrip knowledge of how                                                              7

Department of Educational Management, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

35

technology is actually used (Mahony & Barley 1999). Young people are sometimes seen as ICT oriented. This suggests that they have grown up in an era of globalization in digital devices, where ICTs, the internet, and multimedia have become a culture (Helsper & Eynon, 2010). The importance of ICTs in education can be described as a basic tool to achieving a better standard in our academic community. It enhances improved access to learning, developed secondary and higher education and establishing a viable learning environment (Kaino, 2006). It is obvious and worrisome that most Nigerian teachers have not adopted ICTs, either as a media or as a methodology. ICT skills are not only required for jobs in the Information Technology (IT) sector, but their demand cuts across sectors and job types. ICT skills are increasingly important in sectors such as agriculture, construction, education, and service industries. In many labour markets, in more developed but also in less developed contexts, ICT-related occupations represent an important slice of economic activity (Lopez-Bassols, 2002; Van Welsum & Vickery, 2005). The diffusion of ICTs across all economic sectors is placing new demands on workers’ skills. The changing skills set is both expanding employment opportunities and imposing new demands on disadvantaged groups. In today’s job market, basic ICT skills are considered essential for people entering the workforce and for those trying to have a better job. Governments consider an ICT skilled workforce a strategic asset that spurs economic growth, promotes competitiveness, and improves business productivity. A nation’s economic well-being depends “on both the effective use of ICT for businesses and industrial processes and on the knowledge, competencies, and skills of current and new employees” (European Commission, 2004, p. 2). The university system fails to expose students to relevant professional knowledge and technologies that will enhance their chances in the labour market (Lucena, 2006). Therefore, this may be a cause of unemployment in Nigeria. ICTs are increasingly utilized by higher education institutions worldwide. ICTs are emerging as a part of on campus delivery as well as open and distance modalities of higher education delivery. UNESCO actions in this area focus on assisting member states to develop robust policies in ICTs and higher education (UNESCO 2010). ICTs in higher education are being used for developing course materials; delivering and sharing content; communication between learners, teachers and the outside world; creation and delivery of presentations and lectures; academic research; administrative support, students’ enrolment, etc. Higher education institutions in developing countries are on the whole making the most of computers and software available to them even though challenges including insufficient telephone and telecommunication infrastructures, lack of training resources for teachers, and lack of skilled and experienced information technology specialists to assist with development, maintenance and support of ICT usage in higher education institutions (HEIs) remain. ICT in our higher institutions today are being used for administration and instruction through the use of portals to enable students to apply for admission and to guide them in the dissemination of information (Imouokhome, Omwangbe, & Ifediora 2007). Felicity (2006) summarizes that ICTs are thought to bring greater flexibility to everyday activities. One can shop, work and learn from the comfort of one’s own home. This is an attribute especially important to the issues explored in this research because it may enable education to begin immediately, rather than being dependent on the construction of school buildings. Although, it has its pitfalls; ICT could offer greater access to more information. In terms of providing more information, the internet is an example of    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

36

how people can now access, almost instantaneously information from the other side of the world. In terms of greater access ICTs could remove the need to travel to another location in order to learn or work, mobile technology allows the work place to move more easily. Whilst this concept may just be a luxury in the developed world, in the developing world, it may be more essential. For example, in a war zone, mobility is restricted, often prohibiting people from going to work or school, this could be circumvented by bringing the work to the people. The rapid growth of ICT has challenged the traditional method of teaching and changed the educational landscape globally. The teaching method is now divided into two different ways of thinking on education, one is traditional and the other one is the ICT facilitated method. Most of the teachers and experts in some developing and developed nations have explored new methods of teaching and believe that modern methods or the ICT method is better than the traditional method of teaching. The traditional role of teaching focuses on the teacher as the organizer of learning activity, provider of information and knowledge expert. The teacher carries too much responsibility for teaching in the classroom to make sure everything they are teaching is understood by the students or we can say there is a typical way to control class where the teacher teaches using a blackboard, explains concepts, asks students to copy and makes sure that students are paying attention (Rawandale, Sukhvinder, Priyadarshini, & Pushpa, 2013). The traditional way also focuses on inculcating discipline among students and building their character. The emergence and the growth of ICT has challenged the teachers’ way of thinking and changed the educational landscape globally. Use of ICT in teaching develops higher order skills such as collaborating across time and place and solving complex real world problems (Bottino, 2003; Mason, 2000; Lim & Hang, 2003). It improves the students’ perception and understanding of the world. Thus, ICT can be used to prepare the workforce for the information society and the new global economy (Kozma, 2005). There are at least two fundamental reasons that justify the use of ICT. The first is that university education has a responsibility to ensure the future graduates. The second reason is that ICT may contribute to more and better learning; i.e., they may improve the effectiveness of university education (Francesc, 2005). It is widely accepted that the new method (ICT) is the best way to obtain attention of the new generation of students and make them interested in subjects. The ICT method also helps the students get actively involved through hands on activities rather than teaching them by traditional method. The role of teacher has changed now. According to the new role, a teacher is treated as an advisor, manager and facilitator of learning and also as a developer of skills. The use of the ICT method develops the student/teacher relationship, where the teacher acts as an observer; standing back to let learning happen and lets the students solve problems. In this case, the teacher is responsive to students’ cognitive needs and development. ICT is used in modern teaching to promote interaction, support creativity, active learning, high order thinking etc. ICT and Higher Education While we recognize that the use of instructional technology in the higher education teaching and learning processes is still in its infancy in Nigeria, instructional use of ICT is vital to the progress and development of faculty and students alike. Higher education institutions, especially those in the west, have adopted ICT as a means to impart to students the knowledge and skills demanded by 21st century educational advancement (UNESCO,    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

37

2002a). According to UNESCO (2002b), ICT now permeates the education environment and underpins the very success of 21st century education. ICT also adds value to the processes of learning and to the organization and management of learning institutions. Technologies are a driving force behind much of the development and innovation in both developed and developing countries. As such, all countries must seek to benefit from technological developments. To be able to do so, professionals (including faculty) have to be educated in sound ICT backgrounds, independent of specific computer platforms or software environments, to meet the required competencies of the ever-changing global environment.When ICT in education does not achieve expected goals or when it introduces complicated educational reforms, students and teachers can lose focus of the essentials and become distracted by the rapidly changing technologies themselves. This result is likely when students and teachers have not been able to acquire a full understanding of the technologies, the role ICT plays and where, how and what technology to use. When the meaning of ICT and its unlimited potential in the educational arena are understood, rapidly changing technologies are not seen as overwhelming, but as enablers of greater critical thinking and problem solving in education (Iloanusi & Osuagwu, 2009). The use of ICT in the educational system is remarkable, especially among the teachers. This is what gave birth to multi-dimensional learning approaches through distance learning education, which has been adopted in many schools in developed and developing countries to cater for the distance waged and unwaged students (Bartololic-Zlomislic, & Bates, 1998). The advantages of ICT are shown in different angles. ICT has encouraged the learning process, it has also enabled access to learning by all while creating a conducive environment, encouraging viable knowledge delivery and quick answers to many questions bothering the teachers and the students (Kaino, 2006). ICT can also be operated through Eeducation. Isaac’s (2007) defined E-education as much more than just developing computer literacy skills and the skills necessary to operate various types of ICTs. He further stated that it is the ability to; apply ICTs, access, analyse, evaluate, integrate, present, and communicate information. To create knowledge and information by adapting, applying, designing, inventing, and authoring information. And function in a knowledge society by using appropriate technology and mastering communication and collaboration skills. The Concept of Employability The concept of graduate ‘employability’ is complex. While the core notion is to obtain a job, Harvey (2001) emphasizes that employability is often construed as an institutional achievement without taking into account the propensity of students to find employment and the efforts of employers to convert employability into employment. Cranmer (2006) argues that employability outcomes are confused and often overlook social structures of gender, race, and class, and their interactions with the labour market. Furthermore, operationalising employability from a theoretical concept to measurement depends on the definition of employability (Harvey, 2001). Cranmer (2006) states that despite the best intentions of academics, it is unrealistic to expect universities to guarantee that students will possess both the necessary generic and disciplinary skills on graduation and that more positive employability outcome are reported when employers are involved in academic subjects. Nonetheless, as Litchfield (2008) explains, generic skills are often left to the universities to teach because employers find training new graduates in employability skills too difficult.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

38

ICT, Employability and Higher Education Lenhart and Madden (2005) referred to young people as the ‘generation google’ or digital natives because young people use technology not just for communication and consuming information, but also for creating and sharing knowledge. Greenhill (2008) also highlighted that internet-based services are becoming an important part of many aspects of users’ lives cutting across socialising, study, and work. Obviously ICT skills can impact on employment opportunities in the software and hardware industries (ILO, 2001; Expert Group on Future Skill Needs, 2008). However, as Bradbrook (2008) indicates, there are many other ways in which ICT can increase the employability of young people. Development of softer skills such as networking, collaboration and problem-solving (these skills can also be developed by gaming); through use of social and cultural tools for sharing information and experiences through peer-to-peer networking and communities of interest, especially for isolated rural young people. Engendering greater social diversity in schools by enabling communication and cooperation through virtual and real linkages with other schools in different geographic and socio-economic environments. Supporting disadvantaged members of minority groups, particularly those with concealable stigmatised identities. Through provision of confidential support and advice; this is especially important for challenges such as health, bullying and crime; and through supporting political activities. Objective of the study The aim of this research was to highlight the teaching of ICT in Nigerian higher institutions as a solution to graduates’ unemployability. It also examined the implications and challenges of ICTs on the development of higher education in Nigeria. Nigeria is striving hard to play a leadership role in Africa, particularly in the period of pragmatic and competitive science and technology. There is an urgent need to pay more attention to the improvement of teaching and learning; particularly in Nigerian tertiary institutions. This is because the youths disproportionately suffer from the malaise of unemployment. The scale of the problem is immense, holding back economic growth while stifling the aspirations of people recently entering the workforce and at the beginning of their careers. The causes of this situation are multifaceted, and manifest differently in each region. This study specifically set out to critically appraise effective teaching with Information and Communication Technology as a change agent for higher education in Nigeria, and as a solution to the unemployment that is ranging across the country. The study was guided by the following research questions; 1. To what extent are ICT facilities available for teaching in Nigeria higher institutions? 2. To what extent are students exposed to ICT facilities? 3. What ICT facilities do students use most? 4. What are the barriers to effective utilization of ICT to teaching in Nigerian higher institutions? Method This study was a survey. A self-designed questionnaire, that employed benchmarks from similar studies conducted in the west, was used to determine the effectiveness of teaching using ICT in Nigerian higher institutions. The questionnaire was distributed to    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

39

randomly-selected students and teachers in selected institutions in Nigeria through research assistants. Out of 150 questionnaires distributed, 120 were returned by respondents and found usable for this study. Data obtained was analysed, using simple percentage frequency, mean and standard deviation. Results Research Question 1 To what extent are facilities available for teaching in Nigeria tertiary institutions? Table 1 Facilities available in Nigeria Tertiary Institutions My school has a computer laboratory Internet facilities are available for use at my school I do learn through the use of computer projector at my school Teaching with the aid of ICT facilities is more common in my school than other teaching method My faculty has internet facilities for teaching My department has internet facilities for teaching Weighted average : 1.32

A 105 (87.5) 82 (68.3) 54 (45.0) 39 (32.5) 67 (55.8) 47 (39.2)

D 15 (12.5) 38 (31.7) 66 (55.0) 81 (67.5) 53 (44.2) 73 (60.8)

X 1.12 1.32 1.55 1.67 1.44 1.61

St.d 0.332 0.467 0.500 0.470 0.499 0.490

An overwhelming percentage (87.5%) of the respondents asserted that they have computer laboratories in their schools, of which 68.3% testify that the internet is available for use at their schools. Little above average (55.0%) of the respondents confirmed the use of computer projectors for learning in their institution. 67.5% of the respondents disagreed that teaching with the aid of ICT facilities was more common in their school than any other teaching methods. 55.8% attested to the fact that their faculty has internet facilities for teaching. Contrarily, this is not in conformity with their department when most (60.8%) of the respondents disagreed that their department does not have internet facilities for teaching. (See table 1) Research Question 2 To what extent are students exposed to ICT facilities? Table 2: Exposure of students to ICT facilities I always access the internet I get information from the internet I communicate with friends through the internet I use internet for educational purposes I use ICT facilities for sports I chat on the internet I find it easier to express my discomfort to friends through ICT facilities Weighted average : 1.22

Often 89 (74.2) 98 (81.7) 85 (70.8) 86 (71.7) 14 (11.7) 79 (65.8) 55 (45.8)

Occasionally 24 (20.0) 19 (15.8) 26(21.7) 24 (20.0) 22 (18.3) 24 (20.0) 32 (26.7)

Rarely 5 (4.2) 2 (1.7) 6 (5.0) 8 (6.7) 60 (50.0) 6 (5.0) 21 (17.5)

Never 2 (1.7) 1 (0.8) 3 (2.5) 2 (1.7) 24 (20.0) 11 (9.2) 12 (10.0)

X 1.33 1.22 1.39 1.38 2.78 1.58

St.D .640 .505 .702 .688 .900 .950

1.92

1.017

Table 3 shows that most (74.2%) of the respondents have regular access to the internet while few (20.0%) reported to have been using internet occasionally. The respondents shows that they use ICT facilities often when overwhelming percentage (81.7%) reported that they do get information from the internet, 70.8% used internet to communicate with their friends and 71.7% used it for educational purposes respectively. Of this average (50.0%) of the respondents rarely used ICT facilities for sport and 20.0% never used it for sport. However, 11.7% reported that they use ICT facilities for Sports. Others things the    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

40

respondents often used ICT for are chatting on the internet (65.8%) while 20.0% used it occasionally. Some (45.8%) reported that they used ICT facilities often to express their discomfort to their friends. (See table 2) Research Question 3 What ICT facilities do students use most? Table 3 ICT facilities that students use most A desktop computer A laptop An handset An I-pad A palmtop A projector Weighted average : 1.32

Yes 54 (45.0) 85 (70.8) 110 (91.7) 22 (18.3) 11 (9.2) 11 (9.2)

NO 66 (55.0) 35 (29.2) 10 (8.3) 98 (81.7) 109 (90.8) 109 (90.8)

X 1.55 1.29 1.08 1.82 1.91

St.D .500 .456 .278 .389 .290

Handsets are the most used ICT facilities with 91.7% of the respondents reporting that the handset was mostly used in their schools. 70.8% reported laptops as the common ICT facilities in their school. While 45.0% of the respondents asserted that they used desktop computers in their school. Others were Ipads (18.3%) and projectors (9.2%). Research Question 4 What are the barriers to effective utilization of Information and Communication Technology to teaching in Nigerian higher institutions? Ololube, Ubogu & Egbezor (2007) in their study on instructional technology in selected universities in the Niger Delta, identified poor ICT penetration and usage among Nigerian higher education practitioners, inadequacy of basic ICT infrastructures; lack of electricity to power the ICT materials, and poor telecommunication facilities. Above all, this lack of access to much needed infrastructure is as a result of insufficient funds. Ogunleye (2007) in his study on teachers’ perceived barriers to successful implementation of ICT in teaching and learning, stated that poor power supply, lack of technical support, lack of computer laboratory/IT resource room were the major factors affecting the effective usage of ICT facilities in Schools. In their paper Yusuf, Afolabi, Loto, (2013) analyzed the constraints to effective utilization of Information and Communication Technology to teaching in Nigerian higher institutions. They reiterated that there have been a number of factors affecting the utilisation of ICT in education across the nations. Such factors include inadequate funding to support the purchase of the ICT facilities, lack of training in the use of ICT facilities, teaching personnel’s lack of motivation and the need among teachers to adopt ICT as teaching tools. Inadequate computer trained and certified teachers, poor funding, irregular power supply, cost of equipment and lack of relevant software. They recommended that adequate funds must be provided to initiate, develop, promote, review and implement ICT policies in the educational sector to bring about an improvement on ICT utilisation, through computer apprentices courses taught in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Discussion The findings revealed that, even though there is availability of ICT facilities in Nigeria tertiary institutions, the use of ICT as a means of teaching is very low. The research    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

41

revealed that respondents only use ICT to get information for their studies and some other activities but not as learning aids in class. The study of Castel (2000) was in conformity with the findings of this paper that widespread availability of information has led to globalization process and continues to have a large influence on social, economic, political and cultural structures around the world. This was also reaffirmed when most of the respondents stated that they can’t do without ICT for a week. Among the ICT facilities that the respondents used, the study revealed that the handset was the most preferable and affordable ICT facilities. An absence of ICT instructional materials, ineffective policy implementation and a lack of other resources (infrastructures) to aid teaching and learning are responsible for short comings in the effective implementation of ICT in education. The study revealed that experience makes it easier to employ and exhibit greater proficiency when using ICT instructional materials in the teaching and learning process. Yusuf, Afolabi, Loto, (2013) faulted the political situation of the country giving no room for continuity in ICT utilisation in schools while corruption has entrenched the system. Also stated that misplacement of priority and poor consumer culture have affected the use of ICT in the education sector Recommendations and Conclusion This article examined the effectiveness of instructional technology in higher education institutions in relation to the role and usage of information communication technologies (ICTs), its effectiveness in faculty and departmental teaching and its impact on student learning as a lasting solution to unemployment. It has also looked at attitudes and anxiety towards instructional technology amongst higher education faculty and students in a developing economy. As apparent from the literature review, there is a plethora of studies where research is conducted by educators who contact industry participants and unveiled what most employers would require in students. It is worthy noting that, many employers prefer graduates with capable ICT knowledge rather than graduates who have little or no ICT experience. There is a considerable body of literature on the challenges groups of older people experience in dealing with ICT and how they can best be supported in learning ICT skills. Sharit (2009) and Charness (2007) conclude that “common myths that older people are less able or less willing to learn to perform technological tasks are not supported by the literature” (p. 463). While ICT skills are increasingly required in today’s labour market and can thus affect the employability of those who do not have the required ICT skills, ICT, when mastered, can also be an enabler and used to support an ageing workforce in employment. This means that if young graduates today have the necessary skill, employers may not only prefer them in their workforces but they will be used as trainers to even the experienced old aged staff. Citing the Nigerian Vanguard of July 21 2012, Nigeria, like others, is moving towards a knowledge-based economy in which the place of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become significant so that graduates will perform better. But the worry in this, for which Dr. Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala expressed concern, is that: how can a computer science graduate not understand the basics of writing software codes? The answer lies with government which must ensure ICT units in tertiary institutions, well staffed highly organized and equipped adequately to provide sound teaching and practical for the students. Universities everywhere, are established to carry out tripartite roles of teaching, research and community services, thereby contributing meaningfully to the social, economic, cultural, political, scientific and technological development of the nation. Teachers should be    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

42

given adequate training on the use of ICT for effective teaching in Nigerian higher institutions. ICT should be made a priority and be made available at all levels of Nigerian education system. The university management should collaborate with ICT organizations and manufacturers of ICT aids such as HP, Toshiba, LG, CISCO, Microsoft Corporation, Intel and every other ICT corporation that have investments within the country. Computer laboratories should be made available and well equipped while teachers should interact more with ICT resources towards skills acquisition. The Government should spend more on ICT as teaching aids in the classroom while lecturers in university should encourage e-lectures for students. References Bottino, R. M. (2003). ICT, National policies, and impact on schools and teachers' development. CRPIT '03: Proceedings of the 3.1 and 3.3 working groups conference on International federation for information processing, Australian Computer Society, Inc., Darlinghurst, Australia, Australia, 3-6. Bradbrook, G. et al. (2008) Meeting their potential: the role of education and technology in overcoming disadvantage and disaffection in young people. Available: http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/4063/1/Meeting_their_potential.pdf (Accessed: 14/5/2012). Charness N, Czaja SJ and Sharit J (2007) Age and technology for work. In Shultz KS and Adams GA. (Eds) Aging and work in the 21st century, 225–249. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Cranmer, S. (2006). Enhancing graduate employability: Best intentions and mixed outcomes. Studies in Higher Education, 31(2), 169-184. European Commission. (2004). E-skills for Europe: 2010 and beyond. Brussels: European Commission, Enterprise and Industry Directorate General Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/ict/bpolicy/doc/e-skills-forum- 2004-09-fsr.pdf. Harvey, L.(2001). Defining and measuring employability. Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 97-109. Helsper E. J and Eynon R (2010) Digital natives: Where is the evidence? British Educational Research Journal 36(3): 503-520. ILO (2001) Generating decent work for young people: An Issues Paper, prepared for the Secretary- General's Youth Employment Network, www.un.org/esa/socdev/youthemployment/. Imouokhome, F A, Omwangbe E. S., and Ifediora C.M, 2007, ICT and their applications to Nigeria Educational System, Nigeria Journal of Computer Literacy Vol 8 NO 1, 2007 p1-6. Published by the Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan. Kaino, L. M. (2006). Gender attitudes toward Information and communication Technlogy (ICT): A case study of Botswana Junior Schools on the use of computers in learning. African Journals of Educational Studies (AJES) 4, 1-14.Lenhart A and Madden M (2005) Teen Content Creators and Consumers. Washington DC: Pew Internet and Amercian Life Project. Litchfield, A., Nettleton, S., & Taylor, T. (2008). Integrating work-ready learning into the university curriculum contextualised by profession. Proceedings of the    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

43

Conference for Work-Integrated Learning: Transforming Futures, October 2008, Sydney Australia. Lopez-Bassols, V. (2002). ICT skills and employment. (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development STI Working Papers). Paris. Lucena J. (2006) Globalization and organizational change: engineers’ experiences and their implications for engineering education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 31, 3, 321-338. Nigerian Vanguard (2012). Challenge of producing unemployable graduates http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/07/challenge-of-producing-unemployablegraduates/#sthash.fblS9Yk6.dpuf. Nwachukwu P.O., Paul E,, Michael C. U., Nkereuwem S.E. & Ngboawaji D. N., (2009). Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, Volume 10, Issue 2, Article 7 (Dec.2009) Instructional technology in higher education: A case of selected universities in the Niger Delta. Ogunleye B.O (2007) Teachers’ Perceived Barriers to Successful Implementation of ICT in the Teaching and Learning of Science Subjects in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Nigeria Journal of Computer Literacy Vol 8 NO 1, 2007 p1-6. Published by the Department of Teacher Education, University of Ibadan. Rawandale C.J., Sukhvinder S., Priyadarshini S., Pushpa N. (2013). ICT Method V/S Traditional Method: A Study of Law Students. Prestige International Journal of Management & IT Sanchayan, Vol. 2(2), 2013, ISSN: 22771689 (Print), 2278–8441 Shafika I. (2007) Survey of ICT and Education in Africa: South Africa Country Report South Africa – 1 www.infodev.org ICT in Education in South Africa by June 2007. Sharit J, Czaja SJ, Hernandez MA and Nair S. (2009). The employability of older workers as teleworkers: An appraisal of issues and an empirical study. Human Factors in Ergonomics & Manufacturing 19, 457-477. UNESCO/ASPnet/ 2010, T. Rutschman Long distance learning of the Spanish language, Sweden retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/en/higher-education/higher-educationand-icts/. UNESCO (2002a). Information and Communication Technologies in Teacher Education: A Planning Guide. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO (2002b). Information and Communication Technology in Education. A Curriculum for Schools and Program for Teacher Development. Division of Higher Education. (2002). Retrieved December 2, 2009, rom http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001295/129538e.pdf. Welsum, W., & Vickery, G. (2005). New perspectives of ICT skills and employment. (Organizsation for Economic Co-operation and Development STI Working Papers). Paris. Yusuf M. A., Festus O, Loto A.B (2013). Appraising the role of information communication technology (ICT) as a change agent for higher education in Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Administration and Policy Studies. Vol. 5(8), pp. 177-183, December 2013DOI: 10.5897/IJEAPS12.027ISSN 2141-6656 © 2013 Academic Journals

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

44

Chemistry Students’ Assessment of their Teachers’ Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Benue State Aduloju, M. O. & Obinne, A. D.E. This study examined the assessment of chemistry teachers’ effectiveness by chemistry students. A survey research design was used. Two hundred students were sampled for the study from Benue State. The result showed that students agreed that their teachers cover a large part of the syllabus before the examination. Findings also revealed that there was a significant difference in the opinion of students on their teachers’ effectiveness. It was recommended that students should be involved in the assessment of their teachers for promotion and for guidance. Key words: Assessment, Teachers and Students. Assessment is one of the processes that characterize the school system. Many components and persons in the system can be, and have actually been assessed. Assessment has always been focused on students with various tools utilized for this purpose. In human development, assessment information is generated and used in a variety of ways to improve administration, teaching and learning; and therefore, to enhance the likelihood of success by both the teacher and the student. Therefore, Nenty in Joshua, Joshua, & Kristsons (2006) pointed out that assessment provides; useful information, as well as formative or regenerative feedback to the students to ensure his/her progress towards success. It further provides feedback to the teacher with which to effect improvement in instruction, set realistic objectives, evaluate the degree to which course objectives have been met; provide opportunity to improve professional skills, provide counseling and guidance to the students and enable constant monitoring of the instructional and learning process. Through this the administrator track the quality of the human development process. An important principle of curriculum development is the need to achieve effectiveness. The efficiency of an educational system may be interpreted to mean effectiveness or efficiency or a combined effect of both, with reference to the components of the system, the teacher, the students and the material. While objective criteria are yet to be set up in respect of teachers’ effectiveness, Jegede (2008) observes that there is a tendency to judge the achievement of the learner as a direct function of the teacher’s effectiveness. Hence, parents, the society and school administration point accusing fingers usually in the direction of the teacher whenever the learner’s performance falls below expectation. Seweje & Jegede (2002) believe that a teacher who is effective with one group of learners may be ineffective with another group. This implies that there are a lot of variables that make teachers effective. Aduloju (2010) identifies knowledge of the subject matter, ability to break the content down to understandable units, ability to measure students understanding at every stage of learning, ability to utilize instructional materials, ability to employ different teaching methods, teachers’ attitude, and ability to diagnose students’ weaknesses.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

45

Eggen and Kauchak cited in Adeyemi, Bada, et al. (2008) highlighted three headings under which a study on teachers’ knowledge of subject matter can be done. These are knowledge of content, pedagogical content knowledge and general pedagogical knowledge. This simply means that nobody can teach what he does not understand. This statement is inconsistent with Wilson, Shulman & Richet (1987) who established a high correlation between what teachers know and what they teach. The finding of Ehindero (1990) is also in consonance with this finding. Research findings on teachers’ attitudes (Fafunwa, 1981; Denga, 1991; Alonge, 1986 & 2003) show that a teacher’s attitude was significantly related to their competency. Complementing these findings, Brunning, Schraw and Ronning in Adediwura et al. (2009) established the following facts; teachers’ characteristics such as teaching efficacy, modeling and enthusiasm, caring and high expectation promote learners’ motivation and efficiency. They agreed that these characteristics are associated with an increase in students’ achievement. From the views of Alonge (1986), Aduloju (2010) and Ehundero & Ajibade (2000), students suspected and speculated that some of their teachers lacked the basic skills and techniques required to communicate concepts, ideas and principles in a way that would facilitate effective learning. From their own opinion they believed that these deficiencies contribute significantly to the growing rate of failure in Nigerian higher institution. However, Igyo (2000), Okorie (1886), Ugbamadu in Dangbin (2008) and Omotayo (2007) found a significant relationship between teaching materials and teachers’ effectiveness. Also, Akpan in Aduloju & Obinne (2011) observed that lack of practical work by science students had resulted in poor communication and observational skills, and that the absence of both skills gave rise to students’ poor performance. Omotayo in Ofodu (2008) submits that students are mostly inspired to acquire meaningful learning experiences through the type and quality of the teacherteacher, while the ultimate goal of education is students learning. Research findings (Ebel, 1980; Herris, 1979; McDonald, 1980 in Joshua, (2006) et al, Alonge 2003 and Aduloju 2010) maintain that assessing teachers through the use of student achievement is the most legitimate procedure as it is the only true indicator of teachers’ effectiveness. Poor performance of students in science subject has also been attributed to teacher’s factor. However, Kolawole, and Adelabu in Ofodu (2008) and Aduloju (2011) observe that the problem has to do with the poor teaching methods employed by teachers in the classroom. Commenting on this teacher’s factor, Dada (1999), Aduloju, Akuto and Odeh (2011) state that the teacher is a person who imparts knowledge, skills and other personal qualities to learner in a formal school system. The role of teachers is buttressed by federal government of Nigeria in its national policy on education quoted by Adoluju (2010) that no education system can rise above the quality of its teachers. The decline and deteriorating results from schools in terms of academic achievement, values, intelligence and other affective measures of graduates have been matters of concern across the country. This has made some stake holders to associate quality of school products with quality of school personnel, who are largely teachers (Joshua, et al. 2006). Students’ assessment of their teachers as the basis to evaluate teachers is one out of many approaches of teachers effectiveness identifies by Aduloju (2010). Other approaches include teachers’ self evaluation (self monitoring, use of audio tape and video tape recording) information from students, questionnaires, interview, outside observer, use of student achievement scores, principal/head of department/dean ratings, parent rating and others    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

46

indirect measures. Out of all these approaches of measuring teachers’ effectiveness the one that has not attracted much attention is students’ assessment. This lack of attention prompted the need for this study students’ assessment of their teachers’ effectiveness as a measure of teachers’ effectiveness, performance and achievement. This study centered on students’ assessment of their science teachers’ effectiveness. Specifically, the study tried to establish how students assessed their chemistry teachers in terms of effectiveness. It tested the hypothesis that there is no significant difference in the mean assessment of chemistry teachers’ effectiveness by students. Methodology A survey research design was used. The population consisted of all final year students studying chemistry in Benue state. The sample size was 200 chemistry students randomly selected through simple randomization, stratified random and purposive sampling techniques. The stratification sampling was based on the schools. Questionnaire instrument named ‘Student Assessment Questionnaire’ (SAQ) was used for data collection. The instrument contained 20 validated items and the reliability coefficient was found to be 0.71, using split-half correlation method and sparmen brown prophecy method. The instruments were administered by the research assistant in each school.The assessment was on two points scale (Agree (2) and disagree (1) respectively).SAQ consisted of two sections, section 1 was on information about the instrument while section 11 contained the items. The research question was answered using frequency counts, percentages and mean while the research hypothesis was tested with chi-square and t- test statistical tool at = .05( t-test was used to confirm the chi- square result). The bench mark for agreement is 1.5 and above. Results Research Question How do chemistry students assess their chemistry teachers in term of effectiveness? To answer this question, the students’ responses were subjected to frequency counts, percentages and mean. Table 1 Mean students’ assessment of their chemistry teachers Items My teacher has thorough knowledge and understanding of Chemistry My chemistry teacher breakdown the course content into understanding units My chemistry teacher set questions from all the topics taught in chemistry My chemistry teacher uses different teaching methods during teaching Am satisfied with my chemistry teachers’ teaching method My teacher uses teaching Materials to enhance his teaching Am carried along during the teaching of chemistry My teacher always happy when questions were asked during chemistry teachings My chemistry teacher demonstrate enough passion for chemistry teaching My chemistry teacher usually cover sufficient grounds in chemistry syllabus My chemistry teacher comes to class with a well prepared lesson note Am involved actively during chemistry class My school chemistry laboratory is well equipped My teacher spends enough time on practicing activity during chemistry lesson My chemistry teacher makes practical class enjoyable My chemistry teacher makes chemistry project in the laboratory a worthwhile exercise My teacher encourages me to participate in chemistry practical My chemistry teacher punishes me when i missed chemistry practical class? My chemistry teacher teaches very well My teacher gives periodic test on each topic Cluster Mean

   

Agree 88 80 76 94 72 96

% 44 40 38 47 36 48

Disagree 112 120 124 106 128 104

% 56 60 62 53 64 52

Mean 1.44 1.40 1.38 1.47 1.36 1.48

76 96 64 160 54 88 20 32 48 88 60 48 32 64

38 48 32 80 21 44 10 16 24 44 30 24 16 32

124 104 136 40 146 112 180 168 152 112 140 152 168 136

62 52 68 20 73 56 90 84 76 56 70 76 84 68

1.38 1.48 1.32 1.80* 1.27 1.44 1.10 1.16 1.24 1.44 1.30 1.24 1.16 1.32 1.40

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

47

Table 1 reveals that students disagree with all the items except item number 10. While the cluster mean of the items was 1.40 which is below the benchmark 1.5. Ho1: There is no significant difference in the opinion expressed by SS III students’ about their teachers’ effectiveness. Table 2 Students’ assessment of their chemistry teachers Items My teacher has thorough knowledge and understanding of Chemistry My chemistry teacher breakdown the course content into understanding units My chemistry teacher has the ability to set questions from all the topics taught in chemistry My chemistry teachers use different teaching methods during teaching Am satisfied with your chemistry teacher teaching method My teacher uses teaching Materials to enhance his teaching Am carried along during the teaching of chemistry My teacher always happy when questions were asked during chemistry teachings My chemistry teacher demonstrate enough passion for chemistry teaching My chemistry teacher usually cover sufficient grounds in chemistry syllabus My chemistry teacher come to class with a well prepared lesson note Am involved actively during chemistry class My school chemistry laboratory well is equipped My teacher spend enough time on practicing activity during chemistry lesson My chemistry teacher makes practical enjoyable My chemistry teacher make chemistry project in the laboratory a worthwhile exercise Am encouraged to participate in chemistry practical by my chemistry teachers My chemistry teacher punishes me when i missed chemistry practical class My chemistry teacher teaches very well My teacher always give undergo periodic test on topic

P.05 (not significant).

The result in table 2 reveals that the results of items; 1, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 are less than table value 3.84 at df = 1 and α =.05 while the remaining items have X2 value greater than the table value at df = 1 and α =.05. Table 3 t-test of students’ opinions about their chemistry teachers’ effectiveness Students’ Opinion N df Agree 200 198 Disagree 200

tcal 3.15**

ttab 1.96

**P ttab (1.96). Therefore the hypothesis of no significant difference is rejected Discussion The result of the research question on item one revealed that students assessment of their chemistry teachers as evident in the area of covering the syllabus. They agreed that their teachers sufficiently cover the syllabus before examination. On other areas the result showed that teachers were not effective with a cluster mean of 1.4 which is below the bench mark. This finding negates Gyuse and Ada (2005) who submitted that teachers’ remuneration is not commensurate with their job. According to them, this has the tendency of affecting the teachers’ performance, and makes them to devote their time on other things that can earn them more money. In addition the results of other items i.e. items 1 – 9 and 11 – 20 supports the findings of Lassa, Aja (1993), Okebukola, Adaralgbe and Fafunwa in Aduloju (2010)    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

48

who claimed that science teachers teaching strategies are inadequate because teachers “tell” rather than inspire the learners. This approach led to teaching science facts for passing examination. They also observed that many of our science teachers were poorly trained in either science content or methodology or even both and this affects the implementation of curriculum. They also agreed that ineffectiveness of chemistry teachers is as a result of poor preparation which includes lack of practical skills as a result of inadequate exposure of teaching practice, poor attitude to work and lack of professionalism. Chi-square value 1.4 was calculated at df = 1 for item one. The table value was 3.86 at .05 level of significance. The result showed that there was a significant difference between the opinions expressed by students about their teacher’s effectiveness. Not all of them agreed that teachers have thorough knowledge and understanding of chemistry. This result is not in consonance with the findings of Eggen and Kavchak in Adeyemi et al (2008) who advocated for teacher’s indepth knowledge in their area of specialization. In case of item 2, X2c value of 4 at df = 1 was calculated and this showed that the result was statistically significant. The result showed that not all the respondents agreed that chemistry teachers break down course contents into understand able stage. This negates the work of Aduloju (2010). Item 3 have X2c value of 5.6 at df = 1 and this showed that the result was statistically significant. Not all the respondents agreed that chemistry teachers have ability to set questions from all the topics taught in chemistry.As regards item 1, 4, 6 and 8, 12 and 16 with X2c values of 1.44, 0. 36, 0.16, 1.44, 1.44 and 1.6 were calculated at df = 1, and this showed that there is no difference in the 0pinion of students about their teachers effectiveness with regards to values obtained. These results indicated that chemistry teachers use different teaching methods and always welcome questions from students. Looking at the general trends of the remaining items, it was observed that the X2c value at 1 df was greater than the table value. The result of the hypothesis revealed that there was a significant difference between the opinions expressed (rating) by the students about their teachers’ effectiveness. The hypothesis of no significant difference about the students’ assessment of their teachers was rejected. The result is in agreement with the students Union of the University of Chicago (2009) with regards to the interview of candidates for the post of DVC in their University. Conversely, Alonge (2001) advocates for students’ involvement in the evaluation of their lecturers for promotion exercise in some universities in Ghana. Durojaiye, in Adediwura et al. (2008) supported the idea that teachers’ positive attitude and good personal qualities boister teacher’s effectiveness and students’ academic performance. This finding was not in line with the report of Adegbile in Ofodu (2005) that teacher’s method of teaching and their attitudes to the subject account for the poor performance of student in the subject. It could then be concluded that the results are statistically significant. In all, the findings of the study revealed that teachers’ effectiveness account for students’ poor performance in chemistry. Hence the hypothesis was rejected. Using t-test statistical tool to confirm this result on table 3, the result revealed that the hypothsis of no significant difference was rejected at α= .05 when tcal value 3.15 was great than ttab value 1.96 i.e tcal (3.15) > ttab (1.96). Implications, Conclusion, and Recommendations The result of this study would provide ways by which teachers can continuously evaluate their teaching for guidance purposes. This will help them to be innovative in    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

49

teaching and assessment of their students which will enhance students’ performance. Also this would serve as a yardstick for the involvement of students in promotion and appraisal of their teachers because students are the direct recipients of teachers’ information. Based on the findings of the study, the study has shown that the effectiveness of a teacher depends on teachers’ knowledge of subject matter, method of teaching, ability to break content down among others. The study also revealed that students’ poor performance can be blamed on their teachers. For the teacher to live up to his duty of effective teaching and evaluation of his subjects, students assessment of their teachers should be made part of the teacher’s yearly appraisal, on the other hand, teachers need to undergo refresher courses on their job to improve their effectiveness. References Adediwura, A. A.; Bada, T. A; Ajeigbe, T. O. & Bamide F. E. (2008). Students’ perception of teachers’ characteristics as predictor of academic performance in Nigerian Secondary Schools. Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (JEFAM). 6(1). 45 – 57 Aduloju, M. O; Akuto, G. W; & Ode, R.C. (2011). General Methods and teaching techniques. A monograph for Education 301. Aduloju & Obinne (2011): Assessment of interaction patterns in the teaching and learning of chemistry in senior secondary school in Benue State. Journal of Educational Innovators 3(2) 138 - 143 Aduloju, M. O. (2010). Teachers’ Competence in Evaluating Senior Secondary School Students Achievement in Chemistry in North Central, Nigeria. Unpublished Ph.d Thesis. University of Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti-State. Ajayi, A. O. (2000): How to ascertain who is an effective teacher. Capacity strengthening workshop for local education sectaries. Ibadan, Adeose Publisher. Dada, A. (1999): The Teacher and the Curriculum. Ibadan: Tejama General Enterprise Gyuse, E. Y. and Ada, N. A. (2008). How Professionals are our Science Teachers? Science Teachers Association of Nigeria. Proceedings of 46th Annual Conference 23 -29 Igyo, T. H. (2000). Management of Instructional Material for effective Teaching and Learning Process in Primary Schools in Benue-State.Unpublished M. Ed. Thesis. Benue-state University, Makurdi, Benue State. Jegede, S. A. (2008). Teachers’ characteristics, Environmental factors and secondary school Teacher’ Effectiveness in Ekitistate, Nigeria. Journal of Educational Foundations and Management (JEFAM). 6(1). 105-110 Joshua, T; Joshua, M. & Kritsonis (2006) Use of Students Achievement Scores as Basis for Assessing Teachers’ Instructional Effectiveness: Issues and Research Results. National forum of Teachers Education Journal. 17(3) Lasa, P. N. (1993). Teachers of 21st Century in Nigeria. Keynote Address at the following up workshop in transition from secondary school to college of Education. University of Jos. Ofodu, G. O. (2008): Secondary Students perception of English Language Teachers’ behaviour in the classroom. Nigerian Journal of counseling and Applied Psychology. 4 (1) Pp 20 – 27.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

50

Fostering an Entrepreneurship Culture in Higher Education and Job Creation in Nigeria Adeyinka Foluso Modupe & Wahab Bashir Adelowo8

The drive to foster an entrepreneurship culture in the higher education (HE) system is one of the ongoing proposals in place for dealing with the daunting challenges of unemployment in Nigeria. It is now a policy of the National Universities Commission (NUC) to encourage Nigerian universities to provide entrepreneurship training for undergraduates so that they can be self-employed after graduation. Fostering an entrepreneurship culture helps would be entrepreneurs to recognize and seize opportunities; convert opportunities into workable/marketable ideas; add value through time, effort, money or skills and assume the risks of the competitive marketplace. This paper argues that fostering an entrepreneurship culture in HE will provide a mix of experiential learning, skill building and most importantly, mindset shift. The earlier and more widespread the exposure to entrepreneurship training and innovation, the more likely it is that students will consider entrepreneurial careers at some point in the future, despite the presence of challenges. This paper provides a theoretical framework for linking entrepreneurship and the prospects for creating job opportunities. Key Words: Entrepreneurship, Culture, Higher Education, Job and Creation African countries, including Nigeria have shown interest in tackling unemployment and have brought job creation opportunities up as a front-burner issue in their development agenda. Nigeria’s economic development and performance since independence shows that agriculture was the mainstay of the Nigerian economy; accounting for 71.7% of the total jobs. The dramatic shift in focus to crude oil exploration and attendant oil boom of the 1970s led to the displacement of agriculture as the driver of the economy. This brought terrible consequences particularly skyrocketing unemployment rates (Manggoel et al., 2012). The unemployment rate in Nigeria increased to 29.30 in 2013 from 23.90 percent in 2012. The unemployment rate in Nigeria averaged 16.73 percent from 2006 to 2013, reaching an all time high of 23.90 percent in 2011 and a record low of 5.30 Percent in 2006. (See table 1) Figure 1: Unemployment Rates in Nigeria (Percentage of the Labour Force)  

Source: National Bureau of Statistics, 2013                                                              8

Economic Policy Research Department, Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER), joo, Ibadan, Nigeria.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

51

This paper argues that unemployment is a disequilibrium phenomenon, which may arise because labour supply is in excess of its optimal level or because demand for labour is lower than it ought to be. Excessive supply of labour cannot be disassociated from the issue of the rate of growth of the population since size and growth rate of labour force is said to depend primarily on the size and growth rate of the population (Bairoch, 2006). Essia and Ayara (2012) posited that many first time job seekers in Nigeria take advantage of family support to wait for a suitable job opening thus rejecting existing work opportunities that are unattractive to them. This is a case of voluntary unemployment. With the combination of a small formal segment and a large non-formal segment, the unemployment problem manifests itself not in high unemployment but in high incidences of underemployment hidden in selfemployment and casual wage employment outside the formal segment. Ojegbile (2006) reveals that a cogent explanation of the growing unemployment in Nigeria is the neglect of the value-addition to the traditional agricultural sector, which could have provided gainful employment for job seekers. The problems of youth unrests, especially in the Niger-Delta region, high incidence of armed robberies, drug and child trafficking, internet frauds and the current “boko haram” menace, are some of the outcomes of the problem of unemployment (Inyiama and Agu, 2008). The attendant high level of insecurity occasioned by the problems of youths’ unemployment continues to have a negative spillover effect on the economic development of the country, and the attraction of foreign investors into the economy. To this end, economic growth and rapid development that would ensure productive job opportunities has remained unrealized. Evidence from countries, such as Brazil, Japan and Taiwan that have been able to counter the challenges of unemployment to some reasonable extent show that increased job creation opportunities can be achieved with entrepreneurship culture inculcated into the higher education (HE) system. Our understanding of HE in this paper is education beyond secondary school level; especially education provided at tertiary level by a university, polytechnic or college of education. Higher Education Institutions (HEI) play key roles in promoting the talents of students, graduates and researchers. The importance of higher education in Nigeria is gradually becoming an increasing enterprise judging by the rise of new private institutions being licensed. As at 2014, there were 482 HEI in Nigeria , made up of 129 Universities ( Private 50, State 39, Federal 40); 203 Mono and Polytechnics (Private 21, State 99, Federal 83); 85 colleges of Education ( Private 21, State 43 ,Federal 21); and 65 innovative enterprise institutions (NUC, 2014; National Board for Technical Education, 2014). What distinguishes institutions of higher education from other institutions in society is their role in creating knowledge and producing high-potential graduates and researchers. For entrepreneurship education, focusing on institutions of higher education offers the chance to develop knowledge intensive high-growth enterprises from all academic disciplines, not just technical ones. Higher education institutions create an environment that fosters entrepreneurial mindsets, skills and behaviours across their organizations. Efforts are currently being made by the Nigerian government through several agencies at the federal and state levels alike to the issue of employment generation and job creation, particularly for tertiary education graduates. For instance, it is now a policy of the National Universities Commission (NUC) to encourage Nigerian universities to foster entrepreneurship culture through the teaching of entrepreneurship courses such that graduates are better equipped to be self-employable after    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

52

graduation. The entrepreneurial culture can broadly be described as a “can do” actionoriented attitude where ideas and creativity are the norm, and where failure is part of the creative process (Victor and Pauline, 2011). An entrepreneurial culture is an enterprising habit and practice that permits, encourages and allows for initiatives and innovation in a social environment. The entrepreneurial culture is hinged on the ability to think through projects and make them successful. It is a culture with novel ideas in which people are encouraged to develop small businesses. Fostering an entrepreneurship culture is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, and is believed to be a product of certain characteristics embedded in personality, including being opportunist, creative, individualist and hardworking (Heelas and Morris, 1992). The Nigeria Education Policy (2004) made it clear on the need for education, particularly higher education functional, to be relevant, practical and appropriate for acquisition of entrepreneurial skills as well as development of competencies. Nwangwu (2007); Odjegba (2005); Baba (2013) reported that about 80% of the graduates in Nigeria find it difficult to get employment annually. Universities, polytechnics and other higher education institutions as well as the industrial community stand to benefit a lot from the fostering of an entrepreneurial culture as part of higher education teaching. Aladekomo, (2004); Akpomi (2009) reported that this kind of interaction and interrelationship will go a long way in bridging the gap that exists between the entrepreneurs and the institutions. This paper makes a contribution to the discourse on the important role fostering entrepreneurial culture in higher education plays in shaping the prospects for job creation in Nigeria. Noting that full and productive employment as well as decent work for all is the most effective route out of poverty, we identify the focus of this paper as one of the main issues of the transformation agenda of government, which stresses on the importance of job creation for its teeming population. The paper is organized into five sections, including this introduction, which gives the background, objective and focus of the paper. Section two provides some conceptual understanding of job creation, as well as the link between entrepreneurial culture in higher education and creation of job opportunities. Section three highlights some review of government efforts towards fostering entrepreneurship culture in Nigeria. While section four attempts some insights into fostering entrepreneurship culture in Nigerian universities. Section five concludes the paper with tips which could serve as minimum requirements that should guide the fostering of entrepreneurship culture in higher education for increased job creation opportunities in Nigeria. Linking Entrepreneurial Culture in Higher Education and Job Creation An entrepreneurship culture is important to the growth of any economy, as it contributes in immeasurable ways toward creating new jobs, wealth creation, poverty reduction and income generating activities (Dickson, Solomon and Weaver, 2008; Ossai and Nwalado, 2012; Aruwa, 2004; Akpomi, 2009; Ojeifo, 2013; Baba, 2013). Akpomi (2009) argues that for any country to foster genuine economic growth and development, its educational system remains the bedrock. The importance of the entrepreneurship culture in economic development makes it apparent that careful attention needs to be paid to its attainment. Education is one of the preconditions for attaining the entrepreneurship culture and higher education in particular is an important input into entrepreneurship culture,    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

53

formation of new ventures, and entrepreneurial success (Dickson, Solomon, & Weaver, 2008; Nwachukwu and Nwamuo, 2010; Baba, 2013). It is therefore assumed that there is a positive relationship between education and individual choice to become an entrepreneur as well as the result and outcome of entrepreneurial activity. Many activities fall under the rubric of job creation, including immediate short-term opportunities that yield quick impact, or the development of more enduring livelihoods in the civil service or private sector. It is important to distinguish between these different activities, recognizing that sustainability and long-term impact should be duly considered in implementing any employment generation program. The foundation for job creation (2013), opens up four perspectives to job creation. Job creation by government spending/stimulus –the government can stimulate job creation when it invests in projects that improve or create new services. These activities could include releasing contracts to the private sector for infrastructure, defense, engineering, justice, etc. Other ways that the government creates jobs is by issuing special grants for privately run programs, in the form of special studies and research. The government may also decide to grow itself and hire new government employees. Some people argue that the bigger government gets; the more overhead private taxpaying industries must pay to support its costs.This is the easiest job creation method because the government seems to have an endless supply of tax payer’s money/credit. Job creation influenced by legislation and monetary policy—a change to monetary policies, tax incentives, and changes in regulations often affect employment. The government needs tax revenues and tries to measure complicated causal effects. The more there are major changes to tax structure and regulation, the more there are major movements in rates of employment, either job creation or job destruction. Too many changes can hurt an economy and too little can damage an economy. Job creation as a market share approach—job creation can occur when the unemployed become ambitious and start their own businesses in easy entry industries and markets. This is usually accomplished when an unemployed person turns into an entrepreneur and goes into business to compete in an industry they have been familiar with for many years. These new businesses create jobs simply by innovating and implementing novel ideas. Most small businesses that begin tend to change entire industries that were stuck in operating the “same old way” for years. This also leads to lower prices, stable wages, higher revenues, and growth for services in that industry. Job creation through ideas—innovate, create, invent, and invest. The most difficult but most effective way to create long term employment is to create new industries. It truly is the hardest but best way to continually grow an economy that can support its citizens with employment. For example, in the 1990’s the computer desk-top industry exploded along with the internet industry. It was a time of high prices for technology, confusion in this new young technology industry, and lots of good paying jobs. With reference to the job creation typologies given, the expectation, in an ideal situation is that graduates from higher education institutions should be able to harness opportunities. However, the reality on ground, especially in the Nigerian context shows that the demand and supply gap in job creation by the government or that influenced by legislation and monetary policies (private sector) respectively has continued to widen. There is also a mis-match between labour market requirements and essential employment skills by graduates (Ojegbile 2006). The author further reveals that inadequate educational facilities    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

54

such as non-provision of thorough vocational training in schools academic curricula; and the entrepreneur’s preference for capital intensive rather than labour intensive techniques of production have also contributed to growing unemployment. This obvious critical skills gap inhibits the development of youths and entire development of the nation. Given the foregoing scenario, the options left for job creation opportunities in Nigeria are the market share approach, and creation of new industries. For these two options to be accomplished, the assumption is that an entrepreneurship culture would have been imbibed by the graduates while in school. We attempt a broad categorisation of jobs into two types namely, employment jobs and entrepreneurial jobs. We define an employment job as a contractual arrangement between an employer and an employee that specifies work for pay, as in government civil service or private sector organisations. An entrepreneurial job on the other hand is a selfcreated position for exerting own efforts directly to job creation (Birch, 1979). Entrepreneurial jobs start small, with the entrepreneur as the only employee until production reaches an appropriate level, creating a need to hire employees to scale up output. It is worthy noting that these unpaid and self-employed jobs do make contributions to the economy, as they involve millions of individuals, even though they are not incorporated in the job counts that are the basis of much scholarly research, and this has tended to overinflate unemployment figures. Yet these are the beginnings of business entities that have the potential to create more entrepreneurial jobs as well as employment jobs. Review of the Efforts towards Fostering Entrepreneurship Culture in Nigeria Programs and projects to promote employment opportunities range from labour market interventions to public/private sector partnerships, plus self help and self employment initiatives. Fundamentally the Nigerian government promotes entrepreneurial culture through initiatives that build business confidence, positive attitude, pride in success, support, and encouragement of new ideas, social responsibility, providing technological supports, encouraging inter-firm linkages and promotion of research and development (Ebiringa, 2012). The role of government in entrepreneurship development in Nigeria became significant after the Nigeria civil war (1967-70), with a lot of focus on vocational and technical skiills acquisition. Starting from 1986, various administrations have embarked on initiatives to promote self dependence and self reliance in the generation of gainful self employment, particularly for the youth. The United Nations general assembly defines the “youth” as persons aged between 15 and 24 years. A working group for the UN’s world youth forum in Dakar, Senegal, August 2001, however requested that the UN reconsider its 15-24 years definition of youth and raised the upper limit to age 30 “to meet the challenges of young people specifically in developing countries. The National Youth Policy of Nigeria defines “youth” as young persons of ages 18-35 who are citizen of the federal republic of Nigeria. This category represents the most active, most volatile and yet the most vulnerable segment of the population. However, it is believed that the education system since post independence seemed to place emphasis on academic excellence rather than skill acquisition which can prepare the individual for a more useful and fulfilling life within the society. Vocational skills acquisition, it is believed would be more relevant to the development of the nation. A new national policy on education was promulgated in 1977, introducing vocational courses in the educational curriculum. The Chukwuma committee was    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

55

set up on 26th March, 1986 to address the missing link between vocational courses in the school curriculum and the employment challenge which was then beginning to assume an alarming proportion. The report of the committee led to the creation of the national directorate of employment in November 1986. It was charged with a long term goal of effecting a structural change in employment expectation and job search practices from public sector employment to private sector jobs and self employment. The areas of operation of NDE span the following programs: agricultural development program; youth employment and vocational skills development program; special public works; and small scale industries and graduate employment program. The aim of the agricultural program in particular was to create job opportunities for graduates, non-graduates and post-primary school leavers, with emphasis on self-employment in agricultural production and marketing (Chinedum, 2006). In 2003, the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) which is described as a home grown medium term development and poverty reduction plan came on board. NEEDS rests on four key pillars one of which is “Growing the Private Sector”. Under NEEDS, the private sector is positioned as the engine of growth of the economy. It is in this context that Nigerian universities under the aegis of the Nigerian Universities Commission (NUC) committed themselves to produce entrepreneurial graduates for the stimulation of private sector growth in Nigeria (NUC, 2004). Through NEEDS therefore, the education and training of entrepreneurs in Nigeria became a national agenda. The National University Commission (NUC) incorporated entrepreneurial development as a compulsory course to be taught in undergraduate programs of administration and management under its approved minimum academic standards for Nigerian universities (NUC, 1989). The aim of the commission was to have a curriculum that will “encourage selfreliance in the individual and of the nation”. Therefore starting from 2006 the curriculum of most universities in Nigeria got re-designed to train students in entrepreneurial initiatives, skills and theory acquisitions, regardless of their basic academic pursuits, in order to make them self-sufficient, as well as competent and efficient employers of labor, while also adding value to our national economy and the knowledge economy. Apart from ensuring that students have basic training in entrepreneurial initiatives, skills and theory acquisitions, regardless of their basic academic pursuits, universities are beginning to run core B.Sc (Entrepreurship) program. For example, the Program for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (PEI) is an outcome of the recommendations of the activities of the University of Ibadan’s committee on the promotion of university-private sector collaboration. The Centre for Entrepreneurship and Innovation (CEI) was subsequently established to coordinate the university’s research results and business activities aimed at promoting university-private sector collaboration as well as teaching and research in entrepreneurship innovation in the university. The Centre with the objective of teaching and encouraging students of higher institutions (especially in science, engineering and technological (SET) to acquire entrepreneurial, innovative, and management skills, was established. The Centre’s goal is to make the graduates self-employed, create job opportunities for others and to generate wealth (Ebiringa, 2012). A vital input into SET capacity building and education in Nigeria is the Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES). This is an academic program in Nigerian universities for which the government has legally established the required minimum standards for building capacity for designing, constructing, and maintaining engineering and other technology systems. The SIWES is an important part of    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

56

the engineering degree program at university level. The scheme is however severely constrained by a number of problems including; decreased enrollment rates in science and engineering disciplines, brain drain of academic staff, non-performance of the manufacturing sector in the country, and dwindling funds to operate the scheme (Bamiro, 2001). The SIWES is a tripartite cooperation involving institutions, students and industry. It is a structured relationship to provide translation of research ideas into productive ventures; commercialization of research results, and the much desired university-industry linkage (UIL) that is still very minimal or almost absent within the National Innovation System in Nigeria. The National System of Innovation (NSI) as a concept defines the system of interaction among firms (private and public), universities and government agencies whose goal is to produce science and technology goods within the national borders.The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation- Technical and Vocational Education (UNESCO-TVE) programs also exists in Nigeria, with the aim of fostering linkages and cooperation between higher institutions and industries such that academic research findings can readily be taken up by industries for production and product development. Are Nigerian Universities Actually Fostering an Entrepreneurship Culture? This paper agrees with Araba’s (2012) position that the design of many courses in Nigerian universities has nothing to do with entrepreneurship culture, business management, development or business start-up. Furthermore most of the courses taken in either sciences, social sciences or arts predominate on the technicalities of the courses and not the direct application for profitability outside the walls of the institution. It should however be recalled that the original mandate of these universities is to promote economic growth through research and development, teaching, and transfer of technology. Building entrepreneurial competencies is an additional responsibility that is just emerging, and more so within the context of the knowledge economy. Suffice it to say then, that Nigerian universities need to meet up this emerging responsibility and ion order to remain relevant and produce graduates that readily fit into the new knowledge economy. As such the need for fostering entrepreneurial culture into university education cannot be over-emphasised. Yahya (2011) asserted that the overall objective of entrepreneurship education in the university system is to continuously foster entrepreneurship culture amongst students and faculty with a view of not only educating them but to also support graduates of the system towards establishing and also maintaining sustainable business ventures, including but not limited to those arising from research. The role assigned to higher education institutions through their respective highest supervisory agencies is essentially the tasks of transmitting and implementing government's policy on entrepreneurship education in Nigeria. According to Yahya (2011), the expected outcomes from the assigned role include the following: establishing entrepreneurship study in all higher institutions, establishing the curriculum for the course, the development of teachers guide, instructional manual and students' handbook for sale as well as capacity building for at least ten lecturers in each university, establishment of entrepreneurship resource and knowledge centers in the NUC, and capacity-building for at least ten teachers in all universities and development of Masters and PhD programs in some selected universities. To date, it is believed that over 50,000 graduate trainees have gone through entrepreneurship education in Nigerian universities and they have been equipped    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

57

with sufficient entrepreneurial skills. Out of these 50,000, it is presumed that at least 10,000 graduates would be self-employed and self-reliant by establishing their own business ventures. Are Nigerian universities actually fostering an entrepreneurship culture? This rhetoric question is to enable an assessment to be made after almost 10 years of the NUC policy on this issue. Where are the 50,000 graduate trainees that have gone through entrepreneurship education in Nigerian universities? And to what extent have they been equipped with sufficient entrepreneurial skills. Are graduates in Nigeria self-employed and self-reliant? Are they establishing their own business ventures? NISER (2013) on youth employment and job creation in Nigeria attempts some evidences in this respect. Reporting cumulative figures, about 53.8 % of respondents that participated in the NISER study are higher education graduates, with 30.5 % attesting to having HND or B.Sc. degrees. Just above 23% have NCE/OND degrees, while 15.9% had acquired vocational training. About 25 % have secondary school education, and only 5.2% have primary school. Table 1 Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondents on Youth Employment and Job Creation in Nigeria Characteristics FCT Edo Imo Katsina Kogi Taraba SEX Male 51.5 38.8 53.6 59.3 10.2 71.9 Female 48.5 61.2 46.4 40.6 89.8 28.1 AGE RANGE 15-20 5.4 4.1 8.1 4.9 4.2 6.4 21-25 23.8 16.3 29.6 29.9 27.8 31.2 26-30 41.5 32.5 30.4 38.9 36.1 36.9 31-35 29.2 47.2 31.9 26.4 31.9 25.5 EDUCATION Primary 0.7 1.6 9.4 1.5 8.3 13.8 Secondary 24.6 29.1 28.2 8.1 43.0 22.8 Vocational 3.6 0.8 4.7 53.3 4.1 28.3 NCE/OND 20.3 13.4 22.8 26.7 29.2 28.3 HND/BSc 50.8 55.1 34.9 10.4 15.2 6.9 MARITAL STATUS 35.7 Married 44.0 32.5 35.3 52.8 55.7 61.6 Single 56.0 66.3 64.7 47.2 38.9 2.7 Widowed 0 1.2 0 0 3.4 0 Divorced/Separated 0 0 0 0 2.0

Lagos

Average

59.4 40.6

49.7 50.3

18.0 22.7 34.4 25.5

7.2 26.1 35.9 30.8

0 15.0 15.0 24.3 45.7

5.2 24.6 15.9 23.8 30.5

38.5 60.2 0.8 0

42.4 56.1 1.1 0.3

Source: NISER Field survey 2013

Almost 35% of the total respondents secured their present job through government support or assisted programs, while 26.2% are in the private sector. We classify these two categories as “employment jobs”. Only 39.3% are in entrepreneurial jobs. Ironically graduates in entrepreneurial jobs account for only one third of these 39.3%. Table 2 Classification of the types of jobs secured by youths in Nigeria Type Government Support/ Assisted Program ( public sector) Private sector Personal Efforts (Entrepreneurial jobs) Source: Field survey, October 2013

Total 34.4 26.2 39.3

Specifically the government support or assisted programs available to the youths are the federal and state intervention programs. Some of these programs at state level include EDO-YES program, LASTMA in Lagos state, and YES-O in Oyo State. The salary structure on the scheme is graduated, with a maximum of about N30, 000 for graduates. The need for    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

58

skill development and acquisition in preparation for lifelong earnings and the necessity to begin to explore self employment came up as the cogent suggestions given by respondents for achieving the creation of more jobs. Inadequate finance and/ access to start-up capital is one of the deterrents to self-employment (entrepreneurial jobs). There have been several actions by government to prompt the provision of easy access to loans and to materials for empowerment (Simbine et al, 2014; Akerele and Chete, 1996). Inadequate infrastructural support also limits the results of the entrepreneurship culture that might have been fostered in higher education. As part of the infrastructural challenge, the problems of energy (electricity) and transportation remain high. Other challenges border on the commitment of the would-be entrepreneur. NISER (2013) observed that youths in particular are not committed to developing themselves. They are always looking for shortcuts. Many of them that participate in training programs or skill acquisition activities often fail to make use of the skills acquired. Some of them squander the money given to them in form of financial assistance or sell equipment provided for them to operate and earn quick money. Conclusion and Recommendations Fostering entrepreneurship culture in higher education can be regarded as a move from theory to practice in real life experience. Entrepreneurship is an important diffusion mechanism to transform scientific inventions into new product and service innovations. Higher education institutions (HEI) should therefore continue to create an environment that fosters entrepreneurial mind-sets, skills and behaviours, in ways that benefit society. Technical-oriented HEI in particular will provide potential breeding grounds for high technology and high-growth companies or gazelles, therefore play a pivotal role in the development of resource hubs connecting researchers, students, entrepreneurs, companies and other stakeholders. We recommend the following as minimum requirements that should guide the fostering of entrepreneurship culture in higher education for increased prospects in job opportunities in Nigeria. The continued presence of a strong theoretical basis in HEI such that proven concepts from expert theory, will lead to practical training to acquire the skills and abilities, experiences, and relationships, needed on how to become entrepreneurs. Provision of an integrative curriculum that is student-focused, and customized to fit individual learning strategies, styles, and goals. It should include practice though industry tours, networking sessions, start-up experiences, guest speakers, case studies, and venture readiness. Innovative tools and concepts to help students engage in innovative simulation sessions to assess their own venture readiness and the viability of the venture they are planning. This becomes like a tool kit that prepares the student for the business world, including a simulation of some of the challenges that may come on board. Introduction of an international perspective to prepare students to fit in global developments and be able to take advantage of business opportunities anywhere in the world. The need for committed faculty in the teaching of entrepreneurship programs. The team should include leading entrepreneurship scholars and practitioners who are committed to providing an outstanding educational experience. It is important to involve stakeholders outside of HEI in fostering the entrepreneurship culture for motivation and mentorship, and this should be an essential part of the teaching modules and programs.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

59

References Akerele, W.O. and L. N. Chete. 1996. “Managing the Nigerian Economy beyond Adjustment: The Place of the Informal Sector”, Nigerian Journal of Economic and Social Studies, Vol. 38, No. 3, pp171-183. Akpomi, M.E. (2009). Achieving Millennium Development Goal (MDGs) through teaching entrepreneurship education in Nigeria higher education institution. Europea Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 8(1), 152 – 159. Aladekomo, F.O. (2004). Nigeria educational policy and entrepreneurship. Journal of Social Sciences Vol. 9(2), 38 - 75. Araba, S. O. (2012). Entrepreneurial education as a tool for reducing unemployment in Nigeria. A Dissertation submitted to the school of postgraduate studies, Babcock university, Ilishan Remo, Ogun State, Nigeria. Aruwa, S.A.S (2004). The business of entrepreneurs; a guide to entrepreneurial development. Journal of Development of Business Administration University of Ilorin, Nigeria, Vol.2 (1): 112 – 122. Baba, G.K. (2013). The Challenges of entrepreneurship development in Nigeria and Way Forward. Journal of Business and Organizational Development. Vol. 5, (1), 54 – 64. Bamiro, O. A (2001). Engineering and Technology Education: the Nigerian Experience. Draft Input Document into Technical Report on Strategic Management of Science and Technology Policy in Nigeria by G.O.A Lad tan, B Oyelaran-_Oyeyinka and F, M Adeyinka, Project sponsored by Carnegie Corporation of New York June 1998June 2001. Bairoch, J. E. 2006. ”Unemployment Statistics and What They Mean” Monthly Labour Bulletin, Washington DC, United States Department of Labour. Birch, David (1979). The Job Creation Process, Cambridge, MA: Center for the Study of Neighbourhood and Regional Change, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chinedum, B. (2006). Attacking Unemployment Hurdles in the Fragile Economies of the Sub Saharan Africa: The Experience of Nigeria. College of Foreign Students’ Education; China. Dickson, P.H., Solomon, G.T. & Weaver, K.M. (2008). Entrepreneurial Selection and Success: Does Education Matter? Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development, Vol. 15(2), 239 – 258. Ebiringa, T (2012). Perspectives: Entrepreneurship Development & Growth of Enterprises in Nigeria. Entrepreneurial Practice Review. Volume 2 Issue 2 Essia U and N, Ayara (2012) Jobless Growth, the Active Poor Phenomenon and Youth Unemployment in Cross River State, Nigeria: Learning Points from Europe 2020 Flagship Initiative Agenda for New Skills and Jobs. Science Journal of Economics. ISSN: 2276-6286. Heelas, P. and Morris, P. (1992). “Enterprise Culture: Its value and value”, in P. Heelas and P. Morris, (Eds). The value of the Enterprise Culture: The Mortal Debate, Routledge, London, pp. 36 – 58. Inyiama, H. C and Agu M. N (2008). Using IT to Reduce Poverty and Create Wealth. Conference Proceedings of the Nigerian Computer Society. Abuja. Nigeria.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

60

Manggoel, W., Ajiji, I., Damar, W.K., Damiyal, D.M., Da’ar, J.W., Zarmai, D.U. (2012). Agriculture as a Mitigating Factor to Unemployment in Nigeria. International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science. Vol. 2(11) pp. 465-468. National Board for Technical Educaton (2014). List of Institutions under the Purview of NBTE. Federal, State and Private Polytechnics, Monotechnics and Colleges in Nigeria. NISER (2013). Youth Employment and Job Creation in Nigeria. Trends and Sectoral Contexts. A Research Publication. Economic Policy Research Department, Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research. Nwachukwu, L.C. and Nwamuo, P. (2010). Entrepreneurship Development for Sustainable Livelihood among Youths in Imo State: Implication for Counseling, Conference Proceedings, CASSON. Nwagwu, I. O. (2007). Higher Education for Self-Reliance: an Imperative for the Nigerian Economy, NEAP Publication. Odjegba, E. (2005). “Building Nigeria’s Entrepreneurship: What Stakeholders Say about Essential Ingredients”. Sunday Vanguard, July 3. Ojegbile, G. A (1986). Unemployment in Nigeria: Magnitude, Causes and Effectual Solution. The Nigerian Economic Society Annual Confernce. , Kaduna. May 1986. Ojeifo, S.A. (2013). Entrepreneurship Education in Nigeria. A Panacea for Youth Unemployment. Journal of Education and Practice, Vol. 4 (6), 61 – 67. Ossai, A.G. and Nwalado (2012). Entrepreneurship Education: A Panacea for Sustainable Development in Nigeria. Journal of Resourcefulness and Distinction, Vol. 1(1), 78 – 86. Simbine, A. T., W. O. Akerele, J. O. Adeoti, F. M. Adeyinka, A. Abimbola, I.M. Momodu, A.S. Alamu, A.E. Agaba, N. Ahmed (2014). Effects of Informal Credit on Micro, Small and Medium Scale Enterprises in the North Central Zone of Nigeria, Ibadan, NISER and Think Tank Initiative (TTI). The Foundation for Job Creation (2013). Job Creation Definition. http://www.jobcreation.us. Victor, I. I and Pauline, E. E. (2011). Enterprise Culture: An Educational Imperative for Nigeria Social, Economic and Cultural Re-Engineering. Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 4(1). Yahya, U (2011). Why We Set Entrepreneurship Studies in Varsities. FG. http://www.nuc.edu.ng/pages/universities.asp?ty=2&order=inst_name&page=1

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

61

University Industry Collaboration and Graduates’ Unemployment in Ondo State, Nigeria Adepoju O.O. & Adedeji A.O9

Research evidence shows that university industry collaboration presents a wide range of benefits to industries, higher institutions, and to the development of a nation. This study investigated the existence of university industry collaboration, the factors militating against the collaboration, and the extent to which university industry collaboration can reduce unemployment in Nigeria. A descriptive survey was adopted in the study. The study revealed that a weak relationship exists between the universities and industries in Nigeria. It was also revealed that university industry relationships significantly reduce the level of unemployment among graduates in Nigeria. In addition, lack of interest on the part of industries and lack of awareness of the importance of university industry relationship were the major factors militating against university industry collaboration. Therefore, strengthening university industry will create more industries and entrepreneurial businesses, thereby minimizing the rate of unemployment in the country. Keywords: University, Industry, Collaboration, Unemployment The increasing rate of graduates’ unemployment in Nigeria is becoming a disconcerting issue to the government, parents, students and the nation at large. Despite the various government interventions towards the reduction of unemployment in Nigeria, the rate of graduates’ unemployed is still high in the country. Unemployment constitutes a macroeconomic problem that has great effect on the development of the nation. This problem is being reflected in the low national income, low standard of living, and low per capital income of the nation. Moreover, this situation has constantly threatened youths of the nation, thereby creating frustration, rejection and resulting into several misconducts. A recent report in the nation’s newspaper reveals that one million graduates are churned out annually from over 300 universities, polytechnics, and colleges of education in Nigeria. Moreover, experts fear that Africa, particularly Nigeria’s rate of unemployment in the global context might increase disproportionately with attendant unsavoury consequences unless the country immediately adopts pro-active and holistic approach to halt the rising unemployment (Okereocha, 2014). Consequently, it becomes important to discover new strategies of reducing the rate of unemployment among graduate in the country. According to Awuor (2013), universities are supposed to impart high level skills to a reasonable proportion of the workforce, develop the intellectual capability of individuals and develop professionals needed virtually in all spheres of human endeavour. They are expected to contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training, research and their partnership with the industries. According to Schartinger, Rammera,                                                              9

Department of Project Management Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria. [email protected] ; [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

62

Fischer and Frohlich (2002), universities are meant to play three distinct roles. They conduct fundamental and applied research that shift the knowledge frontier of industry over time.They generate innovations that are of immediate relevance to industry. Universities produce human capital through the training and researchers. In Nigeria, the university system started with the initiative of the colonial administration which led to the establishment of the first university in 1948. The recognition of the few educated Nigerians who lacked the knowledge of managerial and technical skills required for industrial production, gave the impetus towards the establishment of the university. Consequently, university created the pool of manpower required for the civil service in Nigeria. Within the context of knowledge intensive economies, governments are increasingly aware of the importance of higher education institutions as strategic actors in both national and regional economic development, given their potential to upgrade skills and knowledge of the labour force and contribute towards producing and processing innovation through technology. Nevertheless, despite the need for intellectual capability that spurred the creation of a university system, there is an increasing rate of graduate unemployment. Research evidences revealed that this is caused by the minimal linkages of universities with the productive sector at every level, from big industry, to agricultural producers, to medium-and-small scale enterprises (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). As a result, graduates produced from the universities lack the practical skills to satisfy the employer’s needs (Ramakrishnan and Yasin, 2011). The skills, knowledge and training that students receive at many African universities do not prepare them adequately to meet the requirements of industries and the job market because of the gap between the industries and universities (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). In addition, new knowledge acquired and several researches conducted in the universities end up as paper work due to the gap in the relationship between the industries and the university. As a result, the economic system becomes affected, due to lack of innovations which invariably prevent expansion, creation of new industries and the few industries become depressed and eventually collapse. Several authors have advocated for the responsibility of university to extend beyond teaching and research to creating a developmental universities that collaborate with external environments such as the industries. Higher institutions are widely recognized as essential contributors to economic development through their role in producing the knowledge, skills, and innovations needed to drive their respective national economies (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). This means that there is need to create a strong linkage between the educational sector and the productive sector that requires the skills and knowledge of graduates from universities and other higher education institutions to increase productivity, scientific and technological innovations that promote real and sustained economic growth and social development. Several developed and developing nations of the world have greatly benefited from this collaboration (World Bank, 2013). Therefore, considering the great benefits through knowledge creation leading to innovations and industrial growth, the benefit of university –industry collaboration cannot be neglected to achieve greater development in Nigeria especially in the area of industrial growth and expansion leading to employment generation.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

63

University Industry Collaboration Collaboration between higher institutions and industries has existed a long time, particularly in the technology based areas. This partnership was first introduced by Sunderland Technical College in Northern England in 1903 which was known as Sandwich Program (Ramakrishnan and Yasin, 2011). Globally, the issue of university industries partnership has become very prominent on the agenda of higher education policy making, at national and institutional level (International Institute Educational Planning (IIEP), 2000). Traditionally, industry sought partnerships with universities as a means of identifying and training future employees. University-industry collaboration takes various forms and involves diverse levels of commitment. These include research and development, training and curriculum development, and consultancy (Martin, 2000). In terms of teaching and training, university-industry activities include offering professional courses on a fee-basis to respond to the particular skill and training needs of an industry. Also, creating opportunities for student attachments and co-op placements in the productive sector is another common way in which universities link up with industries (Homma and Attalage, 2008). Industries also play a role in defining student research projects that focus on issues and problems of direct interest to industry (Boersmaa and Gibbons, 2008). Developed nations of the world have greatly benefited from the collaboration between universities and industries. Such linkages have helped to coordinate research and development (R&D) agendas, stimulate additional private R&D investment, exploit synergies and complementarities of scientific and technological capabilities, foster the commercialization of public R&D outcomes and increase the mobility of labor between public and private sectors (World Bank, 2013). The benefits of university industry collaboration are also evident in developing countries. For example, a study in Chile and Colombia shows that collaboration with universities substantially increased the propensity of firms to introduce new products and to patent (Marotta, Blom, and Thorn, 2007). Universities represent an important driver of economic development and catching up through their role in education and technology absorption, adaptation, and diffusion (Yusuf 2007). For majority of firms, the most important link to a university is through recruitment of skilled graduates. Consequently, education and training remains one of the key roles of universities, especially in lower income countries where the lack of skilled workers is a major bottleneck hindering the competitiveness and innovative capacity of firms (World Bank, 2013). The basis for this relationship is not necessarily with a focus on commercialization and profit-making but rather with the broader purpose of contributing to social and economic development (Brundenius, Lundvall, and Sutz 2009). Such focal point is to consider how this collaboration can proffer solution to the increasing rate of unemployment. According to Ramakrishnan and Yasin, 2011, several benefits of university industry collaboration (UIC) were highlighted as creating new knowledge by collaborating with industry. Individuals with specialized knowledge in industry share their experiences and exchange information by conducting technical talks in university. Enriching teaching resources; university industry collaboration helps to enrich the teaching resources through more practical and hands on experience such as a research or design project included in the learning objectives. Industries act as consultant to students. Industries are in the position to advice students on the latest projects and skills required in the market. Industries also offers career guidance to the students such as informing graduates on job vacancies, resume    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

64

writing, interviewing techniques and career planning. Through this collaboration, industries are able to disseminate important information on contract, full-time and part-time job announcements to the higher institutions such as posting or uploading the latest skills required in the market for specific position and view students’ resumes looking for job. In serving as students’mentors in career choice, the system avails the new intake students the opportunity to get advice from the employer on the courses to choose. Also, graduated students also could contribute their experiences in job market and may advice their juniors on the skills and other important capabilities that they need to succeed in the job market. Industries also offer internships for students as they are familiar with the students’ background. However, the engagement of university industry collaboration in developing and African countries is not imminent (World Bank, 2013; Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). According to a research conducted by the Association of African Universities (AAU) in 2012, universities in African countries are being confronted with considerable constraints regarding the structure of their economies, political environments, and institutional research capacity (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). Other problems hindering universityindustry collaboration include; lack of an enabling environment for reorienting and aligning universities towards a more entrepreneurial role. Prevalence of small industries which are often small to medium scale firms producing for local markets. Lack of awareness of existing research results and new technologies on the part of industries. Weak capacity of African universities to conduct research and technology development. Low salaries and moonlighting activities of some academic staff has led to the migration of many talented academics to wealthier parts of the world with few qualified researchers to conduct local research. But despite the poor state of university industry linkages in Africa, African universities are taking steps to initiate and accelerate measures to strengthen institutional capacity to support linkages with industry and the broader productive sector (Ginies and Mazurelle, 2010 and Tiyambe, 2004). Research Objectives The objective of this study was to examine the extent of university industry collaboration and graduates unemployment in Nigeria. The specific objectives were; 1. To investigate the extent of university industry collaboration in Ondo State. 2. To examine the factors militating against university industry collaboration. 3. To assess the influence of university industry collaboration on unemployment reduction. Research Questions 1. What is the extent of university industry collaboration in Nigeria? 2. What are the factors militating against university industry collaboration in Nigeria? 3. Can university industry collaboration significantly reduce unemployment in Nigeria? Methodology The study adopted a descriptive survey research design, which assessed the responses of the sampled personalities selected in three universities; the Federal University of Technology, Akure (FUTA), Adekunle Ajasin University (AAU), and Achievers University Owo (AUO) and ten (service and manufacturing) industries in Ondo state. The population of    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

65

the study comprised deans, heads of department, lecturers, and key officers in the students’ affairs and Students Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) of the three universities and key personalities (Human Resource Manager, Managing Directors, and General Managers) from industries in Ondo State. A cluster random sampling technique was used to sample 150 respondents from the universities and 100 respondents from the industries, thus a total of 250 respondents. The study instruments included, structured questionnaires used for quantitative data while In-depth individual interview (IDI) were used for qualitative data collection. The questionnaire had three basic sections, ranging from section A-C. Section A of the questionnaire contained items measuring socio-demographic information of the respondents. Section B measured the extent of university industry collaboration, while Section C contained items that measured the potential of university industry collaboration in the reduction of graduate’s unemployment. The questionnaires were administered by research assistants and the researcher ensured the retrieval of all questionnaires. The descriptive statistical analysis was done using the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS 20.0). Results Table 1 The Socio-demographic characteristics for the Respondents across the study Participants VARIABLES MALE NAME OF INSTITUTIONS n n% FUTA 40 16.0% AAUA 50 20.0% AUO 50 20.0% INDUSTRIES Manufacturing Industries 48 19.2% Service industries 38 15.2% Total 226 90.4% STATUS Deans 03 01.2% Head of Departments 23 09.2% Student affair officers 12 04.8% Lecturers 102 40.8% Managing Directors 10 04.0% General Managers 11 04.4% HR managers/personnel 08 03.2% Senior staff 57 22.8% Total 226 90.4% YEARS OF EXPERIENCE Below 5years 07 02.8% 5-10 years 14 05.6% 11-20 years 146 58.4% 21-30 years 42 16.8% 31-40 years 17 06.8%

FEMALE n 10 00 00

n% 04.0% 00% 00%

TOTAL N 50 50 50

% 20% 20% 20%

02 12 24

0.80% 4.80% 09.6%

50 50 250

20% 20% 100%

00 00 06 04 01 03 05 05 24

00.0% 00.0% 02.4% 01.6% 0.40% 01.2% 02.0% 02.0% 09.6%

03 23 18 106 11 14 13 62 250

1.2% 9.2% 7.2% 42.4% 4.4% 5.6% 5.2% 24.8% 100%

03 08 09 04 00

01.2% 03.2% 03.6% 01.6% 00.0%

10 22 155 46 17

4.0% 8.8% 62.0% 18.4% 06.8%

Total

226

90.4%

24

09.6%

250

100%

B.sc M.sc P.HD Above PhD Total

93 96 34 03 226

37.2% 12.5% 38.4% 01.2% 90.4%

16 07 01 00 24

06.4% 02.8% 0.40% 00.0% 09.6%

119 103 35 03 250

43.6% 15.3% 38.8% 01.2% 100%

EDU. QUALIFICATION

Table 1 shows that 90.4% of the total respondents were male while 9.6% were female from FUTA, AAUA, AUO, manufacturing industries, and service industries. 1.2% of the total respondents were deans from the selected universities, 9.2% were heads of departments, and    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

66

7.2% were staff of students’ affair unit. 42.4% were experienced lecturers. 4.4% of the total respondents were managing directors from some selected industries, 5.6% were general managers, and 5.2% were HR manager/personnel while 24.8% were senior staff from selected industries. 4% of the total respondents had less than 5 years working experience, 8.8% had between 5-10 years working experience, 62% had between 11-20 years working experience, 18.4% had between 21-30 years of working experience, while, 6.8% had between 31-40 years of working experience. Research Question 1 What is the extent of university industry collaboration in Nigeria?

Figure 1 shows the responses of the academic staff in the universities and the workers in the industries in relation to the extent of collaboration that exist between the two sectors. 97% of the total respondents agreed that a weak relationship exists between the universities and industries in Nigeria, the remaining 3% scored the relationship between universities and industries to be on average level, while none of the respondents consented to strong relationship between universities and industries. Therefore, there is a weak collaboration between universities and industries in Nigeria. Research Question 2 What are the factors militating against Universities- Industries collaboration in Nigeria?

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

67

Figure 2 shows the responses of the academic staff in the universities and the workers in the industries in relation to the factors militating against the university industry collaboration. 1% of the total respondents agreed that falling in the standard of education is the sole factor militating against university industry collaboration, 23% consented to lack of awareness of the importance of university industry collaboration, 57% consented to lack of interest on the part of industries, 2% consented to lack of interest on the part of universities, 1% consented to high rate of industrial migration from Nigeria to other countries, 4% consented to inadequate infrastructure and basic support from government and industrialist which will facilitate industrial growth, 7% consented to the decline in industrialization due to bankruptcy, mismanagement, e.t.c. while 5% consented that shift from human skills to computer skills constitute a threat to universities-industries relationship. Therefore, the major militating factor against universities-industries collaboration are hierarchically identified as; lack of interest on the part of industries, lack of awareness of the significant of universityindustry relationship, decline in industrialization, technology, inadequate infrastructure and support, lack of interest on the part of universities, falling standard of education, and industrial migration. Research Question 3 Can university industry collaboration significantly reduce unemployment in Nigeria?

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

68

Figure 3 shows the responses of the academic staff in the universities and the workers in the industries in the relation to university industry collaboration reducing graduate unemployment in Nigeria. 98% of the key informants to the study consent that strong university industry collaboration will significantly reduce rate of unemployment among Nigeria graduates, while 2% consented that strong university industry collaboration will not reduce rate of unemployment among Nigeria graduates. Therefore, based on the major prevalence responses of the key informants to the study, it is widely believed the university industry collaboration will significantly reduce unemployment among Nigeria Graduates. Content Analysis Index of the In-depth Interview (IDI) The result of the IDI reviewed that re-introduction of university industry relationship will significantly reduce rate of unemployment among Nigeria graduates. The reintroduction of the collaboration as envisage is to block the increasing rate of unemployment to be caused by fresh graduates while government in its own capacity defies means in reducing the alarming numbers of unemployment in circulation. Content analysis Index also revealed that collaboration between industries and universities will not be parasite relationship but symbiosis relationship, i.e. the duo will benefit from the relationship. Universities-Industries relationship will not only significantly reduce unemployment but tackle most industrial challenges and provide answers to longtime unanswered questions in the industries through comprehensive research and experiments. In conclusion, the Content Analysis Index identified some factors militating against the collaboration between industries and universities outside the previously identified ones. Discussion The main purpose of the study was to examine the extent to which university industry collaboration can reduce the unemployment rate of graduates in Nigeria. The study with reference to Ondo state revealed that there is a weak collaboration between universities and industries which is common to several African countries (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012, Awuor 2013 and World Bank, 2013). This collaboration is considered necessary in improving the skills, knowledge and training of students in the universities which will    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

69

prepare them adequately to meet the requirements of industry and the job market ((Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012 and Ramakrishnan and Yasin, 2011). We can state both the universities and industries believe that the collaboration will solve the problem of unemployment. Furthermore, the result of the study establishes several militating factors hindering the collaboration of universities and industries in Nigeria. However responses from reveal a lack of interest on the part of industries and a lack of awareness of the importance of university industry relationship. Other factors revealed include; decline in industrialization, inadequate technology, inadequate infrastructure and support, lack of interest on the part of universities, falling standard of education and industrial migration. Some of these problems are prevalence to several African countries (Ssebuwufu, Ludwick and Beland 2012). Conclusion and Recommendations There is a clear indication that collaboration between universities and industries can proffer solutions to the increasing rate of graduate unemployment in Nigeria. This partnership offers enormous benefits to higher institutions, industries and the larger economy. These benefits create new knowledge, enrich teaching resources, provide quality internship programs to students, coordinate Research and Development and contribute to national development through high level relevant manpower training and research. Also, industries play a role in defining students’ research projects that focus on issues and problems of direct interest to industry. The growth and the expansion of industries lie heavily on the produce of the universities in terms of innovations generated, applied research and the intellectual capabilities developed. Consequently, this goes a long way to create more industries and job opportunities, thereby minimizing the rate of graduate unemployment in the country. Therefore, in order to strengthen the relationship between the two sectors, the government is required to formulate and implement policies in the following areas. Policies enforcing the industries collaboration with higher institutions as a basic requirement in staying in business. Policies on adequate funding of the universities’ research and researchers to boost the quality of research. This will build the confidence of industries on research conducted in the universities and strengthen the collaboration between industries with university.Policies to stimulate patent activity of universities and commercialization of research products.Policies on government funding of viable entrepreneurial ideas emanating from the universities. This will lead to the creation of more business and industries. References Adeoti, J. (2009). University-Industry linkage and the Challenge of Creating Developmental Universities in Nigeria. Towards Quality in African Higher Education. Retrieved from herp-net/org., Paris Chapter 28, pp 375-387. Awuor, P. (2013). Graduate Unemployment and Unemployability in Kenya: Transforming University Education to cope with Market Demands and the Lessons for Africa. International Journal of Social Science Tomorrow Vol. 2 No. 3 pp 1-12. Brundenius, A, Lundvall and Sutz, J. (2009).The Role of Universities in innovation systems in Developing Countries: Developmental University System- Empirical, in Innovation and Normative Perspective: A Handbook of Innovation System and Developing Countries. Homma, H., Ikeda, and Attalage, R. (2008).Strengthening University-Industry Linkage in    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

70

Developing Countries Through international Cooperation: Case Study of Sri Lanka through Cooperation of Toyohashi University of Technology, Japan. Springer Science and Business, Media B.V. International Institute of Educational Planning (IIEP). (2000). University-Industry Partnerships. The Changing Context. Vol 18. No 3, July -September 2000. IIEP Newsletter. Paris. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/iiep. Ramakrishnan, K and Yasin, N. (2011).Higher Learning Institution-Industry Collaboration: A Necessity to improve Teaching and Learning process. The 6th International Conference on Computer Science and Education (ICCSE). August 3-5, 2011). Superstar Virgo Singapore. pp 1445-1449. Marrotta, D., Blom, A. and Thorn, K (2007). Human Capital and University-Industry Linkages. Role in Fostering Firm Innovation: An Empirical Study in Chile and Colombia. Policy Research Working Paper 4443, World Bank, Washington, DC. Retrieved from https:openknowledeg.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle. Martin, M. (2000). Managing University-Industry Relation: A study of institutional PracticesFrom 12 Different Countries. A Working Document in the Series ‘‘Improving the Managerial Effectiveness of Higher Education Institutions. IIEP/UNESCO. Okereocha, C (2014). Concern over Rising Unemployment. The Nation, February 25 Retrieved from http://thenationonlineng.news. Schartinger, D., Rammera, C., Fischer, M and Fröhlich, J (2002). Knowledge interactionsbetween universities and industry in Austria: sectoral patterns and determinants. Research Policy 31: pp 303-328. Retrieved from www.elsevier.com/locate/econbase Ssebuwufu, J., Ludwick, T and Beland, M. (2012). Strengthening University- Industry Linkages in Africa: A study on Institutional Capacities and Gaps. Association of African Universities (AAU) Accra-North Ghana. pp 1-61 Retrieved from http:www.aau.org. Accessed 9th September, 2014. Wikipedia (2014): Definition of University. Retrieved from http://en.m.wikipedia.org. Accessed 12th September, 2014 World Bank (2013). Promoting University- Industry Collaboration in Developing Countries. Policy Brief. pp 1-11 Retrieved from http://wwwinnovationpolicyform.org. Accessed 9th September, 2014. Yusuf, S. (2007). University-Industry Links: Policy Dimension on How Universities Promote Economic Growth. pp 1-26. World Bank, Washington DC. Retrieved from http://demo.netcommlabs.com/innovationgrid/pdf/How_University.pdf.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

71

Contemporary Issues Necessitating Reform in Higher Education Programs and Curricula in Response to Challenges of Employability Adebisi M.A (PhD) & Akinkuowo F. O10

Learning at the tertiary level of education could be described as being effective and functional, if it results in bringing about the expected transformation in the lives of its graduates over a period of time. Moreover effective learning should produce graduates who are adequately informed and technically equipped to become productive workers and selfreliant individuals in the 21st century. The Nigerian labour market and higher education have for long remained in a state of disequilibrium, the link between them is completely lost. As the supply of university and other tertiary institutions graduates continues to increase, the labour absorptive capacity of the economy continues to fall. This paper enumerates the various causes of unemployment in Nigeria. Among the immediate, short and long term measures recommended are curriculum re-engineering, promotion of enterprise culture to induce self-reliance and risk taking, linking education and training with the labour market, promotion of micro and small scale sector enterprises, and promotion of an entrepreneurship culture in the tertiary institution program. Key Words: Contemporary, higher education, curricula, challenges, employability Pressures of the contemporary age require people, communities and educational institutions to continually appraise, develop and utilize different kinds of knowledge, value systems, and soft skills to adapt to and contribute to change in constructive ways. Modern labour market demands a higher degree of ability and operating skills and the acquisition of the requisite skills as means to increase the productive power of a nation. Considering the rate at which a large number of graduates were being disqualified during job tests and interties because of their inability to meet the globalized employment requirements, it is imperative to build employability curricula into higher education. This will remove the clog in the wheel of the national drive toward achieving the MDGs. In Nigeria, unemployment is no longer confined to particular groups. In the 1960s and 70s, unemployment was common among primary and secondary school leavers. Moreover, few people could afford university education. By the middle of 1980s, the problem of graduate unemployment started to manifest in Nigeria and presently unemployment has reached an alarming stage cutting across all levels of education. The unemployment rate was at 9.9% in the country in 2011 (Table 1). Particularly disturbing is the youths’ unemployment rate. 3 million graduates are turned out every year without any job prospects in the labour market, and with no indication of a declining trend. The central goal of education is to prepare the student for productive employment. Over the past three decades, Nigerian graduates form tertiary levels of  

                                                             10

Training and Research Department, National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA) Ondo, Nigeria

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

72

education are increasingly facing the dilemma of prolonged periods of joblessness. Bello (2003) reveals that unemployment in Nigeria affects energetic youths within the age group of 24 and 44years more than any other age groups in Nigeria. This implies that many youths with dynamic resources wonder around without gainful engagements. However, a further breakdown of Bello’s analysis shows that the secondary school leavers were worse hit by the unemployment crises in Nigeria. Labour Force, Employment and Unemployment: 1980-2011 Year Labour Force (Million) 1980 20.2 1981 20.85 1982 21.52 1983 22.21 1984 22.92 1985 23.65 1986 24.41 1987 25.19 1988 25.99 1989 26.82 1990 27.38 1991 27.94 1992 26.30 1993 30.58 1994 31.27 1995 31.95 1996 32.65 1997 41.60 1998 43.20 1999 46.85 2000 49.70 2001 50.45 2002 51.23 2003 52.68 2004 53.70 2005 56.82 2006 58.31 2007 60.01 2008 61.07 2009 62.15 2010 63.25 2011 64.37

Employment (Million) 19.31 19.88 20.47 21.01 21.64 22.25 22.89 23.53 24.18 24.85 25.26 25.74 25.15 28.23 28.90 29.55 30.20 37.40 38.90 40.99 43.00 43.66 44.80 46.80 47.81 49.10 50.28 51.50 54.00 54.47 56.52 58.01

Unemployment Rate (%) 4.0 4.65 4.90 5.40 5.57 5.90 6.23 6.58 6.95 7.34 7.75 7.90 7.75 7.68 7.59 7.51 7.41 10.20 10.00 12.50 13.50 13.60 12.55 11.20 11.00 13.60 13.80 14.20 11.60 10.70 10.60 9.88

Sources: Fourth Development Plan 1981-1985, National Rolling Plan 1990-2003, & National Manpower Board 1980-2006

Causes of Unemployment in Nigeria One cannot emphatically admit that the situation in our tertiary institutions in terms of quality and relevance of training is one of the major causes of employment in Nigeria. This is so because most of the organization in the private sector, especially the oil companies, conglomerates, MGOs and other multinational companies advertise positions to be filled by graduates. These companies employ Nigeria graduates and train them in line with what operates in their companies and not necessarily retraining them in line with their respective field or profession. Few companies in the private sector are recruiting fresh graduates, while the public sector which employs about seven percent of university graduates in Nigeria has repeatedly placed embargos on employment. This invariably creates a growth in the unemployment situation, particularly among tertiary institutions graduates in the country.To support the fact that it is not the improper training of graduates that cause unemployment in Nigeria, but that there are no vacancies to absorb the ever growing graduates’ turnout each    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

73

year, the chief executive of the National Manpower Board in the Guardian (September 25, 2000) states that in his office, 7,500 persons applied for 20 vacancies. One specification of the 20 jobs had 1,200 persons applying. The problem is that the 7,500 were qualified for the job. The board can only employ 20 people, the remaining 7,480 youths will have to go back to the labour market to seek for employment or be self-employed. This trend cuts across other organizations implying that something must be done drastically to encourage more investment by the private sector while the government should look for a way to absorb more fresh graduates into the public sector. Another reason for the growth of unemployment in Nigeria is the laying waste of the industrial, agricultural and mining sectors. Also, the vandalisation and inability to upgrade most refineries to meet the high level technological needs of our time. The effect of the depreciation of the Nigeria currency over time in relation to other currencies cannot be overemphasized in employment creation because this has multiple effects on the economy. Most industries in Nigeria that depend on imported raw materials were not able to afford the price, thus leading to the close down of their factories. Besides, some private sector employers prefer to use expatriates rather than Nigerian graduates, while most young graduates do not want to enter into self-employment because of lack of funds. Most people in the public or private sector who are due for retirement but “sit-tight” in their positions are denying the young graduates the privilege of entering the labour market. In Nigeria, the quality and relevance of education have declined as academic recourses, whether teachers or equipment and facilities have reduced. In 1997/98, for instance, the ratio of students to academic staff exceeded the national norm in the key faculities of administration, agriculture, engineering, law, medicine, health and pharmacy at all federal universities (Hart net 2000). One other important cause of unemployment in Nigeria could be associated with the wrong impression of students and other stakeholders about the place of technical and vocational education. According to Damachi (Bello, 2003) there is an enduring societal bias against technical and vocational education, consequently, a large number of job seekers lack practical skills that could enhance self-employment. That is why rather than creating jobs, the graduates keep depending on the government and the nonvibrant private sector for job offers. High Education curriculum in Post Independence Era One remarkable landmark in curriculum development in Nigeria was the 1969 national curriculum conference. At the conference, stakeholders and all economic players reexamined higher education curriculum, and condemned the esoteric and purely academic nature of the curriculum. They recommended a shift toward functionalism and relevance to national needs. An outcome of the conference was the enactment of the 1977 national policy on education. According to Ajeyalemi (2008), the policy restructured the curriculum to make it more functional, practical and relevant. Since the enactment of the national policy on education in 1977, major curriculum development activities were driven by both the need to implement the national policy and global consciousness. Consequently, Nigeria revised its national policy on education for the fourth time (FME 2004) to guide universities and other tertiary institutions concerning how to link curriculum development with national needs. In the policy, each institution is expected to; intensify and diversify its programs for the development of high level manpower within the content of the needs of the nation. To make    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

74

professional course contents to reflect national requirements. Make all students offer general study courses such as, philosophy of knowledge and nationalism, ensure that technicallybased professional courses have, as components, exposure to relevant future working environments. Ensure that teachers in professional fields have relevant industrial and professional experiences, and ensure that not less than 60% of places are allocated to science and science-oriented courses in the conventional universities and not less than 80% in the University of Technology. As summarized by Ajeyalemi(2008), the national policy tends to promote training for acquisition, periodicity and empowerment; globalization and international competition; equality of gender and educational opportunities; leadership and good governances; cultural and religious integration ; knowledge and applications of information and communications technology (ICT) ; entrepreneurship: and uniformity of standard s and quality. Another form of curriculum development is the inclusion of new content in the field of study resulting from public declarations into existing programs. In some cases, Nigeria government makes a direct and special request to Nigeria higher institutions of learning to mount a specific program of studies. For instance when the national council on education (NCE) decided that citizenship education should be a compulsory part of the general studies program of the Nigerian university system, it was communicated to the universities for implementation through an instruction from the Federal Ministry of Education (FME). Similarly, the minister of education instructed all Nigerian universities to implement the post JAMB screening and the curriculum on entrepreneurial studies developed by the National University Commission (NUC). As rightly pointed out by lvowi (2006), such directives do not violate the academic freedom of the university as any program emanating from them must go through appropriate authorities in the University for Approval before they become reliable to students. In Nigeria, the NUC has made several efforts at packaging and repackaging university programs in response to changes in the knowledge environment. For instance, universities in Nigeria have been encouraged in the past to repackage agriculture and petroleum engineering to produce managers, researchers and field practitioners for the nations agricultural and oil sectors respectively. Furthermore, courses such as bio-chemistry and geo-physics have been introduced by some universities in response to market trends. Nevertheless, knowledge explosion remains a major force that continues to threaten program development in Nigerian universities. Since knowledge is dynamic, most of the teachers in Nigerian universities have probably found it difficult to update their course contents in response to the explosion of knowledge in their disciplines. Engineering and architecture are good examples of disciplines where new knowledge of computer-aided design has rendered many old facts absolete in Nigerian tertiary institutions. Higher education being the highest level of education whose mandate is saddled with the responsibility of human capacity building, is one of the major drivers of economic and social development. Its role increases further with society demands as a result of contemporary changes in technology, globalization, and demographics. For nations to remain competitive in light of these changes, they need to improve productivity and adopt an innovative spirit. Higher education therefore could help and assist individuals achieve these goals. According to the Higher Education Alliance for the Rock River Region (2005), higher education (by developing the human capital/manpower acceleration and capacity), has historically included socio-economic development as part of its core mission. Its    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

75

contributions in relation to human capacity building and social change are enormous. Economically, higher education has contributed towards economic development as a means for promoting economic security in so many ways. These include; creating a quality workforce by growing, training, and attracting the finest talent. Supporting current business and industry. Taking strong and visible roles in regional initiatives, disseminating research and promoting technology transfer. Employing a diverse workforce (High Education Alliance for Rock River Region, 2005), identifying employee skills gaps and providing customized training. Conducting organizational assessments and providing management development. Providing technical assistance, industrial liaison programs, and support centers. Assisting in the identification of new markets for products. Offering specialized help for small-to-medium sized businesses for planning, resource acquisition, and marketing, e.g., entrepreneurship training and assistance. Providing customized research and data. Procuring grants which support current business and industry. Furthermore, higher education institutions help prepare students with the increasingly higher-level skills needed to obtain and retain employment, this should be in line with the employability skills. Employability skills are those personal social behaviours and daily living habits that have been identified by employers and young entry-level workers as essential for obtaining employment and for success in the work place. These are life skills that must be taught with the same rigor as basic skills. The development of such skills is a lifelong process, with performance being relative to a student’s ability and age. The employability skills include; technical skills and competence in chosen fields. Soft (life) skills, problem solving and analytical skills, character, integrity and high ethical standards. Intellectual curiosity, reflective, and conceptual thinking, effective communication and literacy skills (writing, speaking, reading and listening), interpersonal and team skills. Ability to make things happen, organizing and working within teams. Researching information: ability to retrieve, use and present information, self-esteem and personal confidence, selfdiscipline and control. Following dramatic increases in higher education in Nigeria and fundamental shifts in graduate recruitment market, a degree is no longer enough to guarantee a graduate a satisfying career. In many sectors, recruiters are looking for ‘work-ready’ graduates with clear evidence of job specific skills in addition to high level graduate attributes. To have the competitive advantage in the labour market, students need to have developed their employability during their time at the university. Besides, one of the main reasons students choose to study at a university is to enhance their career prospects. This becomes increasingly important in view of rising costs of education and levels of debt on graduation, so individuals want to ensure it has been money well spent. Moreover, employability plays an important role in the implementation of the colleges’ learning strategies which involved innovative learning; teaching and assessment methods which promote students’ understanding, and help them to engage in ‘deep’ learning will also enhance their employability. Employability coheres with the concept Personal/Professional Development Planning (PDP), encouraging students to become reflective and present themselves effectively. Also a focus on employability can encourage student motivation, leading to better performance and high position among their peers.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

76

Conclusion and Recommendations Recent technological changes, new developments, contemporary market demands, and unending demands of the society, pose a great threat on graduates from our tertiary institutions of leaning. This coupled with individual needs to get abreast with new ways of solving economic and social problem has brought a shift in the roles of higher education. This shift tends to create challenges for higher education and thus the need for improving and adjusting the curricula of higher education for economic and social security. When the products of our tertiary institutions are productive with marketable skills, they will have a positive impact on people, the economy, and social security. This will by extension boost an all round sustainable livehood for people, national growth and development. UNESCO (1998), identified the problems of quality, accessibility, management, effective policy implementation and funding as the major challenges toward effective management of higher education in African countries including Nigeria. It further identified that most beneficiaries of higher education particularly the university graduates seem to experience considerable low patronage as a result of perceived defects in program implementation. Many people say Nigerians are good at planning, but weak at implementation, the situation in our tertiary institutions indicates that Nigerians have less technical capacity to develop innovative and functional curriculum at the university level. The best that has been done in the area of curriculum development and implementation in higher education since independence looks like unsystematic mounting of syllabi based on replication of reforms in higher education. The reasons for this poor track record of achieving lasting education by Ajeyalemi (2008) are; faulty or unrealistic goals from the onset; inadequate planning for implementation; insufficient political will to implement curriculum reforms leading to gross underfunding and constant programs somersault. There is also inadequate experience or expertise of reform implementer such as teachers and other practitioners; and corruption, resulting in lack of public accountability and disservice on the side of the implementers of curriculum at the university level. However, there is no problem without a solution, this paper suggests that organizations such as the National University Commission (NUC), and the Federal Ministry of Education (FME) in collaboration with other stakeholders in education industries that are directly involved in financing, managing or operating higher education institutions, and the formal and informal rules that guide institutional and individual behaviors should see a change in curriculum development to be their joint responsibility. In light of this they should come together and plan for quality of curricula, which calls for special care in the definition of the objectives of the teaching and training provided in relation to the requirements of the world of work and the needs of society; an adaptation of teaching methods to make students more active and to develop an enterprising spirit. The impact of higher education in economic and social security cannot be overemphasised. Higher education has contributed tremendously towards development. Higher Education should engage key stakeholders and develop university partnership to set in motion processes of institutional development to enhance graduate employability. Employability challenges in our higher education should be centered on updating the curricula and orienting course content towards employer needs, expansion of work placement and introduction of entrepreneurship courses, though this had been in place in some University in Nigeria but the impact however, is not yet reflected in the lives of the graduates. The curriculum of higher education should provide a targeted    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

77

employability input for students. That is, besides the general learning experiences more specific provision is also required to inform students about career opportunities to enable them develop further some generic skills that will enhance their productive power and make them marketable. References Encouraging the development of employability (m.yorke 2003) Employability initiative @ Edinburgh. www.britishcouncil.org/edu/ihe Pitan O.S and Adedeji S.O (2012) skill mismatch among University graduates in Nigeria labour market, ‘Journal of US.China Education Review. 2pp 90-98 Dabalen A, Oni B and Adekola O.A (2000) Labour Market Prospects for University graduates in Nigeria. The University System innovation Project Study. Council on Higher Education (HE) (2013). A proposal for undergraduate curriculum Reform in South Africa. The case for a flexible curriculum structure World Bank (2014) Youth employment in sub-sahara Africa: Africa Development Forum; Washington. Melink, M and Pavlin. S (Eds) (2012) DEHEMS. Employability of graduates and higher education management system final report of DEHEMS project, University of Ljubljana. Brain J. Gesser (1995). Employability skills of recent high school graduates: Perceptions of students and their employers. Careers Advisory Board (1996). Full report Generic skills survey. Retrieved from http://www.csd.uwa.edu.au/t/skills/report.html CUS (1998) The graduate labour market Trends and issues. Retrieved from www.prospect.ac.uk/studentkidd/LMI/archive/win_1998/skills.html Higher Education Alliance for the Rock River region (2005). The role of higher education in economic development. Retrieved May 18, 2013 from http://www.hearr.org    

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

78

Required and Possessed University Graduates Employability Skills: Perceptions of the Nigerian Employers Adebakin, Azeez B; Ajadi, O. Timothy; & Subair, S. ’Tayo11

University is a place where skilled labour is produced for societal and global consumption. This is premised on the fact that education provided at this level enhances human capital development, which widens employment opportunities. However, there seems to be a disparity between the skills required and those possessed by graduates from Nigerian universities. As a result, many university graduates are either underemployed or unemployed. This study adopted descriptive survey research design to examine this disparity. A Skill Assessment Questionnaire (SKAQ) was designed to elicit information from the participants. The results showed a difference between the skills required of university graduates by employers and those possessed by the university graduates. It is recommended that the Nigerian university curriculum should be revised to reflect courses that emphasize the skills required by employers. Key words: Employers, employability skills, university graduates University education is fundamental to the construction of a knowledge economy and society. It is a place where skilled labour is produced for societal and global consumption. Adepoju and Fadokun, (2009) opine that education provided at this level widens the socioeconomic growth of human capital development of any nation. In addition, the federal government of Nigeria (2004) stressed that education at this level shall make optimum contribution to national development by intensifying and diversifying its programs for the development of high level manpower within the context of the needs of the nation. Making professional course contents to reflect the national requirements; making all students part of a general program of all round improvement in university education to offer general study courses such as history of ideas, philosophy of knowledge and nationalism. University education is the main instrument to prepare individuals for a rapidly changing, increasingly demanding world of work and to improve their employability. Chang (2004) observed that an individual's employability depends on several factors including; self-belief, an ability to secure and retain employment, ability to improve productivity, and income earning prospect of individuals. This often requires competing effectively in the job market and being able to move between occupations, if need be. This can be obtained by searching for new employment opportunities in an advanced knowledge, communications and technological society.                                                              11  Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile – Ife, Nigeria. [email protected]; [email protected]; & [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

79

Employability as a concept seems to attract diverse meanings from various authors. Hillage and Pollard (1998) view employability as having the capability to gain initial employment, maintain the employment, and obtain new one if need be. According to Harvey and Bowes (1998), employability is the ability of graduates to gain employment, which is related to their university training and standard of the graduates. Kamal (2006) views it from the employees’ point of view on the propensity of the graduate to exhibit attributes which the employers anticipate will be necessary for the future effective functioning of their organisations. However to Harvey, Lock and Morey (2002), employability is associated with graduate employment and measured as an educational outcome under the auspices of first destination statistics which shows the percentage of graduate in employment six months after graduation. Pierce (2002), Knight and York (2001) focused on graduates’ employability skills as abilities to synthesis their personal and academic skills. Raybould and Sheard (2005) concluded that nearly two-thirds of all graduates’ vacancies are open to university graduates from any discipline. It was further stated that the type of skills required for the job is dependent on the role to be carried out by the graduates within a particular organisation. In the 1970s, 1980s, and early 1990s, Nigerian university graduates were employed at the point of graduation (those who were above National Youth Service Age) or immediately after the one year NYSC exercise. This is because at this time, university graduates possessed the employers’ required skills. In addition, Oni (2001) informs that university graduates at the time could compete favourably with graduates from anywhere in the world. This allowed them to also have access to international employment opportunities. Contemporarily, employability skills became an issue for the providers of university education and the graduates themselves. The prime intent of most students attending university is not to study a course or have in-depth knowledge of their course of study but to enhance their employability status (Stewart and Knowles, 2000). Studies by De la Harpe, Radloff and Wyber (2000), Adams (2006), and Adebakin (2014), reported that university graduates are poorly prepared for the world of work because there is a mismatch between the education and training (undergraduate programs) provided by universities and vacancies available in the labour market. Pitan and Adedeji (2012) also concluded that there is a disparity between the skills acquired by university graduates and the ones needed by employers of labour. De la Harpe, Radloff and Wyber (2000) are of the opinion that there is worldwide concern that the existing undergraduates’ programs in the universities are not producing graduates with the kind of lifelong learning and generic skills which they need to be successful in their chosen careers. As a result, Yorke (2001) suggested two main concepts of employability: the first is the ability of graduates to tackle graduate jobs while the second is the ability of the graduates to get a job. Therefore, there is need for graduates to develop and improve their employability skills from time to time to be able to match up with the requirements of the labour market. Chang (2004) in his explanation said that university graduates are unemployed because they do not possess the right degrees. Graduates of some specific disciplines in humanities are already abundant in the labour market whereas graduates in engineering and sciences are still in high demand. Another reason is that degree certificate from universities no longer qualify graduates for getting their first job. Instead, most graduates are underemployed by getting hired for jobs below their academic qualifications, with lesser pay when compared to what should be earned. Chang (2004) concluded that in addition to the above, graduates need to possess analytical and    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

80

technological skills in order to be able to contribute meaningfully to organisations’ success and growth. Most often, employers of labour prefer to employ university graduates who have self-confidence, optimism, and those that can bring innovation to the work place. Little (2001) asserts that employers want graduates who can use their abilities and skills to evolve the organisation and can participate in innovative teamwork. Employers also value critical thinking as this is required for innovation and anticipatory leading change (Harvey, 2001). One of the challenges with skills agenda and initiatives in higher education is the assumption that skills have the same meaning in education and employment contexts (Holmes, 2001). But Dunne, Bennet and Carve (2000) observed that both the universities and employers of labour did not have a common meaning for skill. This makes it imperative for the university and employer of labour to have the same focus as regards employability skills. In the United Kingdom (UK), university graduates employability is often associated with graduate employment and measured as an educational outcome under the auspices of its destination statistics. Harvey et al. (2002) stated that these statistics show the percentage of graduates in employment six months after graduation. Earlier, Smith, McKnight and Naylor (2002) developed and utilized performance measures for some universities in UK. It was revealed that at an individual level, the probability of a university graduate unemployment or inactivity six months after graduation is influenced strongly by the individual’s class of degree, course of study, previous educational background and socio-economic background of the students. This shows that in addition to the class and quality of degrees and level of transferable skills possessed by students, other factors come into play when determining employability. Contrarily, graduates’ possessed employability skills are more important than the course of study and class of degree graduated with (Harvey, 2001). This implies that the course of study is not as important as the graduates’ ability to handle and manage complex information effectively. In Malaysia, government conducted a survey on Malaysian university graduates employability skills and found that about 60,000 Malaysian graduates were unemployed because of lack of experience, poor English communication skills, and they had studied courses that were irrelevant to the market need (Malaysian Today, 2005). It was further revealed that most unemployed university graduates studied business related courses. The report showed that 70% graduates from the public universities in Malaysia are still unemployed. This is in contrast with Suresh (2006) who reported that 20% graduates from private universities and 34% graduates from foreign universities are unemployed. Similarly, in South Africa, Pauw, Ooshuizen and Westhuizen (2008) found that many university graduates were not employed because they lack soft skills and workplace readiness. They reported that at the commencement of graduate careers, many students lack time management skills. These are some of the reasons advanced for many university graduates failure in recruitment tests. Also, in Ghana, Boateng and Ofori-Sarpong (2002), found that employers often regard recent university graduates as those who lack the basic skills to complete simple routine assignments, which gives the impression that certification is a mere formality rather than an indication of achievement. In addition, Lawrence (2002) supplements that the United States of America is also experiencing the problems of university graduates’ employment deficit due to lack of transferable skills by the graduates. Daring (1997) explains that studies by employers of university graduates have repeatedly stressed the priority given to the university graduates    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

81

personal transferable skills. All over, employers of labour according to Lawrence (2002), emphasise that employability skills are foundational skills that apply across board, no matter what job employees perform. Employers of university graduates prefer to employ balanced graduates who can combine academic intelligence with employability skills such as communication, problem solving and interpersonal skills. In Nigeria, both the public and private organisations have decried the quality of university graduates turnout from Nigerian universities and the need to expend a lot of human and material resources on newly recruited university graduate to achieve desired results from the graduates recruited. Dabalen, Oni and Adekoya (2000) report that Nigerian university graduates are half baked and concluded that there is a wide gap between what is taught in the universities and what the employers need. Statement of the Problem Nigeria is a nation of about 150 million people with 128 universities (40 Federal, 38 State, and 50 Private). The universities have recently witnessed unprecedented increase in enrolment and turnout rates. In the same vein, the society is experiencing increase in the number of university graduates unemployment. This situation is not healthy for the economic growth and development of the country and standard of living of the citizens. Therefore, this study investigates the employers required and university graduates perceived employability skills. The study tested the hypotheses that there is no significant difference between the employers’ perceived skills possessed by public and private university graduates. It was guided by the questions below; 1. What are the employers’ perceived skills required of university graduates? 2. What are the employers’ perceived ratings of skills possessed by Nigerian university graduates? Methodology The population of study comprised all university graduates’ employers from different sectors of the economy found in Lagos State. The choice of Lagos in this study was due to it, being the economic centre of the country and where many graduates rush to for jobs. Using stratified and simple random sampling techniques, the employers were reduced to those in the manufacturing, banking and finance, education and telecommunication industries. These four were considered representative of employers in this study; because they appeared to be the fast growing areas in the recent times seeking fresh graduates from universities. From each industry, 75 participants were randomly selected thereby constituting 300 participants as the sample frame for the study. A self designed instrument tagged “Skills Assessment Questionnaire (SKAQ)” was administered to the participants. The results obtained were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics specifically, simple percentages and t-test to answer the research questions raised and test the hypothesis formulated for the study. Results Research Question 1 What are the employers’ perceived skills required of university graduates?

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

82

Table 1: Employers’ Perceived Skills Required of University Graduates Employer Total A B C D S/N Skills 1 Analytic & Problem Solving Skill 73 75 73 73 295 (98%) 2 Team – Working Skills 74 74 74 75 297 (99%) 3 English Proficiency & Literacy Skills 71 74 73 73 291 (97%) 4 ICT Skills 74 75 73 75 297 (99%) 5 Leadership skills 73 74 74 73 294 (98%) 6 Official Communication Skills 72 74 74 73 293 (97.7%) 7 Decision – Making Skills 74 74 74 73 295 (98.3%) 8. Risk Management Skills 71 75 72 72 290 (96.7%) Key: A= Manufacturing Industry; B = Banking & Finance Industry; C = Education Industry and D = Telecommunication Industry

Table 1 presents the employers’ perceived skills required of university graduates. It shows that ICT skills (99%) and team work skills (99%) were the highest skills required by employers. The employers as well required decision-making skills (98.3%), leadership skills (98%) and analytic and problem solving skills (98%). However, official communication skills, English proficiency and literacy skills and risk management skills with varying values of 97.7%, 97% and 96.7% respectively were equally required by employers. The table therefore reveals eight major skills required by employers in the manufacturing, banking and finance, education and telecommunications industries. This implies that for university graduates to be gainfully employed in the Nigerian labour market there is the need to possess the highlighted skills. Research Question 2 What are the employers’ perceived ratings of skills possessed by Nigerian university graduates? Table 2 Skills Possessed by Universities Graduates S/N Skills

Employers’ Perceived Ratings Excellent Good Fair 1. Analytical & Problem – Solving Skills 43% 2. Team – Working Skills 3. English Proficiency & Literacy Skills 58% 4. ICT Skills 53% 5. Leadership skills 6. Official Communication Skills 40% 7. Decision – Making Skills 8. Risk Management Skills Key: Excellent – 60% - 100%; Good – 50% - 59%; Fair – 40% - 49%; Poor - 0% -39%

Poor 39% 37% 35% 38%

Table 2 presents employers’ perceived ratings of skills possessed by Nigerian university graduates. The table shows that no employer rated the any university graduates’ possessed skills excellent. Skills like English proficiency and literacy (58%) and ICT (53%) were rated good as possessed by university graduates. Meanwhile, analytical and problem solving skills (43%) and official communication skills (40%) were rated fair. Whereas, team work skills, risk management skills, leadership skill and decision-making skills were rated poor with obtained values of 39%, 38% 37% and 35% respectively. This shows that most of the skills possessed by university graduates were perceived as below expectations of employers.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

83

Hypothesis There is no significant difference between the employers’ perceived skills possessed by public and private university graduates. Table 3 Differences in the Employers’ Perceived Skills Possessed by Public and Private University Graduates University Mean SD N t-cal. t-tab. Public 78.31 13.27 300 1.15 1.96 Private 76.23 13.25

*Not Sig, df = 298, P < 0.05

Table 3 shows that there is no significant difference in the employers’ perceived skills possessed by public and private university graduates. The table reveals that the calculated tvalue (1.15) is less than the critical t-value (1.96). This shows that the hypothesis is accepted. Therefore, there is no significant difference in the public and private university graduates’ possessed skills as perceived by employers. Discussions Resulting from the findings on employers’ required skills of university graduates, employability is based on critical skills ranging from ICT skills, team work skills, decision making skills, leadership skills, analytic and problem solving skills, official communication skills, English proficiency and literacy skills to risk management skills. This finding shows no difference in the skills university graduates need to work either in the manufacturing sector, banking and finance, education or telecommunication sectors. This finding supports Kamal (2006) views that employability of graduates from the employers’ point of view on the propensity of graduates to exhibit attributes which will be necessary for future effective functioning of their organisations. Lending credence to this is Little (2001) and Harvey (2001) who assert that employers want graduates who can use their abilities and skills to evolve the organisation, participate in innovative team work, and do critical thinking on issues that will add value to the organisation. These positions similar to those of the Malaysian Today (2005) which revealed the result of a survey conducted by the Malaysian government on university graduates’ employability skills. They found that about 60,000 Malaysian graduates were unemployed because of lack of experience, poor English communication skills, and studying of courses that were not relevant to the market needs. In the same vein, Pauw, Ooshuizen and Westhuizen (2008) found that in South Africa, many university graduates were not employed because they lack soft skills and work place readiness. Similarly in Ghana, Boateng and Ofori-Sarpong (2002) found that employers often reject university graduates who lack the basic skills to complete simple routine assignments. On employers’ perceived ratings of skills possessed by university graduates, Table 2 showed that they only possessed skills in English proficiency, literacy, and ICT skills even though at an average level. Responsible for these skills may be the medium of instruction in the university and current trends in the use of ICT gadgets ranging from cell phones, ipads to computers. It was however found that an average university graduate lacks decision making skills, teamwork skills, leadership skill, and analytical and problem solving skills which ordinarily should aid their existence and survival within and outside work environments. Moreover, if employers from the four sectors sampled in this study could rate graduates’ possessed skill so low, it points to some deficiencies in the university curriculum, content of    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

84

instruction, mode of instruction and level of students’ exposure to realities of life. This argument confirms Pitan and Adedeji (2012), position that there was a disparity between the skills acquired by university graduates and the ones needed by employers of labour. Similarly, Nurita, Shharudin and Ainon (2004) in their study observe that the general consensus among employers indicate that graduates lack employability skills. This is because employers expectations are more than being proficient in English language but the ability to present ideas, explain issues and challenges, speak up in a constructive manner, resolve issues, understand challenges faced by organisations and come up with workable solutions. Interestingly, the results obtained in table 3 showed that no significant difference existed between public and private university graduates on their skills as perceived by the employers. This may explain the reasons why De la Harpe et al. (2000), Oni (2001), Adams (2006), Pitan and Adedeji (2012), and Adebakin (2014) observed that graduates turned out from Nigerian private and public universities are not found employable due to the compromised standards, infrastructural decay and inadequate employability skills. Based on this, it becomes worrisome to discover that both public and private organisations are discouraged from employing them. This is because the employers have to incur additional costs to train and retain them to fit into the organisational operations. Moreover, the huge resources used in the training programs have serious impact on their profit margin. This may explain why most banks, schools, telecommunications and manufacturing industries would prefer to employ Diploma or Certificate holders who will be trained and remunerated low in order to maximize profit. Conclusion and Recommendations In today’s complex working environment, it becomes a challenge for Nigerian universities to equip and internalize in the young people critical thinking skills, creativity, information processing, decision making, conflict management, and resolution skills, teamwork and leadership competences. Teaching such life skills can be integrated into every aspect of the university curricular with appropriate teaching skills that encourage interactive learning, knowledge application to real life problems, peer tutoring and the likes. Findings from this study have shown that skill constraints are the major issues Nigeria university graduates face. The study, therefore suggests that town gown relationships should be reinvigorated by inviting the industries to interact with students while in the university in order to prepare their minds for what they might likely face and employers’ expectations of them after graduation. Nigeria as a country with 128 universities should have ordinarily enjoyed a legacy of high skill endowments. However, measures should be taken to ensure redefinition of university curricular, mode of instruction, and development of more of the affective and psychomotor skills than the cognitive aspects of learners. Employer required skills should be introduced as a practical course with relevant field trips attached. This should be made compulsory in all Nigerian universities and serve as criterion for employability in the Nigerian labour market. It will improve the employment prospects of Nigerian university graduates. References Adams, A. V. (2006). The role of skills development in the transition to work: A global review. Background Paper for the World Development Report 2007.    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

85

Adebakin, A. B. (2014). Assessment of University Graduates’ Employability and Productivity in Public and Private Organisations in Lagos State. Unpublished M.A (Ed) thesis, Department of Educational Management, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Adepoju, T. L. & Fadokun, J. B. (2009). Higher education and youth preparation for labour market: Implication for economic growth in Nigeria. Journal of Education Review, 2(2), 185-193. Boateng, K., & Ofori-Sarpong, E. (2002). An analytical study of the labor market for tertiary graduates in Ghana (p. 88). World Bank/National Council for Tertiary Education and the National Accreditation Board Project. Chang, M. (2004). Why some graduates are more marketable than others: Employers’ perspective. Paper presented at the workshop on enhancing graduate employability in a globalised economy, Economic Planning Unit, Malaysia. Dabalen, A., Oni, B. & Adekoya, O. A. (2000). Labour market prospect of university graduates in Nigeria. Washington D.C: World Bank. De la Harpe, B., Radloff, A. & Wyber, J. (2000). Quality and generic skills. Quality in Higher Education, 6(3), 231-243. Dearing, R. (1997). Higher education in the learning society. Report of the national committee of inquiry into higher education. Norwich: HMSO. Dunne, E., Bennet, N. & Carré, C. (2000). Skill development in higher education and employment. In F. Coffield (Ed.) Differing visions of a learning society. Research findings, Vol.1. UK: The Policy Press & ESRC. Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Harvey, L. & Bowes, L. (1998). The impact of work experience on the employability of graduates. Birmingham: University of Central England. Harvey, L. (2001). Defining and measuring employability. Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 97-109. Harvey, L., Locke, W. & Morey, A. (2002). Enhancing employability, recognising diversity: Making links between higher education and the world of work. London: University Press. Hillage, J. and Pollard, E. (1998). Employability: Developing a framework for policy analysis. Research brief 85, Department for Education and Employment. Holmes, L. (2001). Reconsidering graduate employability: The ‘graduate identity’ approach. Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 111-119. Kamal, K. (2006). Training employable graduates: Innovation in training methodology. Paper presented at National Conference on Continuing Technical Education & Training, the Katerina Hotel, Batu Pahat Johor. Knight, P. & Yorke, M. (2001). Employability through the curriculum. Skills Plus Project. Lawrence, T. (2002). Teaching and assessing employability skills through skills in USA. Annual Quality Congress Proceedings, ABI/INFORM Global, 56, 285-294. Little, B. (2001). Reading between the lines of graduate employment. Quality in Higher Education, 7(2), 121-129. Malaysia Today (2005, June 5). Malaysia has 60,000 graduates unemployed. Retrieved from http://www.malaysia-today.net/Blog-e/2005/11/malaysia-has-60000undergraduates.htm    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

86

Nurita, D. Shaharudin, D. and Ainon, N. (2004). Perceived employability skills of graduating students: Implications for SMEs. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 8(2), 45-55. Oni, B. (2001). Labour market prospects of university graduates in Nigeria. Paper Presented at the Stakeholders Conference on Curriculum Review for University Education in Nigeria, NUC, Abuja. Pauw, K., M. Oosthuizen, J. & Westhuizen, C. V. (2008). Graduate unemployment in the face of skills shortages: A labour market paradox. South African Journal of Economics, 76(1), 45-57. Pierce, D. (2002). Employability: Higher education and careers services. In Yorke, M. (Ed.), Learning & Employability. New York: ESECT. Pitan, O. S. & Adedeji, S. O. (2012). Skills Mismatch among University Graduates in the Nigeria Labor Market. US-China Education Review A(1), 90-98. Raybould, J. and Sheard, V. (2005). Are graduates equipped with the right skills in the employability stakes? Industrial & Commercial Training, 5, 259-263. Smith, J., McKnight A., & Naylor, R. (2002). Graduate employability: Policy and performance in higher education in the UK. The Economic Journal, 110, F382-F411 Stewart, J. Knowles, V. (2000). Graduate recruitment and selection: Implications for HE, graduates and small business recruiters. Washington DC: Lahmp Suresh, R. (2006). 70% of grads from public institutions jobless. Retrieved from http://www.sun2surf.com/article.cfm?id=1466 Yorke, M. (2001). Employability in the first cycle higher education. A working paper for the ‘Skills Plus’ Project. Liverpool: John Moores University.

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

87

Employability of Nigerian Graduates, the Role of Stakeholders Olayemi Jumoke Abiodun-Oyebanji (Phd)12

This paper examines the worrisome issue of employability of Nigerian university graduates in recent times, which have become a great concern to all and sundry. Certain indices such as, lack of complementary life skills, low moral standards, low employment generating capacity of the Nigerina economy, and the certification mentality, are discussed. It is suggested that, Nigerian graduates can be made employable through the active involvement of all stakeholders such as higher institutions, graduates, employers, parents, and government. Institutions also need to update their curricular to reflect the labour market needs. Keywords: Employability, University, Graduates, Stakeholders There have been serious concerns in the recent years on the employability of Nigerian university graduates. As the level of graduates seeking employment in the labour market increases, so does the level of unemployment. Graduate unemployment has assumed a dangerous dimension in Nigeria today. Gone are the days when a university graduate had job opportunities to choose from upon completion of his/her academic program. This unemployment problem has become so serious an issue such that stakeholders (students, recent graduates, employers of labour, higher institutions of learning, parents and government) appear to be helpless in resolving it. The situation is so alarming that, society has further been heated up by it. Ajufo (2013), observed that graduate unemployment has contributed in no small measure to social vices such as robbery, kidnapping, prostitution, political violence and recently Islamic insurgency in the north-eastern part of Nigeria. Thousands of young people especially of school going age have lost their lives; and up to this very moment, the Nigerian government is still battling with how to resolve this problem. This problem of unemployment might be due to the general belief among the Nigerian public that many recent Nigerian graduates are unemployable. A large number of these young people enter the labour market every year armed with certificates and skills with minimal links to the needs of the labour market. Unemployment has been defined by various scholars. Prominent among them is Gbosi (2006), cited in Godwin and Johnson (2012), who defined unemployment as a situation in which people who are willing to work at the prevailing wage rate are unable to find jobs. A more enriching definition is given by the international labour organization in Akintoye (2008) that, the unemployed is a member of the economically active population, who are without work, but available for and seeking for work. This includes those who have lost their jobs and those who voluntarily left work. Whatever the case might be, the bottom line is that, this group of the unemployed are willing and able to work, but no jobs are forthcoming and, indirectly wasting away their potentials. In the same vein, Abiodun (2010), describes unemployment as the proportion of the labour force, expressed in percentage,                                                              12

Department of Educational Management, University Of Ibadan; [email protected]

   

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

88

which is not employed at any given point in time. In Nigeria today, unemployment has assumed a dangerous and alarming dimension such that even professionals such as doctors, lawyers, accountants, engineers to mention just a few, are not left out of this ugly situation. Dabalen, Oni and Adekola (2000) assert that, graduate unemployment in Nigeria accounted for 32% of the total unemployed labour force. This development has been attributed in the words of Akintoye (2008), to economic depression with the resultant effects of massive closure of some small scale businesses and workers’ downsizing. During this period, an embargo has been placed on recruitment and this has further worsened the unemployment situation in Nigeria. However, the introduction of the structural adjustment program in 1985 had a beneficiary effect on job creation, resulting in a sharp fall in the unemployment rate from 7.1% in 1987 to 1.8% in 1995. Since then, unemployment figures have been lingering around 4% between 1996 and 2000. This situation of unemployment among Nigerian graduates especially today appear to have taken a dangerous dimension with overwhelming unemployed youths everywhere. The reasonable ones among them do not mind debasing themselves, by taking up jobs such as security guards in private residences, drivers, body guards to politicians, which are not commensurate with their qualifications, all in a bid to survive. Akanmu (2011), further attests that many Nigerian graduates are forced to accept marginal jobs that do not use their qualifications in sales, agriculture and manual labour. Many of our graduates are not able to find work despite the fact that the Nigerian economy has recently been tagged the fastest growing economy in Africa. With this development then, the nation has a serious challenge on its hands. However, Gbosi (2006), has attributed the high rate of employment in Nigeria to wrong orientation of the youth, absence of effective social welfare programs, wrong societal perception of vocational and technical education, inadequate teaching facilities in Nigeria schools leading to half baked products, bad economic planning, global economic crisis, rapid population growth, unstable political environments, among others. Yorke (2004) in Bamiro (2013), described graduate employability as a set of achievements skills, attributes that make graduates or individuals more likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations, which benefits themselves, the workforce, the community and the economy. Making graduates employable is a collective responsibility that involves all stakeholders such as; students and recent graduates, employers of labour, higher institutions of learning, parents and government. Idaka (2013) on the other hand defined employability as work readiness. That is, possession of skills, knowledge, attitudes and commercial understanding that enables graduates to make productive contributions to organizational objectives soon after commencing employment. Hillage and Pollard (1998), equally defined employability as an individual ability to gain initial employment, maintain employment roles within the same organization, obtain new employment, if required and secure suitable and sufficiently fulfilling work. However, Green and Danson (2005), suggest that additional consideration of vital demand, personal circumstances and other factors are also fundamental to the employability of people in a particular labour market or at a particular time, and to those people gaining or changing employment. Employability can further be described as a state in which an individual is prepared and ready for a job which he /she possesses skills for. Brewer (2013) also defined    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

89

employability in terms of skills, knowledge, and competencies that enhance workers’ ability to secure and retain a job and also make progress on the job. Idaka (2013), while looking at the concept of employability from the perspective of employers of labour, describes employability as work readiness, that is, possession of skills, knowledge, attitude and commercial understanding that will enable new graduates to make productive contributions to organizational objectives soon after commencing employment. Also, Harvey and Morey (2003), emphasised skills, which graduates need in order to manage their own career and those which will enable them to continue learning throughout their working lives as very key to their employability. These skills among others are; communication, numeracy, information technology (IT), learning how to learn at a higher level, literacy, problem solving skills, team work, and deep understanding of the world of work (Idaka, 2013). In the same vein, the Confederation of British Industry (CBT) viewed employability as the possession by an individual of the qualities and competencies required to meet the changing needs of employers and customers, thereby helping to realize his/her aspirations and potentials in work. Likewise, Canadian Labour Force Development Board in Ronald and Lindsay (2005), defined employability as the relative capacity of an individual to achieve meaningful employment, given the interaction of personal circumstances and the labour market. Similarly, research from the Northern Ireland Executive presented an explicit working definition of employability, as cited in Renald and Lindsay (2005), as the capacity to move into and within labour markets and to realize potential through sustainable and accessible employment. Arguing in the same direction, Martz (2006), refers to employability to graduate’s achievements, and his/her potential to obtain a graduate job. UNESCO (2012), attributes graduates’ employability to the following factors and competencies among others. Communication skills, logical, analytical and problem solving skills, flexibility and adaptability, innovation and creativity, personality, confidence, integrity, and team spirit. It can therefore be inferred from the various definitions above that, employability is a state in which an individual is ready for a work which he/she possesses skills for; and these skills must be required by employers of labour who have predetermined skilled workers capable of ensuring coping strategies in an unstable work environment. Factors influencing the Employability of Nigerian Graduates Year after year, Nigerian universities produce close to two million graduates into the already over flooded labour market. Many Nigerian graduates cannot find work to do despite an average economic growth rate of about 7% per annum over the last seven years, a good performance in the words of Akanmu (2011), by global standards. Prominent among the factors influencing the employability of Nigerian graduates are the following. The complementary life skills such as problem solving, reflective and critical thinking, effective communication, high level of moral standard, integrity, discipline, creative skills and many others which are very critical to employability of every graduate appear to be rarely thought of as part of higher education curriculum in many Nigerian universities. The expectation is that, what is offered in educational institutions in terms of knowledge, competencies, skills, and attitudes should fit the need for a rational, active and problem solving personality. But the situation seems contrary in many Nigerian universities, the general outcry now in the    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

90

country, according to Okebukola (2000), is that the quality of our university graduates is diminishing; this is very evident in the lack of basic competences expected in our graduates. Very many students on their part also appear to be lagging behind in their academic activities. Many of them seem not to be responsible for learning. Hence, they cannot learn all they need to learn. The strong desire on the part of students to contribute meaningfully to the economic development of their nation, which ordinarily should be paramount in students’ minds and, which should serve as a driving force for them to put their best into their studies, appears to be completely absent in many of our students.The employment generating capacity of the Nigeria economy seems to be very low. Nigerian graduates cannot be put to work; because the Nigeria economy is experiencing joblessness. Though the government claims that the economy is growing and yet, there is massive unemployment in the country. Proliferation of universities in Nigeria appears to be doing more harm than good to the standard of university education in Nigeria. Adewole (2011), and Abiodun - Oyebanji (2011), observe that many private university owners appear to be motivated by profit rather more than service and many of these universities are being confronted with active shortage of faculty members. All these seem to affect the quality of service being rendered and consequently the quality of graduates produced into the economy. Many employers have cited poor communication abilities and technical proficiency as parts of the bane of graduate employability. Many Nigerian youths are more concerned with having certificates from higher institutions but with no clue or idea as to what to do with those certificates or better still with their lives. However there is this false sense of security they enjoy when they are equipped with these certificates. Poor funding of Nigeria higher education especially university education makes it practically impossible for the rehabilitation of infrastructural facilities and construction of new building to accommodate the ever increasing student population. Inadequate funding could adversely affect the quality of university education in any country. Many of the universities in the country are characterized by poor infrastructures, overcrowded classrooms, students’ unrest due to inadequate funding; and a host of other problems. It seems that, education generally and university education in particular is hardly ever given any priority attention by Government. Another factor posing serious problem to the employability of Nigerian graduates is the perennial instability which has become the order of the day in many universities in Nigeria. Omotayo (2011), argued that instability occasioned by recurrent and often protracted industrial strike actions by various staff unions in the Nigerian universities has severally led to the truncating of academic calendar and sessions, to the extent that between 1993 and 2010, the university system witnessed more than 35 months of closure and in the year 2014 alone, universities in Nigeria were closed down for 6 months, without commensurate make up for lost of time. All these aforementioned factors and many others, have contributed in no small measure to the unemployability of Nigeria graduates. The high rate of unemployment in the nation has inturn given birth to other socio-economic problems such as robbery, kidnapping, ‘BokoHaram’ insurgency, prostitution etc. Roles of Stakeholders in Ensuring Graduates’ Employability In ensuring the employability of Nigerian university graduates, all hands must be on deck to achieve this. First, Nigerian tertiary institutions, especially the university, which is a    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

91

vital place for accumulating human capacity in the form of relevant manpower training, abilities, attitudes and market skill must readily incorporates effective entrepreneurship education into its curriculum, so that upon graduation, graduates will be able to make a successful transition to become productive workers, self-reliant entrepreneurs, good citizens, selfless leaders and live healthy lives. This implies that, university students in Nigeria, regardless of their areas of discipline, must be effectively exposed to entrepreneurship development study. This could be achieved by starting early through the making of primary and secondary school curricular in such a way that allows young people freedom to develop their ideas, noting that this can foster their creativity and build the skills of the next generation of innovators. There is need for a competence based curriculum and education, most especially, at the university level that would pave a way for capable products that would be self reliant and employable. A competence based curriculum would avert the mass production of half baked graduates from universities in Nigeria. Also, in the words of Oputu (2013), young people on their parts will need to develop skills and understanding to pursue and develop innovative solutions in both their own lives and for the organizations they may join or create as they seek new opportunities to meet the future. Also, learning and skills development which will create a smarter way of achieving economic objectives by aligning talents from human capital with the need of the labour market, as indicated by economic need must be ensured by both the university and employers of labour. This can further be achieved by developing more forward looking curriculum that will create greater workforce flexibility that will further enhance societal value. This functional education for Nigerian undergraduates, which will enable them to be employable and self reliant must be provided in our universities. Employers of labour must also be prepared to provide the graduates with adequate training, that will enable them to be more creative, imaginative and innovative in identifying business opportunities; training in risk management, to make certain bearing feasible, training and support that will enable young graduates to establish career in small and medium sized business, and to inculcate in young graduates the spirit of perseverance that will enable them to persist in any business venture they embark on. Employers of labour can be involved in course planning design; and delivery. This, according to Idaka (2013), can take the forms of commenting on the relevance of course content to future employment prospects; providing relevant materials for students’ projects and giving guest lecture. Bamiro (2013) further opined that, collaborative efforts between tertiary institutions and employers of labours through the promotion of institutional culture that enhances employability, should be encouraged. Building relationships with employers of labour at all levels within the institution, and capacity building for staff to support students in the development of employability skills must be given a pride of place. The government of the day should also be more alive to its responsibility by engaging the youth in productive ventures, by which to have a decent and secured society. Government should ensure the provision of adequate research and practical resources in our universities, for the acquisition of knowledge and skills in entrepreneurship, since non-employability of Nigerian university graduates is caused among others by shortage of learning resources and obsolete facilities. Oputu (2013), opines that it is important that the government provides the young graduates with avenues and create opportunities for expression for business ideas, which young people    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

92

instigate. These ideas may be potential solutions to a problem that, they have identified or defined themselves, and take responsibility for developing and implementing a solution. Government and private institutions also need to do more by empowering both students (while studying) and graduates, materially and financially in order to enable them, to be self reliant. The empowerment can take the form of the government strengthening its agencies such as National Directorate of Employment (NDE), the Subsidy Re-Investment Program (SURE-P), and Graduates Internship Scheme (GIS) with supports from Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) among others; to effectively train graduates in different vocational and technical skills. The problem of unemployability of Nigerian university graduates might become a thing of the past. There is therefore a need to change the social rhythm of unemployment in Nigerian economy, and create a rewarding future for every Nigerian graduates by ensuring that, public policy is such that engenders enabling policies and effective institutions that work with and support youth empowerment. Government needs to develop a more formal technical and vocational education system that will produce skills needed to operate the employment intensive industries and its value chains and thereby putting more of its graduates and youth to gainful work. This could be achieved for instance, by ensuring that students in vocational and technical schools, spend up to three days a week as part time salaried apprentices of companies for two to three years, and the cost could be shared by the government and the company, and it is most likely that the apprenticeships might turn to full time jobs at the end of training. All these bother down on adequate funding of Nigerian educational system; since it will be difficult to talk of employability of Nigerian graduates without considering the issue of proper and adequate funding of education ;university education inclusive. Nigerians should also invest in promoting opportunities for her young graduates to develop autonomy and key competences such as a sense of initiative and entrepreneurship, and to actively participate in all fields of public life as the long-term objective of this is to enhance creativity and innovation, including entrepreneurship at all levels of education and training skills, ability to work independently and also collaboratively. The need for collaborative efforts from government, civil society organizations, private sectors and individual to work out modalities for promoting agriculture and agric business among Nigerian youths which will for a long time will be the mainstay of the Nigerian economy cannot be overstressed, as youth, innovation and agriculture are three parts inextricably linked to the sustainable development of Nigeria. Our students according to Bamiro (2013), must prepare themselves to meet the challenges of the changing world by improving their knowledge and skills to meet the demands of employers and dynamics of the work place. Conclusion and Recommendations In this paper, an attempt has been made to look into the concept of employability of Nigerian graduates, as part of a wider set of problems of bringing the entire educational system back to life in any nation of the world. Some of the factors responsible or militating against employability of Nigerian university graduates; and the roles of stakeholders in ensuring employability of Nigerian graduates have been considered. What is therefore of fundamental importance at the moment is the collaborative efforts between universities and industries that, will help universities to acquire valuable information to update their curricular. This would help students to gain practical work experience. Educational providers    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

93

across all levels most especially at the university level are expected to respond to this new employability imperatives. It is of great importance for students themselves to have personal responsibility to optimize the opportunities they have while, still in the universities to develop diverse skills. It is very crucial to say here that, having an excellent class degree is not enough by itself, but student’s aptitudes and attitudes are equally more important to employers of labour. Graduates should therefore cultivate qualities most sought after by their potential employers, such as motivation, critical thinking, problem solving, and effective communication. References Abiodun, S.O. (2010). Analysis of Mismatch between Demand and Supply of skill and University Graduates Unemployment in Nigeria. Lagos State University. Abiodun-Oyebanji, O. (2011). Towards affective management of private university education in Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research and Policy Studies (JETERAPS). Scholarlink Research Institute (UK) 2(6): 526-533. Adewole, I. (2010). Varsity operation with trader-mentality will not survive. Sunday Punch, March 20th. Pg 53. Ajufo, B.J. (2013). Challenges of youth unemployment in Nigeria: Effective career Guidance as a panacea. An International Multidisciplinary Journal. Ethiopia Vol. 7(1), Pg 307321. Akanmu, O. (2011). Graduate Employment and Employability Challenges in Nigeria. Being an abridge text of Presentation at the Association of Common Wealth Universities /British Council Regional Policy Dialogue on graduate Employability in Africa. Accra; Ghana. Akintoye, I.R. (2008). Reducing unemployment through the Informational Sector: A Case Study of Nigeria. European Journal of Economics, finance, and Admin. Sci. 11: 98106. Bamiro, O.A. (2013). The Nigerian University system and the challenge of graduate employability. Being a paper presents at 5th convocation lecture of Ajayi Crowther University on 27th Nov in Oyo, Oyo State. Brewer, L. (2013). Enhancing youth employability: What? Why? And How? Guide to core work skills: International Labour Organization (ILO) Reports 4. Confederation of British Industry (CBI) (1999). Making Employability work: An agenda for Action. London: CBI. Dabalen. A; Oni, B. & Adekola, O. (2000). Labour Market Prospects for University Graduates in Nigeria. High Educ. Management 14:1-36. Gbosi, A.N. (2006) .Modern labour Economics and policy Analysis. Park Publishers, Abakaliki pp. 56-90. Godwin, E.B & Johnson, A.A. (2012). Labour Market Distortions and University Graduates Unemployment in Nigeria. Issues and Remedies. Current Research Journal of Economic Theory: 4(3): 67-76. Green, M. & Danson, M. (2005). Introducing Employability. Urban Studies. 42(2). 197-219. Harvey, L. & Moery, A. (2003). Enhancing employability: Developing a framework for policy analysis. (London, universities, UK and Higher Education careers services unit).    

African Higher Education Review (AHER), Vol. 9 (1&2), September, 2015. ISSN; 2141-1905.

94

Hillage, J. & Pollard, E. (1998). Employability: developing a framework for policy analysis. Research Brief 85, Department for Education and Employment, London. Idaka.I. (2013). Re-engineering University Education for employability in Nigerian. Journal of education and practice (online). Vol.4 (11) Martz, Y. (2006). Employability in higher education: what is it-what is not? Heslington York: The Higher education Academy. Okebukola, P. (2000). The trends of tertiary education in Nigeria. In UNESCO (Ed): The state of education in Nigeria. Pg 84-100. Lagos: UNESCO Omotayo, O.I and Adeyemi, M. (2012). The challenges of Higher education in Nigeria. National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA): Ondo. Omotayo, O.T. (2011). Challenges of Higher Education in Nigeria Today: Implications for Sustainable Development: Academic Scholarship. Journal. 3(1) pg 18. Oputu, E. (2013). Youth unemployment, innovation and entrpreneurship. Being a text of paper presented at convocation lecture of Caleb University, Lagos State. Ronald, W.M. & Lindsay, C. (2005). The concept of Employability. Urban Studies, vol. 42, No. 2. 197-219. UNESCO (2012). Graduate employability in Asia Bangkok: UNESCO.