Volume 25 No. 01 March 2015 - Scottish Journal of Arts, Social ...

Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies - ISSN 2047-1278 http://scottishjournal.co.uk

SCOTTISH JOURNAL OF ARTS, SOCIAL SCIENCES AND SCIENTIFIC STUDIES VOLUME 25, ISSUE I March 2015

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Articles State and Society in Africa: An Exploration of African Development Crisis .............. 3 Dr M.M.Fadakinte ..................................................................................................................... 3

Using strategic intellectual property management to maximize value- An Empirical Study on the Algerian Insurances Companies .............................................................. 20 Dr.Zoubier Ayache and Dalal Adjali ....................................................................................... 20

Apprenticeship and the Stylistic Trend of Painting in Nigeria ................................... 35 Abodunrin Johnson A .............................................................................................................. 35

Organizational Role Stress Among Medical Practitioners In Goa ............................. 49 Christo F.V. Fernandes, .......................................................................................................... 49 Pia Muriel Cardoso .................................................................................................................. 49

The Effect of Training Methods and Trunk Flexibilities Towardsmash of Skillin Sepaktakraw Game .......................................................................................................... 70 Achmad Sofyan Hanif .............................................................................................................. 70 Asry Syam ................................................................................................................................. 70

Impact of Location and Noise on Residential Rental Values in Akure, Nigeria ........ 79 Ajayi, M,.................................................................................................................................... 79 Olukolajo, M. Ayodele .............................................................................................................. 79

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State and Society in Africa: An Exploration of African Development Crisis

Dr M.M.Fadakinte Department of Political Science University of Lagos, Nigeria. [email protected]

Abstract Most African countries attained political independence some fifty years ago, with most of them still wobble in their quest for development, with very little evidence for meaningful and relevant results. Today, underdevelopment accentuates development crisis and vice-versa with consequences for political stability, peace and progress on the African continent. Scholars have used among others the modernization, dependency and globalization theories to explain the development crisis in Africa. However, this paper adopts an alternative model. The model states that the dynamics of capitalism makes it imperative for the modern state to evolve from the society but having evolved from the society, the state embarks on policies, the effects of which define the type and level of development for the society while the ensued development re-shapes and re-defines the society. Thus, to understand Africa’s development crisis, we must understand the nature and character of the African state and society, in order to understand the types of policies that are made by the African state and why. Finally, the paper ends by proposing that in order to solve the problem of development crisis in Africa; we must start to re-visit those artificial boundaries of African countries as drawn up by European colonialists. KeyWords. Underdevelopment Crisis, Pre- Colonial State, Post- Colonial State.

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Introduction The development crisis in Africa is hydra headed, impacting on all the major parts of the continent. The crisis spans issues like corrupt leadership, abuse of the electoral process; unproductive economy, social disequilibrium, and above all, crisis of hegemony that results in stunted state formation process. Today, a decade and a half in the twentieth first century, development structures in Africa still remain a far cry from other regions of the world ( Sanubi, 2014). In the present international economic dispensation where the world trade organisation (WTO) dictates the course of international trade and finance, globalization has further estranged African states from the realities of modern world economic spectrum ( Sanubi, 2014). Africa’s continued underdevelopment decades after independence is indeed a strange and perplexing phenomenon, given that development is the product of wealth, created out of nature and that the continent is so richly endowed by nature with resources - massive land area, forest tree, rivers, minerals, and a variety of other raw materials. The contact with colonialism must be taken as the root cause of the Africa crisis. Today, the post colonial interplay of class alignment and re-alignment has equally contributed to the crisis. In Africa, there is the tendency to use the state for private accumulation while the limited autonomy of the state contributes to the poor coordination of production forces, which makes the continent to remain incapable of responding to the contradictions, crisis and conflicts emanating from its historical experience (Sanubi, 2014). In this paper therefore, attempts have been made to do some conceptual notes on the concept of development, after which an examination was made of some theories that have been used to explain development crisis in Africa with all of them not adequate enough to explain the crisis. An alternative model of explanation is therefore provided. Thereafter, the state, from pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial periods was examined with the state being identified as the main problem with development in Africa. Finally, a conclusion was made with the recommendation that the boundaries of African countries be examined as a first step in the process of solving Africa development crisis. Development: Some Conceptual Notes Gauba, (2003), conceives development as the increasing capacity to make rational use of natural and human resources for social ends. Paul Baran (1957) defines development as a far reaching transformation of society’s economic, social and political structure. For (Todaro, 1977), development is the maximization of the growth of the Gross Domestic Product through capital accumulation and industrialization. In this context, development implies change which often follows well-ordered sequence and exhibits a series of successive stages of transformation with common characteristics across countries. Also, development means “the reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the context of a growing economy” (Todaro, 1979:87). Payne and Nassar (2008) assert that development is fraught with political as well as scientific difficulty because development is a significant and measurable economic growth and the emergence of social, economic and political institutions. For (Palmer (1989), development is a special type of purposeful change in society that moves towards the attainment of a specific goal which includes the physical development of an individual. However, as argued by (Todaro, 1977) while economic progress is an essential component of development, it is not the only one. Thus, development encompasses more than the financial and material side of people’s lives.

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Thus, Marxism believes that development rather than being an abstract economic category is a multi-dimensional process. When viewed from the dialectical materialists’ binocular, development rather than being restricted to macro economic variables focuses on man and his well being. Therefore, human beings constitute the fulcrum on which it revolves. As a result, comprehensive understanding of the meaning of development provides the most functional path towards overcoming the endemic problem of backwardness. Walter Rodney encapsulates Marxist expositions on development as follows; Development in human society is a many sided process. At the level of individual, it implies increased skill and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well being. At the level of social groups, it implies an increasing capacity to regulate both internal and external relations… in the past, development has always meant the increase in the ability to guard the independence of the social group. (Rodney, 1972) Thus, Marxists view view man as highly central to the idea of development. Consequently, at the individual level, human beings are seen as the epicenter of development. Therefore, human development is seen as a prerequisite for real development. Again, the individual level, development implies mental and academic sophistication, moral rectitude as well as material well being. It is contended that the acquisition of this aspect of development will catapult the society to the frontiers of genuine development and explode the shells of backwardness. For instance, the development of man will conduce to increase in productivity, ability to harness the forces of nature and the capacity of man to eke out a living in the face of harsh natural forces Consequently, the first step towards development is the overall improvement of man who is expected to be the harbinger of transformation and change (Ekpe and Okereke, 2002). In development discourse, there are three basic elements that make the concept of development meaningful and which, when applied to society encompasses its entire gamut. These elements are economic, social and political development. Economic Development Economic development is a wider concept than economic growth and it is taken to mean growth plus change. (Jhingan, 2006). It is related to qualitative changes in economic wants, goods, incentives, institutions, productivity and knowledge or the upward movement of the entire social system. Thus, economic development describes the underlying determinants of growth such as technological and structural changes. An economy can grow but it may not develop because poverty, unemployment and inequalities may continue to persist due to the absence of technological and structural changes. It is difficult to imagine development without economic growth in the absence of an increase in output per capita particularly when population is growing rapidly. Thus, economic development is the sustained, concerted actions of policy makers and communities that promote the standard of living and economic health of a specific area. Thus, economic development means the quantitative and qualitative changes in the economy. (Mansel and Wehn, 1998,) Also, economic development has been understood since the World War II to involve economic growth, namely the increases in per capta income, and the attainment of a standard of living equivalent to that of industrialized countries (Mansel, and Wehn,., 1998). In economics, the study of economic development was borne out of an extension to traditional economics that focused entirely on national product, or the aggregate output of goods and services. Therefore, economic development is concerned with the expansion of

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people’s entitlements and their corresponding capabilities, nourishment, literacy, education, and other socio-economic indicators (Todaro, & Smith 2011). However, economic development now a day goes beyond the expression of GNP statistic and now includes changes in such sectors as education, health, interpersonal relations, and the age composition of the population. And that is because all these things are involved in the transformation from a low to a more desirable social situation (Rao, 1985). Thus, development is symbiotically connected with better conditions of living because it has to do with the improvement in the quality of life or wellbeing of man (Umezinwa, 2014). Social Development Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative changes in the structure and framework of society that help the society to better realize its aims and objectives. Thus, social development can be broadly defined in a manner applicable to all societies’ at all historical periods as an upward ascending movement featuring greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment (Jacobs, 1999). Thus, social development is a process of social change, not merely a set of policies and programs instituted for some specific results. Political Development The Oxford Dictionary of politics defined political development as the development of the institution, attitudes, and values that form the political power system of a society. Political development is synonymous with the domestic attributes of constitutional order and political stability, attained through the formation of a settled framework of government, reliable procedures for leadership succession, and a consolidation of the territorial administrative reach of government institutions.(Palmer, 1989 ). Political development therefore, enhances the state’s capacity to mobilize and allocate resources, to process policy inputs into implementable outputs which assist with problem solving and adaptation to environmental changes and goal realization, making the contemporary notion of good governance dwells on efficient, effective, and non-corrupt public administration.( Palmer,1989 ) Marx and Engels also believe that political development is attained when all members of a society learn to take according to their needs and to give according to their abilities and when such a condition has been achieved, “the state will wither away” and there will be no need for government. The ultimate goal of political development, therefore, is the elimination of the human conflict that makes government necessary. Consequently, the notion of withering away of the state as the basis of political development places tremendous faith in the capacity of human beings to behave rationally and to play fair ( Palmer, 1989 ). Lucian Pye (1962), identified three levels, where political development could be observed, which are population, government performance and organization of the polity. Thus, under population, is equality which signifies mass participation i.e. recruitment on the basis of merit. By government programme it means the capacity, which signifies efficiency and effectiveness. And for the polity, differentiation means diffusion and specialization of structures with specialization based on integration and division of labour. And for Organski (cited in Verma, 1980) the goals of development follow the following stages; 1. Political unification, 2. Industalization,

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3. National Welfare, 4. Abundance. With the above brief description of the concept of development, and its three basic elements, economic, social and political , there is no doubt that Africa is far from being a developed continent (society). Consequently, what then accounts for the development crisis in Africa? Scholars have come up with some theories, to explain the crisis which includes, modernization, dependency, and globalization theories. Modernization Theory Modernization theory argues that all countries go through stages of development, from traditional through transitional to modern. These stages are identified as (i) underdevelopment (ii) take-off and (iii) modernity. The leading proponent of the modernization world view is Rostow. The theory posits that traditional societies are characterized by ascription, fatalism, self-sufficiency, loyalty to the family, strong kinship and ethnic groups, weak institutions, low levels of literacy and technology, and widespread superstition. (Rostow, 1962). And these characteristics are believed to be barriers to development. However, in modern society, there are tendencies for literacy increases, with village values not as pervasive while new social, economic and political institutions emerge to challenge traditional norms and behaviour. Thus, modern societies are fundamentally westernized. They are characterized by increasing rate of urbanization, literacy, high quality of life and a high degree of personal and political freedom. The modernization theory holds that developing societies would have to change their values, adopt western technology, economics and political institutions and create a climate that would attract foreign investment for industrialization (Rostow, 1962). Modernization theory is viewed as being synonymous with industrialization with emphasis on Western Europe and the United States as models of development for the rest of the world and on free market capitalism. It often ignores specific problems and conditions in developing countries and tended to treat Africa, Asia and Latin American societies as monolithic groups, despite the areas historical, cultural, economic and political differences. Little efforts were made to respect the values and cultures of the developing world (Payne & Nassar 2008). The theory is too simplistic in its initial view of change and that was why the theory expects third world countries to achieve economic growth, greeter equality, democracy, political stability and greater national autonomy simultaneously. (Handelman, 2011). Consequently, in the third world, the process of development turned out to be more difficult and unpredictable than originally imagined, precisely because economic growth as recorded in Africa, proves to be no guarantee of democracy, stability, equality or autonomy. As a result, with modernization theory, the processes of modernization in Africa often ushered in political instability and violence (Handelman, 2011). Consequently, modernization theory has been accused of being culturally biased, assuming the superiority of western values, while not recognizing the fact that the differences between traditional and modern cultures are not necessarily as stark or clear cut as originally thought (Handelman, 2011). Dependency Theory Dependency theory views three classes of countries in the international system (i) countries at industrial core (ii) countries at the semi periphery and (iii) countries at the periphery. The first group comprises the industrial countries in Western Europe and North America and their multinational corporations. The second group comprises developing countries that have achieved significant levels of economic growth. The third class comprises

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the poorest developing countries, which are mostly in Africa. The relationship between the core and the periphery was established by colonialism for the benefit of industrial powers. And developing countries continue to be suppliers of raw materials to importers of manufactured products from rich industrial countries. For the dependency theory, capitalism reinforces dependency and economic inequalities among countries (Payne & Nassar, 2008). Walter Rodney (1972) argues that one of the causes of Africa’s many problems regarding the internationalization of trade in the 15th century was that the Europeans overwhelmed Africans through the use of superior weapons which they used to monopolize international waters, starting with the Western Mediterranean and the Atlantic Coast of North Africa and within a short time Europe dominated all trade routes linking Africa and the rest of the world. Where Africa had already gained access, it lost it to Europe where it would have gained access; it never did because Europe prevented it from doing so. By her control of the seas, Europe took the first steps forward, transforming the several ports of Africa and Asia into economic satellite. Frantz Fanon (1963) believes that development crisis in Africa is traceable to the historical retrogression foisted on the continent by Europe and that the proofs of a wonderful Shanghais civilization will not change the fact that today the Shanghais are underfed and illiterate thrown between sky and water with empty heads and empty eyes. For Fanon, the white colonialists raped and emasculated Africa to the point that it has no alternative than to remain backward. Thus, (Offiong (1980) defined imperialism as an institutional system of control which systematically shapes the institutions and structures of dependent countries and limit their freedom of action. However, dependency theory suffered from serious failings because like the modernization theory, which over-emphasized the internal causes of underdevelopment, it erroneously attributes virtually all of the Third World problems to external economic factors, including, foreign investments, credits as well as political alliances. Also, it has been observed hat countries that have experienced the most impressive improvements in per capita income and human development tend to be the ones most closely linked to the global economy and its industrialized core, like, Tiwan, Singapore and South Korea. (Handelman, 2011) Globalization Asobie (2005:5) defines “globalization as the integration of economies through trade, financial flow, and the exchange of technology and the movement of people” Protagonists of globalization further argue that globalization through competition and linkage effects, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) whether in manufacturing services or resource extraction will produce positive outcome for all nations (Yusuf, 199). Onogie (1995) explaines that the transformation strategy of globalization hinges on a rational deductive methodology and therefore, a perpetuation of the modernization by design and the civilizing mission thesis of the colonial period. Thus, globalization can be seen as a way to introduce the trend in the America and Western Europe’s perception and way of life into Africa and the rest of the world (Olutayo & Omobowale 2007:105). The dynamics of the neo-colonial tendency of globalization has subjected Africa and many countries of the developing world to the international division of labour in which they are relegated to the position of suppliers of raw materials and importers of finished products of the advanced capitalist countries. Globalization is therefore characterized by a dichotomy between the rich and poor countries. Thus, Africa is subjected to unfair trade conditions, as

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prices are set in favour of the western countries to suit their economic and political system (Eze, 2010). As a result of the above after decades of political independence and economic planning, Africa’s economies are still heavily dependent on the economies of the industrialized nations. Consequently, the main characteristics and structure of African economies still bear a close resemblance to what prevailed in the preceding colonial period. . Clapham (1996) argues that globalization for Africa provokes a return to familiar conditions of subordination much like those which marked the insertion of the continent into the global capitalist system by European colonialism in the 19th century. Thus, globalization should be seen as a continuation of colonialism. The idea of globalization therefore, appears to be a clear projection of the economic interests and the collection of the developed world. (Jike, 2004) Alternative Explanatory Model It is now clear that, modernization, dependency and globalization as theories cannot explain the development crisis in Africa. What alternative do we then have? We now turn to state-society relations i.e. how the state, with its policies, define the type and level of development and how this re-creates the society. Thus, the state is responsible for development and development reshapes society. Therefore, a state in crisis will lack the peace to evolve relevant policies that will promote meaningful development and as a result; the society will remain stagnant or even chaotic. Consequently, understanding the nature and character of the African state and society become very crucial in understanding Africa’s development crisis, in so far as the state needs hegemony in order to be cohesive, hold society together and perform its functions as the power house of society. This is because capitalism creates the state from and for society and the state then stands above society as its power house, giving definition to the society with its policies that are reflections of its ideology and philosophy. Thus, the level of development in the society is a function of the state’s ability to be articulate, rational, creative, focused, organized and cohesive, to enable it formulate policies that will bring about meaningful development.

Fig. 1: State – Society – Development Paradigm Source: Authors Imaginative Conception of State – Society – Development Paradigm

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The African Pre and Post Colonial States and Societies The State History is replete with ideas about the state and as history had been interpreted in different ways so the ideas about the state had developed into diverse versions from the Natural, Divine, Social Contract and Force Theories (Fadakinte, 2013). Bluntschili says that the state is the politically organized national population of definite territory (Bluntschili,cited in Mahajan,1988). MacIver, (1965, opines that the state is an association which acting through law as promulgated by a government endowed with coercive power maintains within a community territorially demarcated the universal external conditions of social order. However, for this work, we shall adopt the force theory of the state in our analysis of the state. And that is because the force theory of state does not assume that the state is the natural expression of the whole of an evolving society, or as a community chosen by God, or as an organized community based on contract but as the means by which a small number of people impose their will on a reluctant majority. The origin of the state is linked to the division classes. This division leads to the existence of class struggles and contradictions for the control of the state. With the force theory, the state ceases to be co-extensive with society and becomes more closely identified with what is called the dominant class. (Goodwin, 1982). What the force theory emphasizes is that the state was not build on any contract, as claimed by the social contract theory, neither can it be an organic unity but it is built on force and usurpation because society is an imbroglio of class conflict of which the state’s very existence is symptomatic (Goodwin, 1982). The state is therefore a complex of intuitions which includes the government, the bureaucracy and public corporate (Knuttila and Kubik, 2000), performing two critical functions, viz accumulation and legitimating. Thus, the state provides the wherewithal for development because the state must coordinate and articulate development efforts, in order for modern society to progress. Thus, development and its processes are shaped by four basic variables viz political (ideology), economics, cultural and social structure (Palmer, 1989). So, if the state is cohesive it means that the dominant class is united in its pursuit of implementing a class project and influencing the overall ideological development of the larger society. Thus, important decision and public policy formulation, regarding development objectives are carried out by the state on behalf of the dominant class. Pre-Colonial State The geographical shape of what is usually regarded as African states, which were more like societies, as well as institutional structures were done by ex-colonial power during the scramble for Africa. Prior to this time, African states (societies) had no well defined national boundaries. The boundaries of African states were vague and porous. There was a wide range of multiple, overlapping and alternative collective identities (Burnell and Randall, 2008). The boundaries of African countries are today artificial whose creations were externally directed and imposed and till today, are in the form of straight line drawn cartographically on open maps. There was no indigenous conceptualization of geographical boundaries, neither was there the involvement of nationalist movements in creating the boundaries of modern African nation states (Burnell and Randall, 2008). Indeed, there was no capitalism in Africa as the societies were predominantly feudal with monarchism as the ruling political institution. Therefore, it can be argued that there was no state in pre-colonial Africa

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The Colonial State Whenever we make reference to the colonial state we mean the colonial administration and government in the colony, until the attainment of flag independence. Thus, the instruments of state coercion, military, police, courts and prisons were created and a new administrative bureaucracy was set up. In Africa therefore, the colonial state was not a product of antagonistic interests among social classes, i.e. the colonial state did not emerge because of lack of unity of interests among social classes in the society nor because the society was torn apart by irreconcilable contradictions. Indeed, the colonial state was not an instrument of any indigenous social class that developed to mediate between social classes whose interests were irreconcilable. The colonial state was basically an agent of imperialism, an instrument of economic exploitation (Fadakinte, 2013) The colonial state was a dominating force which did not serve the interests of the natives. In addition, the colonial state lacked sovereignty, nationhood and external autonomy (Muiu, 2008). Thus, without sovereignty, the colonial state did not have any say in economic, political and cultural attains of the people as it was a dependent institution on the colonizing power. The colonial state was also not a nation because the society was an amalgam of difficult tribes and ethnic groups with disparate cultures. And the colonial state lacked autonomy as it could not be an autonomous independent actor in international force (Muiu, 2008). The main purpose of African colonial state was not to develop the social infrastructure but to extract the resources of Africa for the benefit of Europe. This was true of the private companies that acted for European states in the exploitation or extraction of riches, raw materials, and taxes as their primary goals. And in as much as the institutions of colonial rule can be termed colonial states they were states of extraction, and had no interest in the promotion of national economic development. (Burnell and Randall, 2008:219). During the colonial rule and well into the twentieth century, the institutions of control were authoritarian, elitist and channeled towards more extraction for the benefit of the metropolitan centers (Burnell, and Randall, 2008:219). Unfortunately, elements of the colonial state have been dominant since political independence. What was constant in the colonial administration was the concentration of authority to establish, revise and interpret rules in a structure that was entirely removed from local, popular mechanisms of control. Even where this authority was shared (like in the indirect rule system) because of operating realities with a local traditional figure, input was usually not increased by this. If anything the chief used indirect rule to attenuate his vulnerability to customary control (Olowu, 1994) The Post-Colonial State Colonialism, as a historical factor in the development of the African State made her own variant of capitalist formation to possess some unique characteristics. Thus, the capitalist formation in Africa is devoid of certain similarities, which do not make her to be quite the same with other capitalist states of Europe, where the state is the “classic state in the sense that it is the instrument of the capitalist class to maintain its domination over the other classes in the society” (Nnoli, cited in Fadakinte, 2013). One of the uniqueness of the post independent African state was the evolution of a political class that was created by colonialism but with its own trajectory of development based on the unleashing of capitalist forces. Thus, colonialism created capitalism in Africa when there was no capitalist class. It also created capitalist political institutions when there was no capitalist state. However, an embryonic working class emerged at the time of independence based on textiles, motor transport and tobacco processing,

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including a powerful African petty bourgeoisie which were made up of teachers, civil servants, prosperous farmers, and traders emerged. (Smith, B.C.2009). Soon after independence, most African countries adopted state capitalism as a model for development. And that was because state capitalism rejects the idea of the invisible hand on the regulator of the market place and gives the government a central role in economic development. The model was adopted because it was believed that former colonies should emulate the capitalist countries in order to facilitate, economic growth and the development of modern political institutions (Payne and Nasser, 2008). The post colonial state in Africa is therefore characterized by patrimonial rule and patronage which has deleterious consequences on the independence of institutions such as the courts, bureaucracies, armies, or other state owned agencies. This has led to the privatization of such institutions because they are used to advance the interests of individuals who have served as state officials. Thus, (Burnell and Randall, 2008) argue that the state in post colonial Africa is treated as properties of the political elites with the state becoming amenable to control by political leaders and this remains a problem in establishing the modern states. Therefore, the post colonial state, for (Smith, 2009) is a kind of parasite especially through a privileged bureaucratic state. The state obtained economic resource from the society in order to sustain an unproductive dominant class, the class that uses state powers to grant themselves business opportunities for them to acquire wealth. Other characteristics of the African post colonial states are low level of economic growth, difficulty in maintaining the territorial and external sovereignty of poor states, dependence of African states on loans in order to finance development projects. As a result, there are many states in post colonial Africa which have found it extremely difficult to maintain political consolidation within their territory, to protect their sovereignty and accomplish monopoly of the use of coercion (Burnell and Randall, 200). Thus, the post-colonial state acquired the characteristics that rendered it vulnerable to the vagaries of the international economy, (Akokpari, 2001). It is unfortunate that the African post-colonial state has taken on more elements of the colonial state rather than of the precolonial state. The legacy of the colonial state is the weak vertical and horizontal integration of the African state, the dominance of power rather than authority and the low-level of government. (Olowu, 1994) The African post-colonial state is therefore artificial because it is the creation of the colonial powers on the ideology of capitalism. This is why the state is weak because it did not evolve over a long period of time, like the typical state in Europe. As a result of the artificiality of the state and its weakness, it is unable to be in full control of the society, which explains its fragility; log jammed or even near total collapsed (Akokpari, 2001). The African Society Society is a collection of individuals, held together by some enduring relationships in pursuance of common ends. (Mahajan, 1988) For Gauba (2013) society is an association of human beings which fulfils all their needs of life – from cradle to grave while the state fulfils their particular need of political organization subjecting them to binding laws and decisions to provide for order and security, and common supreme decision making authority. Thus, society binds men into multifarious relationships which is usually determined by necessity, customs, morality, mutual understanding, agreement or even contract. Society has been defined to include in the widest sense every kind or degree of relationship entered into by men whether these relations be organized or unorganized, direct or

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indirect, conscious or unconscious, cooperative or antagonistic. It includes the whole issue of human relationships and is without a boundary or assignable limits.(Mahajan, 1988) Thus, society is used to describe the whole community of mankind, from a small group of a village communities. However, with some exceptions, the pre-colonial African society was characterized by the absence of social classes in the sense of a division between a capital-owning, factorowning, class and a wage-earning (urban proletariat) and peasant class, with a middle class of merchants, professionals and others in-between or, as in the feudal society of medieval Europe, an aristocratic class and a peasant class bound in the service of the aristocratic landowner and attached to the land (serfs). It was rather a society in which everybody was illiterate, “did pretty much the same thing (peasant farming, fishing, petty trading, pottery, simple ironworks handcraft), and lived at pretty much the same level. It was a society in which no one possessed any expert knowledge or superior skills, so that all belonged together to the same more or less undifferentiated, unstratified, classless mass”. (Nwabueze, 2010:323) There was no accumulated capital, no employing class, no working class, which made the wage and salary earning class a creation of the colonial system in Africa. (Nwabueze 2010.) Also, there was no aristocracy of birth or of wealth, and no bourgeois class; land, because the principal means of production in the agricultural economy of pre-colonial African societies, was owned in common by the family, village or community, and in some places was farmed in common. In addition, government in the traditional society was rudimentary, and its functions and activities were extremely limited which excluded the existence of a ruling class of full-time professional politicians and bureaucrats. (Lloyd,1972) The more or less undifferentiated and unstratified, classless societies of pre-colonial Africa were transformed to be like the European state, which was a creation of capitalism. However, in post colonial African society, elite class emerged as a result of stratification in the society which occurred as a result of the gross disparities in income and living standards between the different groups now comprised within it. The middle class in Africa is undeveloped in terms both of its share of national wealth being nearer the poverty than the affluence line, and of the percentage of the population comprised within it. Apart from their overwhelming numbers and their heterogeneity, the masses, as a class, is characterized more by extreme poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, disease and wretchedness., with their poverty and privation constitute a major part of Africa’s under-development. And far from improving, their condition, the condition became increasingly worse since independence. Thus, at the outset of independence there had been a narrow gap in trust and confidence between the bulk of the population and the beneficiaries together with leaders of anti-colonial nationalism. And till date, the gap had widened to an abyss. Thus, on one side, a great mass of resentful and impoverished rural people and on the other, a small minority with quantities of wealth, and into that abyss there had plunged, more or less helplessly, the legitimacy and credit of the state which had allowed this gap to yawn ( Nwabueze 2010). State, Society and Development Crises in Africa, The state has become the main problem in Africa and that is why the African environment is characterized by chaos, violence and uncertainty as a result of blind and senseless struggles for power by factions of the dominant class, making the state irresponsible and lacking in ideological focus, to the extent that the state is unable to perform its primary role of protecting class interest and property. Thus, such a primary function will ensure that an organized process of social production and accumulation remains possible and that there

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should be class “harmony” between the social classes in society because the state always pretends to be neutral in class conflict (Knuttila and Wendee, 2000). We are here emphasizing the role of the state because the nature and character of the document class determine the nature and character of the state. Consequently, the belligerence nature of the dominant class is what accounts for disorganized nature of the state in Africa. And that is why the state is rancorous, violent and arbitrary. And for as long as the factions of the dominant class maintain rancorous relationship as a result of their blind quest for power, for so long the state will know no peace. So, political elites that do not have economic base but preoccupies itself with blind struggle for power, with the aim of winning political power and be in control of the institutions of state to consolidate an economic base for itself will have no time to plan for development. So, in Africa, politics means winner takes all, which implies that the loss of an election is synonymous with the loss of patronage and access to socio-economic benefits (Ojo, 2012). It is so bad that in some cases, an ethnic group takes the loss of election by their kin’s man as a total loss of benefits to the ethnic group. Thus, in Africa, the political elites engage in politics with the aim of winning elections by all means, whether legitimate or otherwise, including making use of violence to eliminate opponents or even liquidate them. Consequently, the state in Africa is but an instrument of violence, disorderliness and chaos. Therefore , instead of the state playing the role of power house of society in bringing about order, peace and the orderly coordination of the distribution of resources, it is enmeshed in crisis and turning the society into an arena of warfare. In Africa, every general election is warfare because the state has turned political competition (politics) into a zero sum game where the loser in an election will lose everything while the winner will win everything. Thus, the political elites are so absorbed in the struggle for survival that they could not pay much attention to anything else, especially development (Ake, 1996). They alienated the people from the developmental process by turning the state into a system of organized violence for the repression of the very people whose support is indispensable to development. Consequently, no development can take place when the people are alienated from the state and its government while development can only be related to and driven by social will in the context of democracy. It is only in this context that the people can be the means and the end of development (Ake, 1996). The ruling elites impeded development by setting one tribe against another tribe thereby inflaming hostile relations among the population. Moreover, in trying to consolidate their power and to prevent rivals and opponents from having access to power, they use state power to control the economy and to appropriate wealth. This political strategy created an unproductive state capitalism in which surplus was appropriated and distributed by using state power, which will not allow and the law of value to take root. Therefore, engrossed in the political warfare for state power, the ruling elites opted for dependent development, letting their metropolitan patrons determine their agenda and finding the resources to implement it (Ake, 1996). Thus, Africa fails to make significant progress towards development because the continent is unable to maintain order, enforce laws and most importantly provide essentially public services, such as education and health care (Payment and Nassar 2008), because those who are supposed to do it (the political elites) do not have the vision and peace to do so. Thus, the main problem for most of Africa has not been poor, incompetent leadership per se, but weak, inefficient institutional arrangements, not-viable economic institutions, inefficient systems that have encouraged and rewarded opportunism, and a state that has either

14


become irrelevant or has been unwilling or unable to perform its functions properly (Mbaku, 1999). Underdevelopment, therefore, becomes one of Africa’s tragic inheritances from European colonialism, perhaps the most tragically visible of all. It combines with a wobbling and incipient state, another colonial inheritance, to inflict on Africa a development crisis whose trauma and pains have deformed the face of all African societies, making Africa to be the most underdeveloped continent in the world. Thus, Africa’s development crisis reflects the backwardness of a continent, due more essentially to her incapacity to harness maximally its natural and human resources for the production of wealth, and to utilize rationally such wealth to provide social services that are essential to the well-being and happiness of its population. Unfortunately for Africa, as argued by (Thies, 2007) states that are more efficient in extracting revenues from their societies are better competitors with external rivals. Thus, if African states do not have the capacity to extract their resources or even collect taxes, how can they be part of the competitive global market? So, instead of relying on domestic economic growth to produce taxable revenue, African rulers seek political and economic aids from aboard, as well as credits from global financial markets (Thies, 2007). And since part of the process of state making , which include extraction, protection and even ability to go into war are integral to state building (Thies, 2007), then, state building is in serious crisis in Africa as all that are integral to state building are either nonexistent or are in serious jeopardy. Consequently, the infrastructures as well as the institutions, and the nonsensical national boundaries, with the systems of government, are now colonial legacies that serve to distort, rather than facilitate contemporary social, economic and political development of Africa. (Moseley, 2009). Conclusion The African state is a state constructed principally on its colonial origins in terms of its philosophy, structure and organization. And that is why it suppresses, distorts and sometimes perverts pre-colonial conceptions of the state and state institutions and also, criminally manages those inherited from the colonial state. Today, the emphasis of the state seems to be on power to the exclusion of ethics and a complete reliance on western conceptions of authority and imported western institutions of government such as the legislature, executive, military etc. without the attending norms supporting them( Olowu, 1994). In addition, the African state is in a flux because the dominant class is in factional crisis and is unable to organize itself to be united with a common ideology needed to plan for development as a result, the society is thrown into a condition of anomie, making everybody to run helter shelter for survival which turns the society into the Hobbessian state of nature. And the situation is like that because, African countries have very weak institutions, including the state which is why the state is unable to achieve territorial integration, or control the whole area under their jurisdiction (Burnell and Randall, 2008). In such a situation, how does the state plan for development when its primary concern is to secure political order and provide for political stability so as to be able to maintain social control. So, quite a sizable portion of the budget of African countries goes to defence and at the slighted engagement in full scale war, they run to their colonial masters or other imperialist western countries for military assistance. Thus, the cost of a disorganized state and a society in anomie can be quite high, which will impact on the social, political and economic aspects of the society. Therefore, the condition of flux that characterizes the African state and society leads to the failure of the state to organize the economy and plan for development. It also affects the capacity of the state to effectively organize its apparatus of power in order to create political order and produce stable

15


and well coordinated political authority with effective public administration, consistent policy, and ensure stability and social cohesion (Burnell and Randall, 2008). In view of the foregoing, what is the way forward for Africa? In the first place, the current national, boundaries of African countries, as drawn up by the colonialists, are the major problems in Africa. Today, each African country is an amalgam of incompatible tribes and ethnic formations that create heterogeneous societies in bellicosity. The most serious problem this situation poses for Africa is the difficulty in getting the dominant class together, to be cohesive and create a stable state with a well defined ideology and philosophy to enable it plan relevant and meaningful development for the society. Thus, lack of hegemony becomes an immediate crisis confronting the African state and there cannot be hegemony when there is no dominant class with paternalism. Also, there cannot be effective domination when the state lacks hegemony while the state cannot peacefully and rationally distribute resources without domination. Therefore, the current chaotic societies masquerading as countries should have their boundaries reviewed to create a more homogeneous and compact society that will make governance less rancorous among bitter tribes and ethnic formulations that are struggling over the distribution of resources. And this is because the smaller and more homogenous, with same culture and history the easier it will be to evolve a cohesive ruling class with paternalistic interest. How do we expect African countries, the way they are constituted, to be devoid of bitter struggles for power when competition for resources is irrational and lacking ideology which turns elections into warfare? From Nigeria, Ivory Coast, through Cameroon, to Sudan, Congo, Kenya, and the story is the same. We therefore need to start thinking of the right of secession in the constitutions of African countries. And perhaps the starting point is to first push the idea through the United Nations.

16


References Ake, Claude (1981). A Political Economy of Africa, London: Longman. Ake, Claude (1996). Democracy and Development in Africa. Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited Asirvatham, Eddy and Misra, K. K. (2008), Political Theory, New Delhi, S. Chand and Coy Ltd. Asobie, A. (2002). International Relations, Foreign Policy and the Prospects and Problems of Globalization. A Paper Presented at the SUU State of the Nation Conference held at Abuja. Baran, Paul(1957) The Political Economy of Growth, NY, Monthly Review Burnell, Peter and Randall, Vicky, (2008): Politics in the Developing World; Oxford, Univ. Press. Cameron G. Thies (2007) The Political Economy of State building in Sub-Saharan African, The Journal of Politics, vol. 69, No. 3, pp. 716 – 731. Clapham, Christopher (1996) Africa and the International System: The Politics of State Survival. Cambridge: University Press. Ekpe, A. E. and Okereke, O. O. (2002), Development and Underdevelopment: Politics of the North-South Divide. Enugu. Eze, Osita (2010), Globalization and the Dynamics of External Interests in Africa. In Eze Osile and Anigbo (eds.) The New Scramble for Africa. Lagos, Print Service Ltd. Fadakinte, M. M. (2003) The Nature and Character of the Nigerian State: Explaining Election Crisis in a Pperipheral State, British Journal of Arts of social Science, vol. 12, No. 11, pp. 275-287 Fanon, F. (1963), The Wretched of the Earth, London, Edward Arnold. Gauba, O. P. (2007). An Introduction to Political Theory 4th Ed New Delhi, Macmillan Indian Ltd. Handelman, Howard (2011). The Challenges of Third World Development. N Y, Prentice Hall. Jacobs, (1999: 152). Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Social Development. In Human Choice, World Academy of Art and Science, USA.

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Jhingam, M. L. (2006). The Economics of Development and Planning, 38th Edition, New Delhi, Vrinda Pub. Ltd. Jike, Victor T. (2004) Globalization and the Crisis of African Development. In Globalization and Africa’s Economic Development. A publication of the Nigerian Economic Society, Ibadan. John, K. Akokpari (2001) Globalization and the Challenges for the African State. Nordic Journal of African Studies 10(2): pp. 188 – 209. Knuttila, M and Wendee, K (2000) State Theories, London; Zed Books. Llyod, P.C (1972). Africa in Social Change. London, Penguin Maclver, R. M. (1965). The Web of Government, New York. The Free Press. Mahajam, V. D. (2008) Political Theory; New Delhi, S. Chand and Coy Ltd. Mansel, R. and When, U. (1998) Knowledge Societies: Information Technology for Sustainable Development. New York. University Press. Mbaku, John Mukum (1999) The Relevance of the State in African Development: Preparing for the New Century, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Vol. 34, pp. 298 – 320. Moseley, William G. (2009) Taking Sides: Dashing views on African Issues: London, McGraw Hill, Highest Education, 3rd Edition. Mueni Wa Muiu (2008) “Civilization” on Trial: the Colonial and Post-Colonial State in Africa, Journal of Third World Studies vol. xxv, No. 1, pp. 73 – 93. Offiong, Daniel (1980). Imperialism and Dependency. Enugu Fourth Dimension. Ojo, Emmanuel (2012) Leadership crisis and Political Instability in Nigeria, 1964 – 1966: The Personalities, the Parties and the Policies. Journal of History, Political Science and international Petitions, Vol. 1(1) pp. 6 – 17. Olutayo., (2007). Capitalism, Globalization and the Underdevelopment Process in Africa Development. Palmer, M. (1989:7). Dilemmas of Political Development: An Introduction to the Politics of the Developing Areas,. Itasca, Illinois. Peacock Publishers Inc Payne, R. J. and Nassar, J. r. (2008). Politics and Culture in the Developing World: The Impact of Globalization. New York. Pearson Education Inc. (3rd Edition). Pye, Lucian (1962) Aspects of Political Development, Boston, Little Brown.

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Rao, Varman (1985) Democracy and Economic Development. Studies in Corporative international Development, Winter Pp. 67 – 81. Rodney, W. O. (1972) How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Tanzania: Tanzania Publishing House. Rostow, W. W. (1962). The Process of Economic Growth: New York, Sanubi, F. A. (2014). Africa Development Crisis and global Thinking: Collapse of the Periphery, Decay of the Core. African Journal of Political Science and International Relations. Vol. 8(4). Pp 65-82 Smith, B. C. (2009) Understanding Third World Politics Theories of Political Change and Development, New York, Palgrave Macmillan. Todaro, M. (1977), Economics for a Development World, London, Longmans. Todaro, M. and Smith, S. C. (2011) Economic Development. NY Pearson Education and Addison – Wesley. 11th Edition Umezinwa, Cletus (2014) African Culture and Development, International Journal of Humanities and Social Science.Vol.4 No 3 pp165-172 Verma, S. P. (1980) Modern Political Theory, New Delhi, Vikas Pub. House Ltd. Yusuf, A. (1994) Africa: A Case for Mass Democratic Participation. In Omo-Omoruyi (ed.) Democracy in Africa: Africa Perspective. Vol. Benin City: Hima & Hima Ltd.

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Using strategic intellectual property management to maximize value- An Empirical Study on the Algerian Insurances Companies Dr.Zoubier Ayache and Dalal Adjali Faculty of management, Larbi ben M’hidi University, Oum El Bouagui , Algeria [email protected]

Abstract: The aim of this study is to empirically examine the strategic intellectual property management and their relationship with maximize value in the Algerian insurance organizations. This study was conducted based on a psychometrically validated questionnaire designed and distributed to a random sample of 430 managers in two Algerian insurance companies (AXA & SAA). The response rate was 36% as 134 managers filled the questionnaire. Confirmatory Factor Analysis has been used as statistical methods to analyze the three hypotheses developed. In particularly, we found that: (a) there is statistically significant on the existence of strategic intellectual property management (SIPM) in Algerian Insurance organizations. (b) “Strategic intellectual property management (SIPM)” is positively associated with “maximize value by intellectual property management” in Algerian insurance companies. (C)There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian insurance companies toward “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” due to type of company (international or public). Key words: strategic intellectual property management, Intellectual property management, maximizes value, Algerian insurance companies, SAA (Algerian Insurance Company), AXA Algeria.

20


Introduction: The advent of the knowledge economy and the shift towards a technology based competition in the global markets has led to a growing importance of intellectual property (IP) assets for companies’ growth. In particular, market value of companies appears to rely increasingly on intangible assets, notably on intellectual property. The management of IP, which includes patents, trademarks and copyrights-, has become therefore a strategic matter for companies. Different compelling arguments have been advanced for a better understanding and appreciation of the value of IP and its potential impact on business value (Justin M. Nielsen and Robert F. Reilly, 2012, pp46-47). Intangible assets (patents, marks, know-how, licenses…) play increasingly a key factor for companies’ economic performance (Ian Ellis, 2009, p4). They are particularly important for early stage-technology based companies as IP is viewed as the primary contribution to earning Power and future value. The strategic management of intellectual property means the art of using intellectual property tools systematically over time to help a company meet its goals, whatever they may be. Strategic intellectual property management today still is a topic of major interest for many researchers and is an organizational variable that should be understood and constantly monitored for the welfare of any company. In recent years, the primary locus of value for many companies has been found in there IP rights, whereas some three-quarters of the Fortune 100’s total market capitalizations was represented by intangible assets, such as patents, copyrights and trademarks. In our principal thesis there is no one best way to manage IP and that many managers overestimate the attractiveness of using IP to exert market power. Rather, the value of the various means to protect and benefit from IP depends on firm strategy, the competitive landscape, and rapidity changing contours of IP law (William W Fisher, 2013, p1). Today, matters are more complicated, and integrated strategic IPM is required to maximize the firm’s value. Whilst by integrated strategic IPM, we mean not only that the various form of IP managed together, but that IPM is integrated with overall business model design and corporate strategy (Abdurrahman Y. AL-Aali, 2013, p14). The business world, including the insurance business, is no different. New product development requires investment of manpower and capital, and there is always a need to make sure that the fruits of product development efforts go as far and as long as possible to maximize return on investment. Hence, protection for new products is essential. Given the importance of the insurance companies in Algeria we do this research for several objectives, including: - To create awareness about the strategic IPM in Algerian insurance companies, especially in the public one; - To test the relationship between strategic intellectual property management and maximize value by IPM in Algerian insurance companies; - To know the deference between international insurance company (AXA) and the public insurance company in Algeria(SAA) amongst the maximization of value using strategic intellectual property management; - To test the relationship between the type of Algerian insurance companies and the maximization of value using strategic intellectual property management; - To provide a recommendations for management of Algerian insurance companies regarding maximize value by strategic intellectual property management.

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Actually, there have been numerous publications on strategic intellectual property management (SIPM) in general but little empirical data have been gathered on the SIPM of insurance companies. Public and private Algerian insurance companies (SAA and AXA) are ones of these companies where the SIPM has not received much attention. This research will study the relationship between strategic intellectual property management and maximize value by intellectual property management of a selected sample of two Algerian insurance companies’ managers, the international Algerian company (AXA) and the public Algerian company (SAA). And, we have built this research on this hypothesises: H1: There is statistically significant about the existence of strategic intellectual property management (SIPM) in Algerian insurance companies; H2: There is statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual property management (SIPM)” and “maximize value by intellectual property management” amongst the Algerian insurance companies; H3: There is statistically significant differences amongst the Algerian insurance companies toward maximize value due to type of companies (international, public). 1- Overview about Strategic Intellectual Property Management: Business people consider intellectual property to be a management tool for converting human capital into value by defining and capturing new knowledge. For example, Patrick Sullivan uses the term “intellectual capital” to describe the human resources and intellectual assets of firm (Patrick Sullivan, 1998, pp5-9). Human resources are the creative people employed by the company, who have individual rights. Intellectual property is the legally protected form of intellectual assets, which belong to the company. IP is generally regarded as representing ‘... the property of your mind or intellect (Australian Science Capability Review, 2000, p4). Methods for the protection and exploitation of IP include, but are not limited to: Patent, Copyright, Trade mark, Design, Circuit layout right, Plant breeder's right, Trade secret. 1.1. Intellectual Property Management Viewing IP merely as a legal instrument, the first is the acquisition of IP rights to secure for a company the use of a certain intellectual material (a technology, a term, or an artistic expression). The second is the enforcement of IP rights by ensuring that others do not capitalize on such intellectual material without the owner’s authorization (Nermien Al-Ali, 2003, p63). Only when companies started looking at IP not merely as a legal right but as a business opportunity did IPM slowly move from being a concern of the legal department to becoming part of the strategic management function of a company, hence the business approach to IPM. 1.2. Strategic Intellectual Property Management The strategic management of intellectual property means the art of using intellectual property tools systematically over time to help a company meet its goals, whatever they may be. With good strategic management, a company can increase its assets, reduce its liabilities, and exert control over its environment (Robert Grant, 2013). So that strategic management involves only two tasks, repeated as necessary: (1) Form a strategy for managing intellectual property.

22


(2) Implement it. 1.2.1. Form a Strategy for Managing Intellectual Property: First, forming a strategy requires the following (Abdurrahman, Y. Al-ALI, 2013, p17): Define the company’s overall goals: The common goal of any IP manager is to increase control over both internal innovation and the outside community, to protect internal assets and accessing external IP rights. Assess internal resources objectively: In forming a strategy, the IP manager must make an objective appraisal of the internal innovation resources of the company or community. Human resources are first and most important. By identifying these people, the IP manager can determine the magnitude of the organizational challenge and the human resources available. Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly: The IP manager must identify any intellectual property rights that interfere with the company’s access to information or materials, or markets (Kevin G. Rivette, 2000, p56). Form a simple, long-range IP management plan consistent with resources, competition, and goals: With all the basic information outlined above (about the overall organizational mission, the internal resources, and the competitive environment), the IP manager needs to put together a management plan. Ultimately, there are only two possible purposes for such a plan: To protect the company’s own IP assets; To access innovations of others without violating their IP rights. 1.2.2. The Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property: The Six Ps IP managers perform their jobs by establishing certain policies and practices (UNECE, 2011, p30), grouped here into six categories. An overarching policy on managing IP sets the basic guidelines for a company, and links the other categories together. The “Six Ps” They are (Michael A.Gollin, 2008, p147): Policy for IP management: A general policy helps the company put the right staff in place, collect the right information, make the right decisions in timely fashion, and ultimately protect and respect IP rights consistent with the company’s goals. Personnel IP practices: Personnel practices deal with both internal and external rights. Portfolio IP management practices: the components of portfolio management are a confidentiality program, a copyright program, a patenting program, and a trademark program. Procurement IP practices: The basic thrust of good procurement practice is to ensure freedom to operate. Partnering IP practices: “Partnering” is used here not in the legal sense of forming a partnership entity, but more loosely, to refer to established relationships with outside companies with respect to their intellectual property rights, other than straightforward procurement relationships with suppliers. Policing IP activities: the company should have an active policing program to make sure that competitors are notified of IP rights, to monitor the marketplace for infringements, and to confront competitors who do infringe. Policing requires a two way information flow– providing notice to the market, and learning information from it.

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2. Strategic Intellectual Property Management to maximize value IP management has its limits, but it can be a powerful tool to help companies achieve their goals. Here is a list of general goals for strategic IP management, to be combined and adapted depending on circumstances (Michael A. Gollin, 2008, p148). Increase company assets; Attract capital (Andrew J, Sherman, 2007, p1); Protect investment; Obtain a short-term competitive advantage; Maintain long-term competitive advantage (D. Somaya, D, 2011, pp 47-49); Improve marketing; Avoid liability; Manage relationships with personnel; Ensure access to technology, materials, software, and data; Strengthen relationships with suppliers; Coordinate relationships with partners; Protect relationships with customers and protect them from IP challenges to products and services provided; Control the use of innovation; Facilitate dissemination of knowledge and products; Build goodwill (Michael, A. Gollin, 2008, p450). Many of these goals apply in for-profit and nonprofit companies alike. For profit companies tend to be more focused on the first three goals (increasing assets, attracting capital, protecting investments). Nonprofits tend to focus more on the last three goals (dissemination of knowledge and products and increase goodwill).

N°

3. Research methodology The following table describes the dimensions of the study and the number of the related items for each dimension. Table (1): Dimensions of the research N° of Items Dimensions Form 1 a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company:

1-1

Increase control by carried out some actions with IP assets;

7

1-2

Assess internal resources objectively;

8

1-3

Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly;

4

1-4

Develop an IP management plan

8

1-5

Implement the IP management plan

4

2

Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property to Maximize Value.

5

3

Maximize value by Strategic Intellectual Property Management in company.

10

Total

46 The questions in the survey were rated using Likert scale as shown in table (2).

24


Weight

Table (2): The Likert scale model in answering the questionnaire Descriptive interpretations

5

Always

4

Often

3

Occasionally

2

Rarely

1

Never 3.1. Sampling: A simple random sample is used where 430 managers or directors of the companies and its agencies were surveyed as recommended by Bontis (1998) and Bukh et al (1999). 3.2. Statistical Society In this research, a limited society is used where in 2 Algerian Insurance Companies: AXA (international insurance company) and SAA (Public insurance company), 134 managers responded (response rate 36%). 3.3. Statistical treatment: In this research, ordinal scales were used. The number assigned to the important (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) do not indicate that the interval between scales are equal, nor do they indicate absolute quantities. First, we use Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of normality, to choosing tests that suite our research. Table (3): Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of normality Kolmogorov-Smirnova Shapiro-Wilk Statistique ddl Signification Statistique ddl Signification

-Form a strategy to manage intellectual ,220 property in your company -Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual ,182 Property to Maximize Value. - maximize value of companies by strategic ,146 Intellectual Property Management.

133 ,000

,796

133 ,000

133 ,000

,917

133 ,000

133 ,000

,940

133 ,000

a. Correction de signification de Lilliefors Table (3) shows the results for Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro Wilks test of normality. The p-value for each field is smaller than (0.05) level of significance, then the distribution for each field is not normally distributed. Consequently, non-parametric tests will be used to perform the statistical data analysis. The researcher would utilize the following statistical tests: - Spearman Rank Correlation for Validity; - Cronbach’s Alpha for Reliability Statistics; - Frequency and Descriptive analysis; - Nonparametric tests.

25


4. Questionnaire: 4.1. Structure validity of the questionnaire: Structure validity measures the correlation coefficient between one field and all the fields of the questionnaire that have been the same level of likert scale. The table (4) clarifies the correlation coefficient for each field and the whole questionnaire. The P-values (sig) are less than 0.01, so coefficients of all the fields are significant at α=0.01, so it can be said that the fields are valid to be measured what it was set for to achieve the aim of the study. Table(4): correlation coefficient of each field and the whole of questionnaire Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company

Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property to Maximize Value.

Maximize value Questionnaire of companies by Intellectual Property Management

Form a strategy to coefficient 1.000 manage intellectual signification 0.000 property in your N 134 company

0.663

0.773

0.973

0.000

0.000

0.000

134

134

134

Strategy Tools for coefficient Managing Intellectual signification Property N Maximize value of coefficient companies by signification Intellectual Property N Management

0.663

1.000

0.523

0.765

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

134

134

134

0.773

134 0.523

1.000

0.842

0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

134

134

134

134

Questionnaire

0.973

0.765

0.842

1.000

signification 0.000

0.000

0.000

0.000

134

134

Spearman test

coefficient

134 134 N Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. 4.2. Questionnaire reliability:

Cronbach’s Coefficient Alpha The Cronbach’s coefficient alpha was calculated for each field of the questionnaire.

26


Table (5): Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for each field of questionnaire and the entire questionnaire N°

Cronbach’s Alpha

Field

1

Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company.

0.967

2

Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property.

0.158

3

Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management

0.652

All paragraphs of the questionnaire 0.650 Table (5) shows the values of Cronbach’s coefficient alpha for each field of the questionnaire and the entire questionnaire, the result ensures equals (0.650) for the entire questionnaire which indicates a good reliability of the entire questionnaire. 4. Empirical Analysis and Hypothesis Testing H1: There is statistically significant on the existence of strategic intellectual property management (SIPM) in Algerian insurance companies, this hypothesis can be divided into the following sub-hypotheses: H1a: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” in Algerian insurance companies: Table (6): Means and standard deviation for “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company”. Increase 1 control by carried out some actions with IP assets: Mean Mean% S.D Rank 1-1 You Sell a product or service at a premium by blocking price 3.31 66.2% 1.09 11 competition. 1-2 You Create a product or service with extra value due to 3.04 innovative internal methods and technologies

60.8%

0.84 17

1-3 You license rights to a competitor to increase capacity, settle a 1.54 dispute, or profit without further effort.

30.8%

0.60 25

1-4 You license to someone in an alternate sector where the innovator 2.54 does not compete.

50.8%

0.58 22

1-5 You Sell the IP rights.

1.37

27.4%

0.48 26

1-6 You control the actions of downstream users.

3.83

76.6%

0.78 8

1-7 Use the IP as a defensive bargaining chip in the event an outsider 4.07 accuses the owner of infringement.

81.4%

0.70 6

2-1 The IP manager has a clear sense of who generates creative ideas 2.95 in the company.

59%

1.37 18

2-2 The IP manager knows where to find good legal advice, and how 3.15 to implement decisions involving intellectual property.

63%

1.24 14

2-3 The IP manager identifies members of the business staff who 2.57 have relevant skills in dealing with intellectual property.

51.4%

1.67 21

2-4 The IP manager maintains lists of their patents and applications, 4.39 trademark registrations, copyright registrations, and licenses for

87.8%

0.49 3

2

Assess internal resources objectively:

27


assess the company’s IP portfolio. 2-5 The IP manager assesses the legal scope: What is the scope of 4.37 exclusive rights in the covered subject matter? What activities and products do they cover? How easily can they be enforced? What weaknesses or exceptions are there in exclusivity?

87.4%

0.62 4

2-6 The IP manager assesses the duration: How long will the right 2.69 last? When does it expire?

53.8%

0.69 20

2-7 The IP manager assesses the geographical range: In what 2.57 countries are the rights valid? In what regions of those countries?

51.4%

1.49 21

2-8 The IP manager considers organizational practices relationships as intellectual assets and assesses theme.

55.6%

1.44 19

3-1 The IP manager identifies any intellectual property rights that 3.09 interfere with the company’s access to information or materials, or markets.

61.8

1.19 16

3-2 Any obstacles have to be evaluated and dealt with.

4.31

86.2%

1.08 5

3-3 Researching the IP portfolios of competitors.

2.54

50.8%

1.57 22

44%

1.07 24

4-1 The IP manager is aware which type of activity is called for at 3.16 any given time.

63.2%

1.12 13

4-2 The IP manager put a management plan.

76%

0.69 7

4-3 The IP manager access innovations of others without violating 4.51 their IP rights.

90.2%

0.50 2

4-4 The IP manager protects innovations with IP rights, and again to 3.12 deal with accessing the innovations of others without violating their IP rights.

62.4%

0.54 15

4-5 The IP manager treats both activities –protecting rights and 3.78 freedom to operate – separately.

75.6%

0.70 9

4-6 To protect assets, the IP manager uses intellectual property to 2.37 further build the company’s own intellectual property portfolio – to grow its own innovation forest.

47.4%

0.71 23

4-7 To protect assets, the IP manager must find the right combination 3.78 of the following activities, consistent with budget and need: preserving, perfecting, transferring, an enforcing IP rights.

75.6%

0.76 9

4-8 The IP manager must then find a non infringing path to achieve 4.81 the company’s goals and a plan for action.

96.2%

0.39 1

86.2%

0.47 5

3

and 2.78

Evaluate the competitive market thoroughly

3-4 The IP manager carefully assess the IP of competitors is for 2.20 benchmarking – to compare the relative efforts of the companies in protecting their IP. 4

5

Develop an IP management plan

3.80

Implement the IP management plan:

5-1 The IP manager assesses and identifies the company’s goals, 4.31 reviews the available internal innovation assets, and maps the

28


surrounding environment defined by other people’s rights. 5-2 The IP manager being decisive, selecting a simple long-range 4.37 strategic plan for achieving the company’s goals.

87.4%

0.48 4

5-3 Protecting and using internal assets and constantly re-assessing 3.29 the environment.

65.8%

1.32 12

5-4 Implementing the plan with active steps, employing resources in 3.68 specific situations to put the strategy into practice, measuring results, and adjusting the strategy over time.

73.6%

0.68 10

66%

0.62

All paragraph of the field

3.30

Table (6) shows the following results: The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” equals 3.30 (66%) and Standard deviation equals (0.62), so the mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree on the content of this dimension “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” in Algerian insurance companies. H1 b: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance companies.

1

Table(7): Means and Standard deviation for “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property”. Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property Mean Mean% S.D Rank Policy for IP management: A general policy helps the company 3.87 77.4% 1.32 5 to put the right staff in place, collect the right information, make the right decisions in timely fashion, and ultimately protect and respect IP rights consistent with the company’s goals.

2

Personnel IP practices: Personnel practices deal with both 4.50 internal and external rights.

90%

0.50 2

3

Portfolio IP management practices: the components of portfolio 4.45 management are a confidentiality program, a copyright program, a patenting program, and a trademark program.

89%

0.50 3

4

Partnering IP practices: The relationship is usually based on 4.58 some kind of license, joint venture, franchise, inter-institutional research agreement, or the like.

91.6%

0.50 1

5

Policing IP activities: An company have an active policing 4.35 program to make sure that competitors are notified of IP rights, to monitor the marketplace for infringements, and to confront competitors who do infringe.

87%

0.48 4

87%

0.49

All paragraph of the field

4.35

Table (7) shows the following results: The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” equals 4.35 (87%) and Standard deviation equals (0.49), so the mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents very agree on the content of this dimension “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance companies.

29


H1c: There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies. Table(8): Means and standard deviation for “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management”. Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Mean Mean% S.D Management” 1

IP is a valuable business asset.

2

3.86

Rank

77%

0.78

3

IP generate an income for companies through the licensing, 2.58 sale, or commercialization of the IP-protected products or services that may significantly improve a company's market share or raise its profit margins.

51.6%

1.52

10

3

IP rights can enhance the value or worth of companies in the 3.47 eyes of investors and financing institutions.

69.4%

0.95

6

4

IP assets may significantly raise the value of the company, and 3.21 at times may be the primary or only true assets of value.

62.4%

1.02

9

5

Increase company assets and its return.

3.38

67.5%

1.09

7

6

The intellectual property management attracts capital and 3.63 protect investment what maximize value.

72.6%

0.98

5

7

Obtain a short-term competitive advantage what increase 3.30 revenues and reduce costs.

66%

0.77

8

8

Maintain long-term competitive advantage maximize values 3.81 and profits.

76.2%

0.93

4

9

Avoid liability to reduce costs.

80.4%

0.63

2

82%

0.81

1

71%

0.78

4.02

10 Manage relationships with personnel and strengthen 4.10 relationships with suppliers, coordinate relationships with partners, protect relationships with customers and protect them from IP challenges to products and services provided. All paragraphs of the field

3.54

Table (8) shows the following results: The mean of all paragraphs of the field “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” equals 3.54 (71%) and Standard deviation equals (0.78), so the mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree on the content of this dimension “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies. Table(9): means and Ecart type for “All paragraphs of questionnaire” Item Mean Mean%

S.D

All paragraphs of questionnaire

0.82

3.73

75%

Table (9) shows the following results: The mean of all paragraphs of the questionnaire “Strategic management intellectual property in your company” equals 3.73 (75%) and Standard deviation equals (0.82), so the mean is greater than the hypothesized value 3. It can be concluded that the respondents agree

30


on the content of this dimension “Strategic Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies. H2: There is statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual property management (SIPM)” and “maximize value by intellectual property management” amongst the Algerian insurance companies, this hypothesis can be divided into the following sub-hypotheses: H2(a): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.773 The pvalue (sig) =0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is positive, so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. H2(b): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.523 The pvalue(sig)=0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is positive, so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. H2(c): There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategic Intellectual Property Management in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. The table (4) of spearman coefficient correlation shows Test value= +0.842 The pvalue(sig)=0.00 which is smaller than the level of significance 0.01. The sign of test is positive, so there is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property in Algerian insurance companies” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies. H3: There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian insurance companies toward “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” due to type of company (international or public). Table(10): Mann-Whitney test of the fields and p-value for type of company. N° Field Test value p- value(sig) Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your -9.67 1 0.000 company. 2

Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property.

-5.59

0.000

3

Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property -9.47 Management

0.000

Strategic Intellectual Property Management

0.000

-9.66

Table (10) shows that (P-value=0.000) of each field is smaller than the level of significance (0.01). There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian

31


insurance companies toward “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” due to type of company (international or public). 5. Results and discussion: The results of the obtained structural model are show that: The previous analysis of the data revealed the following conclusions: - There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of this dimension is (66%); - There is a statistically significant on “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of this dimension is (87%); - There is a statistically significant on “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of this dimension is (71%); - There is a statistically significant on the existence of “Strategic intellectual property management in your company” in Algerian insurance companies as the mean of this dimension is (75%); - There is a statistically significant relationship between “Form a strategy to manage intellectual property in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the correlation coefficient is (+0.773); - There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategy Tools for Managing Intellectual Property” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the correlation coefficient is (+0.523); - There is a statistically significant relationship between “Strategic intellectual property management in your company” and “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” amongst Algerian insurance companies as the correlation coefficient is (+0.842); - There is a statistically significant relationship difference amongst Algerian insurance companies toward “Maximize value of companies by Intellectual Property Management” due to type of company (international or public). 6. Conclusion According to the results, we find that the strategic intellectual property management in Algerian insurance companies has a relationship with maximize her value, the strategic intellectual property management has given a great attention to the role of forming a strategy and adopt the right strategy tools like the six polices for intellectual property management in maximize their value and gain competitiveness, especially in the international insurance company AXA Algeria.

32


References: Abdurrahman Y. Al-Aali, David J. (2013), “Towards the (Strategic) Management of Intellectual Property: RETROSPECTIVE ANDPROSPECTIV”, Teece CALIFORNIA MANAGEMENT REVIEW VOL. 55, NO. 4, CMR.BERKELEY.EDU. Andrew J. Sherman, (2007), “STRATEGIES FOR LEVERAGING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY THROUGH LICENSING, JOINT VENTURES, ALLIANCES AND FRANCHISING”, The Morino Institute, Reston, VA, Washington. Australian Science Capability Review, ‘The Chance to Change’ (2000). Commonwealth of Australia. D. Somaya, D. Teece, and S. Wakeman, (2011) “Innovation in Multi-Invention Contexts: Mapping Solutions to Technological and Intellectual Property Complexity,” California Management Review, 53/4. EAS, « SUMMARY OF THE EPO-OECD-UKPO CONFERENCE: PATENTS: REALISING AND SECURING VALUE” – LONDON, 21 NOVEMBER 2006. Jeffrey Toobin, “Google’s Moon Shot: The Quest for the Universal Library”, New York. Kevin G. Rivette and David Kline, (2000) “Discovering New Value in Intellectual Property,” Harvard Business Review, 78/1. Michael A.Gollin, (2008), “Driving Innovation: Intellectual Property Strategies for dynamic world”, 1st Edition, New York, CAMBRIDGE University Press. Nermien Al-Ali, (2003), “COMPREHENSIVE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL MANAGEMENT: Step-by-Step”, Canada, (John Wiley & Sons), Patrick Sullivan, (1998), “Profiting from Intellectual Capital: Extracting Value from Innovation” Canada, (John Wiley & Sons). Robert M. Grant, (2013), “Contemporary Strategy Analysis”,9 edition, UK, John Wiley& sons. William W. Fisher III, (2013), “Strategic Management of Intellectual Property – An Integrated Approach”, California Management Review - Special Issue on Intellectual Property Management: In Search of New Practices, Strategies, and Business Models. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, (2011), “Intellectual Property Commercialization: POLICY OPTIONS AND PRACTICAL INSTRUMENTS”, New York and Geneva, United Nations.

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Justin M. Nielsen and Robert F. Reilly, (2012), “Procedures Companies Can Use to Maximize the Value of Their Intellectual Property”, Intangible Asset Valuation Insights. Ian Ellis, (2009), “Maximizing Intellectual Property and Intangible Assets”, Washington, Athena Alliance.

34


Apprenticeship and the Stylistic Trend of Painting in Nigeria

Abodunrin Johnson A Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria [email protected]

Abstract The paper examines the contribution of apprenticeship form of training in visual with special reference to the trend of styles and techniques of painting in Nigeria. It focuses on the contributions of Universal Studio of Arts, Abayomi Barber group and Mufu Onifade group, with a view to underscore the training orientation and impart through apprenticeship training of Arts in Nigeria. This study concentrates on the selected artists from the centers scanning through their backgrounds, development of their individual styles and experiences and how this has influence others who came across them. The study discovered that most painters in Nigeria are been influenced through the efforts of various centers of training of Arts. Therefore, the efforts of formal training in various institutions only serve as the pedestal for further development of styles in modern artistic growth in Nigeria. The paper concludes that apprenticeship form of training helps the development of style of painting in Nigeria artistic landscape, though there is no formal curriculum in use for the training. Key Words: Apprenticeship, Trend, Painting, Nigeria

35


Introduction The Oxford advance learners dictionary of current English 4 edition 1974, defined the word apprentice as ‘a person who agreed to work for a skilled employer for a fixed period in turn for being taught his trade or craft’ Nwachukwu C. C in his book Management theory and practice (1988:125) defined apprentice method of training as ‘when extensive practice or technical knowledge is required to perform a job. The training combines on the job training with classroom lectures’. In opinion of Ranald Nesbilt in his book ‘the training of youths in industry (1966:109) defined apprenticeship as ‘a period of learning says 5years, at the end of which the apprentice qualifies as skilled craft man. He further stated that ‘traditionally this period of training was under the control of a master craft man’. The apprentice learnt his trade by example and imitation of masters craft man and from what other instruction he could give. In Nigeria and all over Africa, apprenticeship has been an age-long method used in training young people in trades and crafts, agriculture, business, and catering. During the precolonial periods, apprenticeship was the mode of training. It is a common feature of the traditional setting to see people engage in a vocation such as farming, fishing, hunting, carving, carpentry, sculpting, painting, building, decorating, smiting, dyeing, and so on. On the traditional apprenticeship in Nigeria, Usuala Esogwa, in his book, the vocational technical education for Nigeria (1991:21) commented that ‘an apprenticeship system invest in all the craft in Nigeria, the period of apprenticeship varies from district to district and from craft to craft. After an apprentable period of training; the master entrusted the production of certain goods to the apprentice in order to test the level of his skill, the apprentice paid the master for his training by engaging in various domestic services as mark of loyalty to the master. After the period of training which varies, depending on the nature of the job; the apprentice are given opportunity to engage in freedom to practice the trade. However, there are certain traditional craft which are restricted to a particular family, they train people within their family alone, after the apprenticeship period, the apprentice is expected to continue with the craft even after the demise of the master who equally serve as his parent. For example, dyers, wood carvers and weavers were trained by their father or by an uncle. Apprenticeship in Visual Art practice in Nigeria Most of the visual arts apprenticeship centers come in form of workshop training center in Nigeria. Some of the centers were developed by Catholic Church missionaries, while some were developed by competent individual and group (Chukueggu, 2010). Towards the end of the 20th century we have witnessed greater activity in the informal sector with the establishment of the Harmattarn Workshop Series by Bruce Onobrakpeya who was an active participant in the Osogbo Workshops and one of the few academically trained artists who participated. The Harmattan Workshop is an annual artists’ retreat started in 1998 with just eight artists. Today with over 10 editions it has become a pilgrimage of sorts, with an average attendance of 50 artists each year. The workshop, which is being organized by the Bruce Onobrakpeya Foundation, has been sustained by the support of the Ford Foundation, the National Gallery of Art, Abuja and other corporate organizations from time to time. Some of the artists that have participated include Mike Omoighe, John Agberia, Peju Layiwola, Nse Abasi Inyang, Olu Amoda, Salubi Onakufe, Uwa Usen, Duke Asidere, Sam Ovraiti, Emmanuel Ekpeni, Tony Emodi, Antonia Okogwu, Lara Ige-Jacks, Oladapo Afolayan, and Bunmi Ola –Afolayan among several others. Over 300 artists have participated in the workshop since its inception and they have been inspired by various kinds of experimental techniques and styles from different masters.

36


The experiment from the workshop centers produced young creative artists who are independent and self-employed today in Nigeria. Today, different centers were established by both capable individuals and groups with the primary aim of developing the act of visual art practice in Nigeria. Painting which is an aspect of visual arts was also developed through apprenticeship training. For the purpose of this paper, three centers or associated group of artists were looked at to see the impact of the apprenticeship training in the development of painting styles and techniques. They are Universal studio art, Abayomi Barber group and Mufu Onifade Ara group of artists. Universal Studio of Art This is a group of professional artists situated at Universal Studio of art, Iganmu, Lagos with the primary aim of promoting the quality of artistic practice in Nigeria. Most of the artists are from different geographical and institutional background with different area of specialization, which include painting, sculpture and drawing. They promote critical development of practical skill in various areas of visual art. The center has been the venue for further artistic training for more especially students from various institutions on industrial training programmes. An industrial training programme enables undergraduate students from different University and Polytechnics in Nigeria to embark on six to one year industrial training programmes. The idea to establish the Industrial Skill Training Centers across the Nation was conceived in 1978. Following years of periodic appraisal of the efforts of various formal and non-formal Vocational institutions in the country, the industrial training found in a bid to introduce into the National economy, an effective and systematic Vocational Training System commissioned a study of in-plant and apprentice training in Nigeria. The Universal Studio of Art which was established about fourteen years ago is bedecked with sweet reminiscent of quality service to visual art in training and mentoring in valuable productivity sound professionalism. It has also become a strong center for artistic training in Nigeria for years. The efforts of professional artists in the studio have contributed tremendously to the growth of vocational training in the field of Arts. Prominent among the resident artists of the center are: Abiodun Olaku, Duke Asidere and Joshua Nmesirioye. They have over the years imparted practical knowledge into different artists from diverse institutions and geographical locations in Nigeria through apprenticeship training. The individual and collective styles of members have contributed to the advancement of quality and style of painting in Nigeria. They engage students on regular practice of drawing and painting which greatly reflected in the quality works of many students after returning from their industrial programmes. This study concentrates on the selected artists from the center scanning through their backgrounds, development of their individual styles and experiences and how this has influence others who came across them. Abiodun Olaku graduated from the prestigious Yaba College of Technology, Lagos, with H.N.D in painting in 1981, under the supervision and guidance of Yusuf Grillo, Kolade Oshinowo and late Dr. Isiaka Osunde, Olaku has crystallized into one of the ‘exclusive’ masters of his generation. The entrenched uniqueness of his style and the pleasantly hunting effect it has on the viewer explains the rather frenzied pursuit of his painting. The fragrance of honesty that oozes from his works is both compelling and stimulating at the same time, thereby unlocking the desire for a faithful relationship with them. The style of painting which has been carefully rendered to depict night scene from aerial view, has smooth rendition with sparkling of light from different part of the painting. Olaku is a multi-talented, versatile artist whose themes range from landscape paintings (reminiscent of Turner and constable) to traditional Nigerian festivals. Whatever the subject

37


matter, he conveys the essence in the most subtle of ways. His portrayal of light, especially at sunset or sunrise and its effect on the rest of nature has to be seen to be appreciated. His works which is more of photorealism is found to be attractive and very loaded in content. He is more inspired with atmospheric situation, the slow evolution of the terrance inspiration from whatever material he can lay his hand on. This style has greatly influence many of the Nigeria young painters who got inspired through direct training under him. Among the works in such categories are:Misty Morning (plate 1), Life goes on (plate 2), People’s paradise (plate 3) and Eyo Adimu (plate 4). Duke Asidere in his own case had his formal artistic training at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. He develop his style of painting outside the general orientation been inherited from his masters in school. He is more of independent style with limited palette which is thoughtfully curate and technically refined skill that acts as a unique balance to his highly expressive artistic technique. His paintings in most cases lack depth, with caricature drawing in floating manner. This deliberate attempt makes his work unique, not because he lacks draughstmanship skill, but to justify his individual style which is consistent. Though he did not encourage apprentice under him to follow his own uniqueness but encourage them to discover their own individual styles through perfect skill acquisition. He guides students on how to develop their drawing and painting skills through adequate practice. Some of his independent styles can be seen in his works such as: faces, hair do, redlight and untitled (plate 5 - 8). Joshua Nmesirionye graduated from Auchi Polytechnic in 1998 with a HND in painting. He claimed he was inspired by impressionist masters like Claude Monet and Camille Pissarro in his use of colour and the rendition of forms. He accentuates his figures with chalk and pastels and adds some mystery to his texture canvases with the heads of his figures beyond the picture plane leaving plenty of the imagination. An example includes Untitled and men of honour (Plates 9 – 10) Amongst Others. All the artists at the center train students who are probably on industrial training programmes on how to become a professional artists by engaging them on skill development in painting. Abayomi Barber School Following the apprenticeship system was the Abayomi Barber Group, started in 1971 by Abayomi Barber who was born in Ile Ife, and attended several primary schools before enrolling in St. Stephen’s School Modakeke, where he received prizes for Drama, Poetry, singing and Music. In 1952 he moved to Lagos and enrolled at the Yaba College of Technology after a brief interaction with Ben Enwonwu who was then Federal Art Adviser. Although his stay in Yaba was very brief some of his class mates then included: Yusuf Grillo, Erhabor Emokpae and Isiaka Osunde. From 1957 to 1958 he joined the Yoruba Historical Research Scheme at Ibadan under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. O. Biobaku and catalogued, drew and labeled all the art works in the collection of the Yoruba Research Scheme and went on field research with William Fagg, Frank Willet, Dr. Bradbury and Reverend Father Carroll. In September 1960, Barber was sent to England. He worked for some time in the British Museum, while he enrolled in the evening class at the Central School of Art Crafts, Holborn. While he was in the United Kingdom, he worked with the Scenic Art Studio at Notinghill gate and Fredrick Mancini in Wimbledon and Oscar Neman, a great authority on Churchill sculptures, for four years before coming to join the University of Lagos in 1971. Barber is an artist who believes that it is only when ones technique is fully developed, that one’s imagination, originality and individuality can come into play and be of any use. The objective of the group was to produce hard core professional

38


works of art. He had since then succeeded in training a generation of young Nigerians, whose activities have culminated in the emergence of what has been known as the Abayomi Barber Group, a group that bases its inspiration on the classical Ife bronzes. Some of the disciples of this group, which started as part of the centre for cultural studies, University of Lagos include: Olu Spencer, Rufus Olanrewaju, Micheal Egbuna, Akin Savage, Ekpeyong Ayi and Archibald Etikerentse . The Abayomi Barber Art group stands out within the modern Nigerian art space as an informal workshop programme that promotes rigorous training and development of its members. One of its characteristic is its emphasis on naturalistic rendering of forms. Abayomi Barber and his students assert through their work that African artists are as capable as western artists in creating in a naturalistic idiom. His emphasis on the metaphysical is an extension of a traditional African art preoccupation with religious forms and societal values. In most of his painting, he believes in the true presentation and representation of forms which oftentimes makes his work different from his counterparts. Example of this can be seen in the works of the following artists who are recently exhibiting with their master. Among them are: Adebayo Akinwole, Adeladan Adeshina, Bunmi Lasaki, Kayode Lawal, Olukayode Fadipe, Mosunde Daramola, Muri Adejimi, Omotayo Oguntoye, Busari Agbolade, Olufemi Atewolara and others. Abayomi Barber has established a style that features pictorial naturalism, magical symbolism and ethereal conceptualization. Though the Barber group works may have simple themes, they are at times esoteric. Flowing rivers and other natural objects often transmogrify to attain human attributes. Landscapes are done repeatedly with trees, foliages, shells, hills, feathers, birds, rocks, cowries, fruits, men and women juxtaposed into compositions of mystifying effects. The works are mostly philosophical or magical and seldom concerned with the political complexities of the contemporary Nigerian society. Abayomi maintains that the iconographical symbols and images used by the group are deeply rooted in the African psyche, and he feels they have immense influence on him. Analysis of styles of some prominent members of the group would showcase the spread of the artistic quality of the group. It has been difficult to separate the group from the man himself, all because of his ideas and philosophy that are inherent in the group. Abayomi believes in hard work and the pursuit of excellence. He maintains that geniuses are made more by handwork than inspiration. However, he has been consistent over the years in his ambition to keep producing better paintings and sculptures. Among the paintings are titled Omoge (plate 11), a river goddess which was depicted in a naturalistic manner, and Yemoja (plate 12) which gives an impression of beauty in a young lady. The two paintings are characterized by what the artist stand for, the naturalistic and realistic presentation of art forms. Bunmi Lasaki is another product of Abayomi Barber group, who also joined the group in1980; he later attended the Yaba College of Technology from where he specialized in sculpture. While he was with Abayomi Barber, he engaged in painting as well. His painting is realistic and the same time naturalistic with little brush stroke effect. In his portrait painting of his mentor titled Creative Dialogue, he made an attempt to bring his master to reality through his carefully rendered painting that is close to photograph itself (Plate 13). Other instances include Abe Olumo (Plate 14) and some others. Olukayode Fadipe is one of the descendants of Abayomi Barber, who immediately after his secondary education in 1989 joined the group, he studied till 1997. Though he specialized in sculpture but still do a lot of paintings. His painting is super-realistic works rendered in more subtle manner with limited colour display. His themes are generally naturalistic ranging

39


from landscapes and other activities in the environment titled Barber’s Profile (Plate 15) among much more. Mufu Onifade Ara group Another center for apprenticeship training in painting in Nigeria is Mufu Onifade Ara center. Araism is another trend evolved by Mufu Onifade and other young artists who are committed to the tradition of the forebears and also not apologetic about their cultural background. Araism which was began as a technique of painting by Mufu Onifade, but having trained many students from 1990 to date, each student was able to develop his own style, using the general technique as a technical base. With the distinguishing element of one style from another, it became imperative to create a platform on which these various styles of Araism could be projected; and this pave the way for the establishment of Ara technique. Araism as a technique entails quite a bunch of cumbersome technicalities deserving of intense experimentation. It was launched in 1998 with a solo exhibition by Mufu Onifade, its proponent but the movement was born in 2006 with an official grouping of interested students who are today know as disciples- all of them sharing a common fraternity with their teacher. They explore a painting technique of design elements which requires elaborate patterning and extensive use of motifs. Mufu invented Araism, an authentic African Painting technique. (Mufu Onifade, 2011:7). The experiments with which he achieved this feat lasted seven years (1989 to1996). Araism is a dogged artistic development arising from technical exploration and creative composition of tiny units of irregular shapes to create strokes that result in aesthetic projection of active shapes and meaningful forms. These tiny units of irregular palette-knife strokes are painstakingly arranged to produce shapes that truly define forms. The result may appear in what looks like a jig-saw puzzle or what some arts writers (newspaper journalists) have described as mosaic effects. Among the disciples who have leant the Ara techniques of painting are: Olaniyi Omojuwa, Oludotun Popoola, Abiola Mautin Akande, Jonathan Ikpoza and Tope Oguntuase, it became easier to distinguish between one style and another, but all in relation to the same technique, being a string of affinity that binds all practitioners of Araism together. Mufu Onifade, one of the graduates from the Ife School, started the experiment of Ara, a visual art technique in 1989, the same year Onaism began. The experiment was still on when Mufu Onifade got to the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife in 1992/1993. The exposure he had gave him the needed direction towards perfecting the experiments he started some years later. His paintings, though representational, keep to the traditional Yoruba philosophy that places importance on the head. Thematically, he presents a flow in certain directions which reveals his intellectual mind and awareness from primordial Yoruba to contemporary times. In his painting titled lroke, he clearly displayed his understanding of Yoruba culture through representation of Ifa divination; Opon Ifa with Iroke forming prominence, and many heads and cowries making the work balance in content and composition. Mufu’s works reassure the audience of his continuous dedication to the essentiality of Yoruba cultural norms and values. His painting continues to teach morals and virtues with his illustrative themes that are often charged with deep meanings. His use of colours is in consonance with the temperaments portrayed by his works. This includes works like: Home sick and Ekeji Orisa among others. (Plates 16 &17). Jonathan Ikpoza is one of the apprentices under Mufu Onifade. He holds National Diploma in general Arts and Higher National Diploma in painting from Auchi Polytechnic in 2006, with many awards and exhibitions. He is a pioneering member of Araism Movement 40


with unique techniques. His paintings can be place side by side with his teacher’s works, except that his crack effects seem to be tinny and his themes are basically figure with day to day activities. Though, he is a versatile artist who works with different media and techniques. His paintings are colourful yet subtle. He uses lines in creating rhythmic shapes across his subjects and infuses three dimensional surface qualities to coloured shapes through orchestration. His themes range from cultural, social, and historical to contemporary. He believes that his works should not only be valued as beautiful pieces but should be regarded as a means of educating the viewer as they are exposed to his figurative illustration of people, lives, places, culture and issues affecting the society at one time or another. He has been exploring the use of shapes and lines in analyzing the forms of his subject. Examples of his works among others are Iroro Aye and untitled (Plates18 -19) Matthew Ojediran is another artist from the center. He holds a National Diploma in Art and Design from The Polytechnic, Ibadan and Bachelor of Arts from Obafemi Awolowo University, IIe-Ife in 2008. He had his further training directly under Mufu Onifade in 2004 and later became a member of Araism movement. Since then he has been working in line with Araism ideas and philosophy. Though graduated from Ona School of thought, his style of painting has been towards the ideology of Ara movement. His works includes: onirese and owo omode o to pepe (Plates 20 & 21) amongst others. Abolore Awojobi graduated from the University of Nigeria, Nsukka and also a prominent member of Araism movement with distinctive styles and techniques. He did not allow the influence of Ulli style from his formal training to dissuade him from Ara concept. His style of rendition is not far from his counterparts except patterns that are slightly different which constitute his identity. His cracks effect seems bold enough to differentiate him from his master. The themes are also figurative with little attempt to depict abstraction examples are Untitled and February 14 (Plate 22 & 23). Conclusion It has been observed that better artistic training could be achieved through apprenticeship training in Nigeria. The method inherent in learning from the master has go a long way in educating learner more on the skill acquisition, thereby bringing perfection to the trade. Various styles of painting have also developed from different artists who have provided apprenticeship training in Nigeria. The paper concludes that visual art training is not limited to the training acquire through formal art education in Nigeria, but also through apprenticeship training from practicing artists.

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References Araism Movement 9 exhibition catalogue 2011.pp.20,43,44 Chukueggu, C (2010) Art Workshop Centres in Nigeria: Issues and Problem, International Journal of Research in Art and Social Sciences, vol. 12 (3). Pp 167-173. Dance of the Mind Exhibition Catalogue ( 2008) pp. 22, 23, 33, 37 Mufu Onifade (2011) ‘Araism Movement 9’ exhibition catalogue, p. 10 Nwachukwu C.C (1988) ‘Management Theory and Practice’ Onitsha: Africana. First Publishers Limited. Oxford advance learners dictionary of current English 4 edition 1974, Oxford University Press. Ranald Nesbilt (1966) ‘The Training of Youths in Industry’ vol. 1 (1). Usuala Esogwa (1991) ‘The Vocational Technical Education For Nigeria’ Pacific Publishers. Paintings of Abiodun Olaku www.arcadja.com Accessed June, 2013 Paintings of Abiodun Olaku www.artfact.com Accessed June, 2013 Painting of Jonathan Ikpoza www.araism.com. Whisper Araism Exhibition Catalogue, 2010. p.40, 44

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Plate 1 Abiodun Olaku, Misty Morning, 1993

Plate 2 Abiodun Olaku, Life goes on (Lagos), 1993

Oil on tex-Canvas.

Oil on Canvas.

(http://www.arcadja.com)

(http://www.arcadja.com/ )

Plate 3 Abiodun Olaku, People’s paradise, 1993

Plate 4 Abiodun Olaku, Eyo Adimu, 1999

Oil on board.

Oil on Canvas.

(http://www.artfact.com)

(http://www.artfact.com)

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Plate 5 Duke Asidere, Faces, 2008 Oil on board.

Plate 6 Duke Asidere, Hair Do, 2008 Oil on board.

(Artist Archive, 2012)


Plate 7 Duke Asidere, Redlight, 2009 Oil on board.

Plate 8 Duke Asidere, untitled, 2010 Oil on board.



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Plate 9 Joshua Nmesirionye, Untitled, 2009 Oil on board.

Plate 10 Joshua Nmesirionye, Men of Honour, 2008 Oil on Canvas.



Plate 12 Abayomi Barber, Yemoja.

Plate 11 Abayomi Barber, Omoge.

Oil on barber board. (Dance of the Mind exhibition catalogue, 2008: 22)

Oil on barber board. (Dance of the Mind exhibition catalogue, 2008: 23)

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Plate 13 Bunmi Lasaki, Creative Dialogue.

Oil on Canvas. Dance of the Mind Exhibition Catalogue, 2008: 33)

Plate 14 Bunmi Lasaki, Abe olumo Oil on Canvas. (Artist Archive 2008)

Plate 15 Olukayode Fadipe, Barber’s Profile. Oil on Canvas. Dance of the Mind Exhibition

Catalogue, 2008: 37)

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Plate 16 Mufu Onifade, Homesick Acrylic on canvas Whisper Araism, Exhibition Catalogue 2010. p44

Plate 17 Mufu Onifade, Ekeji Orisa Acrylic on canvas: Whisper Araism, Exhibition Catalogue 2010 p. 40

Plate 19 Jonathan Ikpoza, Untitled.

Plate 18 Jonathan Ikpoza, Iroro Aye.

Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition catalogue, 2011: 20)

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Acrylic. (Araism.com)


Plate 20 Mathew O. Ojediran, Onirese.

Plate 21 Mathew O. Ojediran, Owo Omode o to Pepe.

Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition, catalogue 2011: 43)

Acrylic. (Araism Movement 9 exhibition catalogue 2011: 44)

Plate 23

Plate 22

Abolore Awojobi, February 14

Abolore Awojobi, untitled

Acrylic. (Artist Archive 2012)

Acrylic. (Artist Archive 2012)

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Organizational Role Stress Among Medical Practitioners In Goa Christo F.V. Fernandes, Goa Institute of Management, India.

Pia Muriel Cardoso Goa Medical College, India.

Abstract This research focuses on testing the relationship between Personal and Job/Organizational factors on Organizational Role Stress in Medical Doctors. Data was collected from 454 doctors working in the Public Healthcare Sector in Goa. While Organizational Role Stress was measured using the ORS scale, ANOVA and t-test was used for testing differences between categories of Gender, Dual Doctor Career, Employee Engagement, and Work Climate. The study adds to the evidence that demographic variables, such as Gender and Dual Career, as well as organizational factors, such as Employee Engagement and Work Climate, have a reducing effect on Organizational Role Stress. Keywords: Demographics; Organizational Role Stress; Employee Engagement; Work Climate

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Introduction The current organizational life has experienced a number of changes at the workplace and such developments have drawn attention to the postindustrial workplace (Murphy, 1999), also referred to as the ‘new organizational reality’ (Gowing, Kraft, & Quick, 1997). Thus research contributions have revealed the consequences of stress associated with demographic and personal issues which have hampered the overall effectiveness of the organization (Alluisi & Fleshman, 1982; Celoline, 1982; Chadwick- Jones, Nicholson, and Brown, 1982; Saffer 1984). Although organizations have been held financially accountable for issues related to job stress, stress has become expensive for the organization. While it is evident that organizations must now spend for stress-related illnesses and consequences of employees, they also have the urgent need to fight and remain competitive in a global marketplace (Peters & Waterman, 1982; Rothwell, Prescott & Taylor, 1998). While stress has almost impacted every sphere of business, it remain an accepted fact that stress among physicians, nurses and other health professionals is high (Caplan, 1994; Graham, Ramirez, & Cull, 1996; Al-Aameri & Al-Fawzan, 1998). This can be attributed to the responsibility for “people” rather than “objects”, and the fact that their actions or omissions have a profound impact on human life (Rees, 1995; Antoniou, 2001). Further the important fallout related to stress in the medical profession is that the quality of health care administered can be extremely influenced by the stress levels of health staff (Firth-Cozens & Moss, 1998). Concept of Role Stress A member in an organization assumes a role, which can be defined as expectation of self and others from the focal person at the workplace. A role can be understood in terms of a role set. The focal role individual usually has superior, co-workers, and subordinates who are significant others in his/her role set (Banton, 1965; Gross, Mason, & McEachern, 1958; Neiman & Hughes, 1951). In many instances, the incumbent personalizes the position (Graen, 1976) so that individuals in the same position will exhibit different effective behaviors. The freedom experienced in every role performance allows people to fill a role without experiencing role strain (Komarovsky, 1973; Merton, 1966). In situations wherein individuals occupy roles which conflict with their value system, it leads to an outcome of role stress or role conflict. Kahn & Quinn (1970) have identified three categories of role stress, namely expectation generated stress, expectation-resource discrepancies and role-personality mismatch. The first category encapsulates role ambiguity and role conflict. The second category includes role overload, responsibility-authority dilemma, and inadequate technical information. The third category relates to the gaps between the role and personality. The concept of an organization is a system of roles and role itself is a system. Organizational roles constitute the basic human resource infrastructure on which the success of human resource systems and process depends (Srivastav, 2006). According to Pareek (1981), membership of an organization and the concept of an organizational role have inbuilt potential for stress. Stress due to occupation of a role in an organization is known as Organizational Role Stress (ORS). While explaining various role related terms, Pareek (1981) states that each individual in the society performs several roles. All these roles make up ones role space. The self is in the Centre of the role space. Since the roles are at various distances from the self and from each other, these relationships define the role space. Each role has its own systems, which has been called role set. Role set is the pattern of relationships between the focal role

50


and other role occupants. In this, the role of the role occupant is in the center and all other roles are around the person’s particular role. In the role behavior of an individual, several variables are involved: the self, the other role senders, the expectations by the other roles, expectations by the self and other roles occupied by the focal role person. It is in the nature of the role that it has built-in potential for conflict and stress. So stress is a natural variable in the role performance. While performing several roles or within one’s role, a person may find that he/she is not being directed to the desired goal. The consequence is disillusionment, frustration, tension, conflict and stress. Pareek (1981), on the basis of theoretical speculation and statistical analysis has identified ten different types of role stresses prevalent in any organizational setting, as below: Empirical Study Variables         

Inter Role Distance (IRD) is experienced when there is a conflict within the individual between various roles which the individual occupies across his personal and organizational roles Role Stagnation Stress (RS) is the feeling when the individual feels stuck or caught in the same role Role Expectation Stress (REC) arises out of conflicting demands originating from superiors, colleagues and subordinates or peer from the organization Role Erosion (RE) arises when a role occupant feels that others are performing certain functions, which should have been part of his or her role. Role Overload (RO) is the feeling that one is required to do too much in his present role and that there is too much load on the role Personal Inadequacy stress (PI) is depicted when the individual experience the absence of adequate skills, competence and training to meet the demands of one’s roles Self Role Distance (SRD) arises from a gap experienced between one’s concept of self and the demands of the role that are required to perform the role. Role Ambiguity Stress (RA) is experienced when there is a lack of clarity about the demands of the role or the expectation of the role etc. Resource Inadequacy (Rin) arises when the individual role occupant feel that the resources provided to fulfill the role is not sufficient.

In addition to the above, the following factors have been undertaken in this study on Organizational Role Stress. Demographic Factors Gender and Dual Career is analyzed for the causal impact of gender differences and the influence of spouse’s occupation on ORS.

Organizational Factors Employee Engagement and Work Climate have been investigated. The relationship between the above practice and ORS is statistically evaluated.

Method of Investigation The participants in the proposed study were medical doctors working in the public healthcare sector of Goa. 600 Questionnaires were distributed to them, of which 454 completed questionnaires have been analyzed in this study. Two sets of questionnaires were given to collect data i.e. questionnaire relating to all personal and organizational stressors and the organizational role stress scale developed by Pareek (1983a&b). All the raw data was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and the analysis was done by using Mean standard deviation, t-value, and Pearson product moment correlation and ANOVA. 51


Research Model Figure 1 represents the research model for this study. Personal Factors Organizational Role Stressors

Figure 1: Research Model

Data Analysis Gender Mean scores of total role stress in the case of male doctors is 83.83, which is lower than that of female doctors with a score of 111.31, and its t-ratio is -18.188, which is statistically significant as shown in Table 1. Hence, the results reveal that the level of role stress for male doctors is less compared to female medical doctors. Table 1 further indicates that male and female medical doctors differ significantly in their mean scores on personal inadequacy (t=-15.899), self-role distance (t= -14.490, P F tabulated with 0.05 (95%) confidence level. Table 4 and 5 below give the result of effects of location and noise on residential rental values respectively. Table 4: ANOVA of Effect of Location on Rental Values Sum of Squares DF Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups

1132.010

5

226.402

4.416

.002

Within groups

3332.188

65

51.264

Total

4464.197

70

In Table 4, the F calculated was 4.416 and the F tabulated was 2.37, the result shows that the F calculated was greater than F tabulated with confidence level of 0.002, which means that the null hypothesis was rejected. This means that location has significant effect on residential rental values in the selected areas in Akure. Table 5: ANOVA of Effect of Noise on Rental Values Sum of Squares DF

Mean Square

F

Sig.

Between Groups 295.073

4

73.768

1.168

.333

Within Groups

4169.124

66

63.169

Total

4464.197

70

The F calculated was 1.168 and the F tabulated was 2.50 with confidence level of 0.333, the F tabulated was higher than F calculated. This implies that the null hypothesis was accepted that noise has no significant effect on residential rental values in the selected areas. This means other factors such as location and facilities or condition of property have more effect on values than noise. 5.0 Conclusion and Recommendation This paper identified the sources of noise in the different locations in Akure to include churches, transportation and equipments, the most prevalent noise being transportation noise. Having studied the trend in residential properties for a period of five years, in low, medium and high density areas of Akure using Alagbaka and Ijapo; Aule and Fanibi; and Araromi and Isolo respectively, the differences in rental values could be attributed to the impact of location

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whereas noise has an insignificant effect on rental values. This is similar to the finding of Pennington et al (1990) in which lower market values of properties affected by aircraft noise from Manchester International Airport were found to be wholly attributable to the neighbourhood and the effects of noise are insignificant. Although noise cannot be totally taken away from our environment, it can be reduced to a bearable level for housing condition to satisfy its goal of a livable environment. The active participations of Government and professionals in the building industry can help to reduce this issue through strict adherence to Town Planning laws, acoustic design in residential buildings among others. Government officials need to enforce the dictates of planning regulations which stipulates that residential, commercial, industrial, educational and agricultural areas are to be properly and carefully located to prevent conflicts and promote harmonious inter-relationships. The noise level in the city centre which happens to be the high density residential neighborhoods can be reduced through creation of by-pass roads to reduce traffic level in the city centre.

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6.0 References Bajic, V. (1983): ‘The Effects of a New Subway Line on Housing Prices in Metropolitan Toronto’, Urban Studies, 23 (2), 105–117. Bryant, J. (1975): Traffic Noise and the Community, Australian Road Research Board, Queensland, 48-66. Caroll, T. M., T. M. Clauretie, and J. Jensen (1996): ‘Living Next to Godliness: Residential Property Values and Churches’, Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 12: 319-330. Cervero, R., and M. Duncan (2001): Transit’s Value-added: Effects of Light and Commuter Rail Services on Commercial Land Values, Transportation Research Board, 81st Annual Meeting presentation. Do A. Q., R.W. Wilbur, and J. L.Short (1994): ‘An Empirical Examination of the Externalities of Neighborhood Churches on Housing Values’, Journal of Real Estate Finance and Economics, 9: 127-136. Gabriel, K.B. and Y. Adewumi (2011): ‘The Impact of Neighbourhood Churches on House Prices’, Journal of Sustainable Development, 4 (1), 246-248. Iroham, C.O., and S. A. Oloyode (2010): ‘Location of Worship Centres and Its Effect on Residential Property Values (a case of Living Faith Church, Ota)’, A Paper Delivered at the First National Conference, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Lagos, Emerging Global City: The African Challenge. Kain, J. F., and J.M. Quigley (1970): ‘Measuring the Value of House Quality’ Journal of the American Statistical Association 65(330): 532-548. Nelson, J.P. (2007): Hedonic Property Value Studies of Transportation Noise: Aircraft and Road Traffic. Department of Economics, Pennyslvania State University. Nelson, J.P. (1982): ‘Highway Noise and Property Value’, Journal of Transport Economics & Policy, 117-138.

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Nwosu, A. E., and S. A. Olofa (2012): ‘An Appraisal of the Provision of Urban Infrastructural Facilities as a Means of Realising Latent Residential Property Values in Akure, Nigeria’, In: Laryea, S., Agyepong, S., Leiringer, R. and Hughes, W. (Eds) Procs 4th West Africa Built Environment Research (WABER) Conference. Nigeria, 969-977. Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (1991): Fighting Noise in the 1990s, OECD Publications Service, Paris. Pennington, G., N. Topham, and R. Ward (1990): ‘Aircraft noise and residential property values adjacent to Manchester International Airport’ Journal of Transportation Economics and Policy 24(1), 49-51. World Health Organization (2000), Guidelines for Community Noise, available at www.internet/environmental information/noise/comnoise excec.htm

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