Volume 3 Number 1 (2014)

Issues in Language Studies (Vol. 3 No. 1- 2014)

Volume 3 Number 1 (2014)

Centre for Language Studies Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 94300 Kota Samarahan, Sarawak. www.cls.unimas.my


Editorial Committee Chief Editor

Associate Professor Dr Su-Hie Ting

Associate Editors

Jayapragas Gnaniah Wan Robiah bt Meor Osman Dr Roslan b Ali

Editorial Board Members

Florence G Kayad Dilah b Tuah Nur Ardini Jian Abdullah @ Elmie Kuan Wei Ling Najwa Hanani bt Kopli Mohd Azhar b Ali Yahya b Bakeri

Production Associate Editors

Associate Professor Dr Soubakeavathi Rethinasamy Kee-Man Chuah

Reviewers for This Issue Associate Professor Dr Shamsul Jamili bin Yeob Universiti Islam Antarabangsa, Malaysia Dr Maryam Farnia Payame Noor University, Iran Dr Helen Tan Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Dr Muhammad Shahbaz University of Gujrat, India Dr Reginald Botshabeng Monyai Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa Dr Yong Mei Fung Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.


ISSUES IN LANGUAGE STUDIES Issues in Language Studies is a publication of the Centre for Language Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. The journal publishes articles on teaching, learning and the study of languages. It offers a forum for the discussion of local issues that are of global concern. It is a refereed online journal published bi-annually. Currently it is indexed by Google Scholar and the Malaysian Citation Index. When submitting the work, contributors are requested to make a declaration that the submitted work has not been published, or is being considered for publication elsewhere. Contributors have to declare that the submitted work is their own and that copyright has not been breached in seeking the publication of the work. Views expressed by the author(s) in the article do(es) not necessarily reflect the views of the Editorial Committee.

Articles and correspondence on editorial matters should be addressed to: Dr Su-Hie Ting Chief Editor Issues in Language Studies Centre for Language Studies Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 94300 Kota Samarahan Sarawak Malaysia [email protected]

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Notes for Contributors Manuscripts submitted to Issues in Language Studies should not exceed 7,000 words, including abstract, references, tables, figures and appendices. Detailed guidelines: Page 1: Title, author’s name and affiliation, postal and e-mail address of each author. Please indicate corresponding author with an asterisk. Page 2: Title, abstract not exceeding 200 words, 4-6 keywords. Articles not written in English should be accompanied by a title, abstract and keywords in English. Page 3 onwards: Text in single-spacing and margins – top and bottom, left and right – should be 1.25 inches wide, Calibri 11 point. Do not indent the first paragraph of each section. Indent the first line of subsequent paragraphs by ½ inch. Use the three-level headings in APA style: Centred Uppercase and Lowercase Heading Flush Left, Italicised, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading Indented, Italicised, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period Quotations. Use double quotation marks to enclose quotations of fewer than 40 words. Within this quotation, use single quotation marks to enclose quoted material. Long quotations should be placed in a block which is indented ½ inch from the left margin. Follow APA style for table titles and headings (placed above the table) and figures and figure captions (pl aced below the figure). Examples: Table 1 Types of communication strategies used across age groups Figure 1. Frequency of communication strategy use across age groups Do not use footnotes. If notes are unavoidable, use a numeral in superscript and list notes at the end of the article, before the References. Follow APA style (6th ed.) for citation and referencing, with the exception of Malay names which should be spelt in full in the text and the reference list.


Contents Advertising language: A pragmatic approach to cigarette advertisements in Indonesia Ahmad Muammar Qadafi and Ribut Wahyudi

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Challenges of teaching oral English in Nigerian high schools Joshua Usman and Lynda Jummai Mustafa

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Malaysian L2 learners’ English learning motivation: A study of goals, attitudes and self K.S.N. Prasangani

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Kemahiran menulis dalam bahasa arab menerusi aktiviti ‘Jawlah Lughawiyyah’ Arabic writing skills through ‘Jawlah Lughawiyyah’ activity Mohd Firdaus Yahaya, Mohd Shahrizal Nasir, Wan Abdul Hayyi Wan Omar, Zulazhan Ab. Halim and Essmat Nasr Sweedan

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ADVERTISING LANGUAGE: A PRAGMATIC APPROACH TO CIGARETTE ADVERTISEMENTS IN INDONESIA Ahmad Muammar Qadafi1 Ribut Wahyudi2 Faculty of Humanities, Maulana Malik Ibrahim State Islamic University, Malang, Indonesia [email protected] [email protected] Abstract In Indonesia, it has been a public knowledge that cigarette is dangerous to consume. However, the involvement of advertisement and its huge economic benefit has driven the government to freely let cigarette be widely promoted; nevertheless the image of the cigarette would not be shown on the screen as per agreement with advertisers. These series of complexities in the cigarette advertisements have attracted the authors to investigate the way cigarettes are promoted without explicitly exposing them. Using inferential pragmatic approach (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), this research reveals that the language of advertisements operate subtly at the level of cognition and comprehension to persuade smokers. Keywords: Cigarette, advertising language, pragmatics, Indonesia advertisement, Indonesia

Introduction In Indonesia, advertisements have become a major agent to influence society recently. As a major controller in the society, they can softly command and shape the society as they want (Tanaka, 1994). The recent advertisements have shown how effective they are to influence society through the many ways of advertising their product (Chang, 2013), which in this case is cigarette. The government has legalised the cigarette advertisements with restrictions. Some words such as Slim, Premium, Special, Full Flavour, Light, Ultra-Light, Mild, Extra Mild, or other words that indicate the image or feeling of safety, quality, superiority, personality, and many other similar meanings are prohibited (Indonesian Republic Government Rule, 2003). This rule also includes the prohibition to display and illustrate children, teenagers, or pregnant women in the form of

Advertising language: A pragmatic approach to cigarette advertisements in Indonesia

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picture and wording and not to mention the squirrelling sentences (Indonesian Republic Government Rule, 2012). Despite these restrictions and controls, the cigarette advertisements are still blooming. This research discusses how the advertisements have a high possibility to persuade society indirectly, since they are not actually “selling” the cigarette to people, due to the reasons mentioned previously. As advertisements vary according to media (e.g., television commercials, newspaper advertisements) and devices (smart phones, televisions, e-Readers, laptops) which carry along the makings of the advertisements (Rodgers and Thorson, 2012), the researchers had decided to limit this research to television based cigarette advertisements only (Brierley, 1995), and investigate the visual media displayed on news and television, in which the society in general can easily understand (Forceville, 1996). Greece and Roman Empire were the first to come out with some kind of announcements (Dyer, 1982), and was regarded as the first ever recorded advertisement ever known in this modern world’s history. Years after, it came during the time of newspapers, before the upcoming era of television as the first main media of moving pictures, before advertisements finally became an effective way to persuade and convince people to buy products offered. Up to now, there are major interests from numerous experts on how advertisements can bring a new world or way of lifestyle to every person in this world. Advertising has become a popular subject of study, approached from a wide range of disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, linguistics, literary criticism, and media studies (Tanaka, 1994). Advertisement comes from the Latin verb advertere, meaning “to turn towards” (Berger, 2011; Goddard, 1998), and it is undoubtedly true that adverts are texts that do their best to get our attention, to make us turn towards the product being sold. In its simplest sense the word “advertising” means “drawing attention to something”, or in other words it may be interpreted as “notifying or informing somebody of something” (Berger, 2011; Dyer, 1982). In relation to this study, the Indonesian Government Law (Article 19, 2003) states that cigarette advertisement is an activity to introduce, publish and or promote the cigarette with or without the return of money to the society with the purpose to influence consumers to use the cigarette advertised; and in this case is in the Indonesian society. Advertisements are pervasive in the Indonesian television’s daily program because it shows up almost every time we turn the television on (Goddard, 1998). They can actually persuade, convince, or even manipulate society about almost every single thing in this world (Tanaka, 1994). Advertising is acknowledged as the engine that drives consumer purchase and, therefore, advertising “keeps the wheels of the economy turning” (Rodgers & Thorson, 2012). The primary function of advertising is to introduce a wide range of consumer goods to the public and thus to support the free market economy (Dyer, 1982). On a global scale, the conduct of and relations between nations, organisations and individuals have been revised according to market models of promotion and competition (Crichton, 2010), in which on further implication will likely lead into the modern society inside the world of advertisements. This argument came up due to the fact that the privatisation of diverse public services in areas such as energy, water, transport, prisons, social services,


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education, health and child care has been widespread, and commercial models of management have become the norm in such organisations (Crichton, 2010). In short, we can see clearly how this matter is highly supported by the development of advertisement under the background of particular country discussed in this paper. Previous Studies on Cigarette Advertising Research on cigarette advertising in culture and society studies (MacRury, 2009) and social discourse (Crichton, 2010; Cook, 1992) have shown how cigarette advertisements affect or impact the society. Studies indicate that a majority of the society tends to choose advertisements which are more likely to be in line with their own heritage and local culture, because heritage and local culture are inherited, and become the identity of almost everyone in this country. This is where the advertisements play a very crucial part to persuade the people. Bruthiaux (2000) investigates the communicative mechanism brought by advertisements. This research is an exemplary result of how the advertisement can actually manipulate the audience through their wonderful display of image. The aspect of identity is also expounded deeply on this extent, based on the classification of both advertisement and type of audience. There is a similar outcome when it involves communication of its intention to influence the audience (Crook, 2003). The language may be hidden, but the message can still be caught by the audience, depending on how the advertisements are displayed, regardless of the complicated word-play inside it. Belch and Belch (2003) reported an interesting study conducted to present how far a cigarette advertisement tries to commercialise the product in any way possible to attract consumers. It was found that when consumers start liking one product, they are unlikely to change to other cigarette brands. Furthermore, another study about cigarette advertisements focussed on cultural economy and semiotics aspects (McFall, 2004). This study reveals that the habitual actions of how people do their daily economical-life can actually be influenced by advertisements. However, the authors were unable to draw conclusions about how advertisement directly causes people to adapt to what the advertisers want generally. Velasco-Sacristan and Fuertes -Olivera (2005) initiated an interesting research on rhetorical language used in advertisements. The research resulted in a unique outcome where they could unmask the advertiser’s rhetorical intentions to manifest certain non-neutral assumptions without making public its intentions to the target audience. In other words, advertisements can even drive the society to either choose or behave as what the advertisers would like them to, as long as the impact brought by the advertisements are strong enough to persuade them. DiRocco and Shadell (2007) examined whether gender has any relation to the level of relaxation caused by cigarette advertisements and if it has any relationship with the intentions of non-smoking adolescents wanting to smoke. The result indicates that high relaxations increased intentions to smoke among female adults only. Further investigation is needed to identify the features of cigarette


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advertisements which have the most influential role among different groups of adolescents. In the following year, Devra (2008) discusses the dilemma that government and industry face with regard to the fact that cigarette is toxic but indeed lucrative. He mentions that UK and US governments have helped industries with millions of dollars to produce safer cigarettes. This according to him is something called as, “modern hazard” that have social and economic realities with the society. Viewing from different aspects, Freeman, Brucks, Wallendorf and Boland (2009) studied the youths’ understanding about cigarette advertisements. Results show that youths are aware of the type of product an advertisement is promoting but they have low levels of awareness on brand understanding. It also shows that understanding cigarette advertisements is positively related to “susceptibility to smoking”. These findings suggest a sort of psychological mechanism that permeates the link between cigarette advertising exposure and youth smoking. The metaphor aspects of advertisements have indeed been found (Crichton, 2010). However, it is a mere explanation about the metaphor inside the mere pictures, but not inside the language as this research does (Forceville, 1996). Both of the writers can finally give sufficient information about metaphorical language, that both forms of language and picture can attract the audience to watch and or read the advertisements. It was also found that people tend to be attracted by how the advertisements display the play and they even liked it when advertisers used wordplay and so on. Pelsmacker and Faseur (2010) examined the play of emotion in television advertisements to persuade people to purchase the products. This research also specifies the product classifications in which each of them had its own advertising style to persuade the audience, and cause them to engage with their emotions before buying the product; which is also quite effective based on the outcome. The study concluded that the consumers think that the products possess attitudes and their own nature, or in other words they see the product as something alive. Additionally, Vizcaino (2011) while investigating how the advertising language can drive home its message even more and not directly sticking to the product, has found that this kind of language is used in the context for their symbolic and visual value rather than their content or informational components. The foreign language is used for symbolism rather than content. It is not conveyed at the referential level, but rather at the visual level of language (Forceville, 1996). Pragmatics theory of advertisement on television has been written on how advertisements depict various meanings (Martinez-Camino & Perez-Saiz, 2011). It contains the classification of advertisement, and also the main strategy of how the advertisers should commercialise something; an outcome drawn when one of the strategies is basically more effective than the others, and about how the consumers can actually choose the product based on the language used only. However, the absence of product classification for cigarette is missing from the research. Considering the important sequence of how the advertisement world is working, this classification is badly needed in research on advertising. This point of missing product was also researched to prove the referential and textual imagination produced by the audience (Gardner & Luchtenberg, 1999). On this point, the


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research focuses on the mechanism of how people refer to and react toward the advertisements, including the relation between the advertisements and the product. They also described the how those waypoints (image, wordings and reference) are influenced by the culture in the society. Paek, Reid, Jeong, Hoojon and Krugman (2012) examined frequencies and types of promotion techniques featured in five decades of cigarette advertising relative to five different major smoking eras. In general, the proportion of promotion in the advertisements rose constantly. This, they argue, require more attention from the experts of tobacco control and government regulators. In the subsequent year, Kostova and Blecher (2013) researched the cigarette advertisements and its estimated impacts. They found a positive correlation between smoking and advertising exposure as a result of the disproportionately higher tendency of smokers to observe advertising more properly than a direct causal effect of advertising on smoking. The complexity of language found in cigarette advertisements in Indonesia has been unexplored.

Research Questions 1. How can the language of cigarette advertisements be exploited to unconsciously attract smokers? 2. Are there any similar messages from language used in cigarette advertisement?

Methodology The corpus will be taken from advertisements precluding the main show inside the television, in which the duration varies on every single advertisement. However, we have taken range of the time randomly with the variations of them as the same way. Since this research takes on pragmatic approach, the data are only in the form of phrase or sentence in the advertisements (Conrad, 2002). We take the exact methodology as Tanaka (1994) did in his book. Data were collected from the internet. We took exactly four examples of cigarette advertisements, and considered them as purposive sampling (Tashakkori and Cresswell, 2007 as cited in Litosseliti, 2010). Since the language analysed is from an electronic source, then they will be called as a corpus (Conrad, 2002). In analysing the data, we employ Sperber and Wilson’s (1996; 2002) inferential theory of pragmatics to make sense of the advertising language (Tanaka, 1994). Inferential theory of pragmatics originates from the theory of Gricean cooperative principle and maxims of (quality, quantity, relevance and manner) (Grice, 1975) which focuses only on relevance aspect (Sperber & Wilson, 2002, p. 250). This theory comprises “two principles of relevance: cognitive principle and communicative principle” (p. 249). The first principle of relevance is “geared to the maximisation relevance” and the latter principle states that “utterances create expectation of optimal relevance”. These cognitive and communicative principles are then narrowed down into sub-aspects. With regard to the analysis, we used only (1) relevance and cognition, (2) relevance and comprehension, (3) relevant and communications, and (4) relevant and mental architecture apply to two interactions


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in daily life communication where two or more speakers are engaged in conversation (see Sperber & Wilson, 2002, pp. 249-290 for details). Relevant and cognition is broken down into the following rules: (1) Relevance of an input to an individual: (a) other things being equal, the greater the positive effects achieved by processing an input, the greater the relevance of the input to the individual at that time; and (b) Other things being equal, the greater the processing effort expended, the lower the relevance of the individual at the time; and (2) Cognitive principle of relevance: human cognition tends to be geared to the maximisation of relevance. (Sperber & Wilson, 2002, pp. 252-255) Relevance and comprehension is subdivided into the following rules: (a) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about explicit content (explicatures) via decoding, disambiguation, reference resolution, and other pragmatic enrichment process; (b) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual assumptions (implicated premises); and (c) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual implications (implicated conclusions). (Sperber & Wilson, 2002, p. 262) Only certain words, which become the keywords or the key point of the sentence, were translated by using Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008). There are four types of data collected from different cigarette companies to find how Indonesian audiences process an advertisement in general and cigarette advertisements in particular. These data act essentially as observational data (Silverman, 1994). The analysis of the cigarette advertisements produced patterns on the effectiveness of the advertisement to promote the cigarette and the relation between the language of advertising and the nature of cigarette smoking. Needless to say, the utterances from the original advertisements are typed in bold and indicated with double quotation marks (“...”) to emphasise that it is the actual sentence taken from the advertisements (Miles & Huberman, 1994). The brand of the product is typed both in bold and capitalised. As the data are in Indonesian language, a translation is provided underneath the actual data in bold.

Results and Discussion In this discussion, the researchers intentionally chose certain advertisements as evidences of complexities in the pragmatic approach itself.


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Advertisement 1

Source: “GG MILD, Break the Limit” http://vimeo.com/64474299 Table 1 Analysis of Advertisement 1 Term Break

Possible Meaning 1. To (cause something to) separate suddenly or violently into two or more pieces, or to (cause something to) stop working by being damaged. 2. To destroy or end something, or to come to an end. 3. Fail to keep a law, rule or promise. 4. To (cause something to) divide into two or more parts or groups. 5. To interrupt or to stop something for a short period. 6. To go somewhere or do something by force. 7. To lose your self-control, confidence, determination, etc., or to make someone do this. 8. To come or bring to notice; to (cause to) be known. 9. To reach and move over the beach, hit a cliff or wall, etc. 10. When dawn or day breaks, the sun starts to appear in the sky early in the morning. 11. If someone's voice breaks, it changes from one state to another. 12. In tennis to win a game in which another player is serving (= hitting the ball first). Limit 1. The greatest amount, number or level of something that is either possible or allowed. 2. INFORMAL the amount of something that is enough and not too much. 3. OLD-FASHIONED INFORMAL something that is very annoying or not convenient. 4. To control something so that it is not greater than a particular amount, number or level. Source: Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008)


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There are many meaning inputs as shown in Table 1. In relevance theory, we should “’pick out’ an input that is of more relevance than any alternative input available to us” (Sperber & Wilson, 2002, p. 252), then consequently we need an input which has “greater positive effect … and greater relevance” (p. 252). From this first evidence, it can be seen that when the term “break” is combined with limit, the most suitable meaning which has greater positive effect and greater relevant is the intention to show and provoke people to go over the top of their maximal efforts, or break their own limit. This may lead to the message on how the work ethics of every individual should always be upheld on every way of condition, including about how the term closely relate with the power of men inside the boundary of identity and language (Abe, 2010). Moreover, we can see that this also depicts an impression as a maximum effort of something, and also a power of men. This expression can also mean breaking the satisfaction limit, since one of the reasons why people smoke is to find satisfaction. On another guess, it can also mean that smokers can maximise their skill so that they can have enough power to achieve what they dreamed of. The above interpretations for us are more relevant compared to other potential meaning input as a cigarette product wants to align its image with smoker’s maximum efforts in daily life. In terms of relevance and comprehension, the company through its cigarette product explicates that breaking the limits means doing the maximum for one’s effort. The implicated premise that the company projects draw is breaking the limit for human being can be inspired by consuming a cigarette product and the implicated conclusion is GG MILD is the right choice for people who want to break the limit, doing the maximum effort in their life. Advertisement 2

Source: DJARUM BLACK MILD, Innovative Double Filter http://www.blackxperience.com/index.php?page=events-detail&aeid=2414) Table 2 Analysis of Advertisement 2 Term Innovative Filter

Possible Meaning 1. Using new methods or ideas. 1. Any of several types of equipment or devices for removing solids from liquids or gases, or for removing particular types of light.


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2. UK a green arrow-shaped light which is part of a set of traffic lights and which tells drivers when they can turn left or right. 3. To appear or happen gradually or to a limited degree. 4. To remove solids from liquids or gases, or to remove particular types of light, using special equipment. Source: Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008) For relevance and cognition (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), the most relevant which has greater cognitive effect for innovation is “new and fresh”. This because innovation posits something new which is always updated. “Double filter” mostly indicates the process of how the cigarette is created. It may be processed with the literal filtering. Other cigarettes may be filtered once, but this one is double-filtered. In Table 2, the phrase “double filters” aligns with the meaning in number 4. At the level of relevance and comprehension (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), “innovation double filter” explicates that a cigarette should go through a mandatory process for meeting the needs of “a healthy cigarette”. This further implicates that innovation should be done to do “double filtering process”. Then this finally arrives at the intended contextual implication (implication conclusion) that in order to have a cigarette which is innovative and has gone through double filter, DJARUM BLACK MILD is the right choice for smokers. Advertisement 3

Source: “Fine Cut for Fine Taste, DUNHILL MILD” http://vimeo.com/63308242


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Table 3 Analysis of Advertisement 3 Term

Possible Meaning

Fine

1. Good or good enough; healthy and well (satisfactory). 2. Excellent or much better than average. 3. Very thin or in very small pieces or drops. 4. Very exact and delicate, or needing to be done, treated or considered very carefully. 5. Sunny and dry. 6. Bad or not convenient – informal. 7. Tax, bail, or debt. Cut 1. Action of cutting (with knife, scissors, etc.) to break the surface of something, or to divide or make something smaller, using a sharp tool, especially a knife. 2. To make something shorter, lower, smaller, etc. 3. To remove something from something else. 4. To not go, especially to a place where you should be – informal American. 5. To stop or interrupt something (especially in movie making). 6. To go through or across a place, especially in order to get somewhere quickly. 7. On card games, to choose a playing card by dividing a pile of cards into two parts. 8. To record music or speech on a record. Taste 1. The flavour of something, or the ability of a person or animal to recognise different flavours. 2. A person's approval of and liking for particular things. 3. A person's ability to judge and recognise what is good or suitable, especially relating to such matters as art, style, beauty and behaviour. 4. A short experience of something. 5. To put food or drink in your mouth to find out what flavour it has. Source: Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008) For relevance and cognition (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), meaning which has greater cognitive effect and greater relevance is the word “mild” is literally mild, or light, not heavy, or we can see it as the cigarette is supposed to be smoked in a relaxing condition and or a relaxing situation in a hectic workplace or a crowd, while the word “cut” means to “interrupt something or to have a rest”. The word “taste” is mostly associated with “flavour”. Thus for workers of any company, the cigarette product can also be used as a way out to enhance their concentration and maintain it. Without this product, they are unable to get the same amount of focus level. Moreover, the fine cut taste explicates that a cigarette needs to have special characteristics, which is fine cut taste. Its intended contextual assumption is that fine cut taste a cigarette product is required for smokers especially in their working


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hours in order to keep focus on their works. To this end, the smokers could best smoke “DUNHILL FINE CUT MILD”, the implicated conclusion of the advertisements (Sperber & Wilson, 2002) Advertisement 4

Source: “Success is an Attainment, SURYA 16, an Exclusive Image” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZDKvKqHcB0E Table 4 Analysis of Advertisement 4 Term Success

Possible Meaning 1. The achieving of the results wanted or hoped for. 2. Something that achieves positive results Attainment 1. When somebody achieve something. 2. The things that somebody has done and the skills they have learned. Exclusive 1. Limited to only one person or group of people. 2. Expensive and only for people who are rich or of a high social class Image 1. A picture in mind or an idea of how someone or something is. 2. The way that something or someone is thought of by other people. 3. A mental picture or idea which forms in a reader's or listener's mind from the words that they read or hear. Source: Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008) In terms of relevance and cognition (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), the greater effect and relevant of each word is in the following: the term “exclusive” means


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“limited people”, while “image” means a “picture of the mind”. Therefore, the image built by this advertisement is whether the person can feel the exclusiveness inside his own self-image to build self-confidence, aligning with exclusiveness of the cigarette. “Exclusive” has a close relation with the feel of having a high social class, which not everyone possesses. The word “success” means “a positive result” and the word “attainment” means “the thing that somebody has done”. The words “success” and “attainment” are good colocation in that success is an attainment. Strung together, the advertiser wants the audience to think that this product can encourage someone to achieve success or an attainment, which means, it needs hard work, and needs a process. It is not something to be taken for granted. And of course SURYA 16 represents an exclusive image, directed linked to the identity of those successful person. However, this explanation refers to the cigarette itself, because in the end, this is a cigarette advertisement, where every single wording of promotion should always be related to (Tungate, 2007). In terms of relevance and comprehension (Sperber & Wilson, 2002), the advertisements explicates that a cigarette should capture the characteristics of being: exclusive image and attaining success. The advertisements also implicates that SURYA 16 has all the features: being exclusive and success attainment. Therefore, finally the advertisement contextually concludes that SURYA 16 is the appropriate choice for smokers to show an exclusive image and for people who have attained success in their career.

Conclusions The cigarette company represented by the advertisement team uses abstract languages to convince the smokers. These languages and expressions work well in our subconscious mind. The theme upheld in the advertisements is closely related to the expressions of limit, filter, fine taste and success, with the meaning contextualisation that has been explained earlier. In persuading smokers, the cigarette companies go through several processes: choosing inputs which have greater relevance and greater cognitive effects; then explicating the contents (messages); implicating assumptions; and finally contextually concluding the messages as discussed by Sperber and Wilson (2002). Furthermore, the advertisers also have a strong intention to make the audiences find their identities in the advertisements. Word choices (e.g., in Advertisements 2 and 3) have a strong emotive power to influence the people to believe or in other words, at least reflect or connect themselves to the wordings and the language used in the advertisements (Kemp, Kennet-Hensel, & Kees, 2013). When the advertisers can successfully obtain this part as a central attention of the people, the next stage will be on how the audiences accept and appreciate the existence of that certain advertisements on television, until it stays memorable in their mind (Cappo, 2003). There is also similarity between the messages in the language of cigarette Advertisements 1 (GG Mild break the limit) and 4 (Success is an attainment SURYA 16 Exclusive Image). These products envisage that by consuming these products, the smokers will feel as if they can break the limit and can achieve a great success


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(success is an attainment). However, in Advertisements 2 (Innovative double filter Djarum Black nild) and 3 (Dunhill fine cut mild, fine for fine taste) are in the same domain - the good cigarette making process (double filter) and the taste (fine taste). We can say that they are in the same domain because the products can be processed or filtered more than once to create a good taste. In the final stage, the audience will most likely assume that the product advertised is in line with their identities, which therefore prompts them to buy the product aligning with their own personalities and characters (Sperber & Wilson, 1996). This might be the reasons why advertisers project particular identities on their product so that the people or the majority of the society would choose them. However, we believe that the patterns or the generalisations of the explanations and evidences above can still be drawn out and all the interpretations given here remain subjective.

References Abe, H. (2010). Queer Japanese: Gender and sexual identities through linguistic practices. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Belch, G. E., & Belch, M. E. (2003). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing communications perspective (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Berger, A. A. (2011). Ads, fads, and consumer culture: Advertising’s impact on American character and society. Plymouth: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Brierley, S. (1995). The advertising handbook. London and New York: Routledge. Bruthiaux, P. (2000). In a nutshell: Persuasion in the spatially constrained language of advertising. Language and Communication, 20, 297-310. Cambridge (Digital) Learner’s Dictionary 3rd Edition (2008). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cappo, J. (2003). The future of advertisement. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chang, C. (2013). Imagery fluency and narrative advertising effects, Journal of Advertising, 42(1), 54-68. Conrad, S. (2002). Corpus linguistic approaches for discourse analysis, Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 75-95. Cook, G. (1992). The discourse of advertising. London and New York: Routledge. Crichton, J. (2010). The discourse of commercialization: A multi-perspectives analysis. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Crook, J. (2003). On covert communication in advertising. Journal of Advertising, 36, 715-738. Devra, D. (2008). The safer cigarette. The Ecologist, 38, 2, 44. DiRocco, D. N., & Shadell, W. G. (2007) Gender differences in adolescents’ responses to themes of relaxation in cigarette advertising: Relationship to intentions to smoke. Addictive Behaviors, 32, 205–213 Dyer, G. (1982). Advertising as communication. London and New York: Routledge. Freeman, D., Brucks, M., Wallendorf, M., & Boland, W. (2009). Youths understanding of cigarette advertisements. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 36-42.


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Forceville, C. (1996). Pictorial metaphor in advertising. London and New York: Routledge. Gardner, R., & Luchtenberg, S., (1999). Reference, image, text in German and Australian advertising posters. Journal of Pragmatics, 32, 1807-1821. Grice, P. 1975. Logic and conversation. Accessed February 25, 2014, from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/ls/studypacks/Grice-Logic.pdf Goddard, A. (1998). The Language of advertising. London and New York: Routledge. Indonesian Republic Government Rule (2003). Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 19. Indonesian Republic Government Rule (2012). Peraturan Pemerintah Pasal 17 Nomor 109. Kemp, E., Kennet-Hensel, P. A., & Kees, J. (2013). Pulling on the heartstring: Examining the effects of emotions and gender in persuasive appeals. Journal of Advertising, 42:1, 69-79. Kostova, D. and Blecher, E. (2013). Does advertising matter?: Estimating the impact of cigarette advertising on smoking among youth in developing countries. Contemporary Economic Policy, 31, 3, 537-548. Litosseliti, L. (Ed.) (2010). Research methods in Linguistics. London: Continuum MaCrury, L. (2009). Advertising. London and New York: Routledge. Martinez-Camino, G., & Perez-Saiz, M., (2011). A Pragmatics theory on television advertising. Journal of Pragmatics, 44, 453-473. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, M. A. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. McFall, L. (2004). Advertising: A cultural economy. London: SAGE Publications. Paek, H., Reid, Leonard N. R., Jeong, H. J., Choi, H. & Krugman, D. (2012). Five decades of promotion techniques in cigarette advertising: A longitudinal content analysis. Health Marketing Quarterly, 29, 1-17. Rodgers, S., & Thorson, E. (2012). Advertising theory. London/New York: Routledge. Silverman, D. (1994). Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice (2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (1996). Relevance: Communication and cognition (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Blackwell. Sperber, D., & Wilson, D. (2002). Relevance theory. Accessed February 20, 2014, from http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/publications/WPL/02papers/wilson_sperber.pdf Tanaka, K. (1994). Advertising language: A pragmatic approach to advertisements in Britain and Japan. London and New York: Routledge. Tungate, M. (2007). Adland: A global history of advertising. London and Philadelphia: Kogan Page. Velasco-Sacristan, M., & Fuertes-Olivera, A. (2006). Towards a critical cognitivepragmatic approach to gender metaphors in advertising English. Journal of Pragmatics, 38, 11, 1982-2002. Vizcaino, M. J. G. (2011). Code-breaking/code-making: A new language approach in advertising. Journal of Pragmatics, 43(8), 2095-2109.


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CHALLENGES OF TEACHING ORAL ENGLISH IN NIGERIAN HIGH SCHOOLS Joshua Usman1 Lynda Jummai Mustafa2 English Department, IBB University, P.M.B. 11, Lapai, Niger, Nigeria ¹ [email protected] ² [email protected] Abstract This study advocates for greater emphasis on the acquisition of oracy skills whereby this component of English is totally neglected in our higher schools. It identifies and examines some of the major challenges that the teaching of oral English could face; thereby proffering some possible solutions that could improve the teaching of oral English in our secondary schools. Questionnaires were used to seek teachers’ and students’ opinions concerning the problem. The research participants consisted of the teachers of English Language and students, particularly, Senior Secondary Schools Students (SSSI-SSS III) within four selected schools. The results have shown that interference of mother tongue, unqualified teachers and dearth of relevant teaching materials are the major challenges. The study suggested that (i) a high degree of motivation in both students and teachers, and (ii) the teachers’ competence in the subject and their mastery of the techniques of imparting knowledge in it are the basic the solutions. Teachers and Language instructors should identify these problems, face the challenges through practical classes and improvisation and also insist on standards. Keywords: Oral English, Spoken English, Challenges, oracy skills

Introduction The provision of adequate instruction in oral English is regarded as a sine qua non to the acquisition of the basic skills of the language. Oral English was introduced in 1977 as part of English language paper in the teachers’ grade II certification examination in Nigeria. Presently this component of English language constitutes a sub-section in English language paper in NECO, TCII and WAEC examinations and also receives prominence in English language syllabuses especially in our secondary schools. Consequently, it is obvious that learners of English language as a second language are mostly faced with the problem of oral proficiency in terms of appropriate pronunciation of English sounds (phonemes) either by virtue of being a

Challenges of teaching oral English in Nigerian high schools

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new language or mother tongue or first language interference. However, there has been emphasis on the quest for Standard English, hence; an English language learner must aim at proficiency to a degree of the standard form (Standard English or Received Pronunciation). This enables the learner to acquire adequate competence for practical purpose of everyday communication. It is on this note, that much emphasis and efforts should be placed on the teaching of oral English because it will help the learner to develop his or her pronunciation sufficiently to permit effective communication with both native speakers and non-native users. Similarly, it is obvious that common mistakes identified among the learners of English as a second language today include improper pronunciation, mispronunciation, poor intonation, as well as misrepresentation of phonetic sounds. For instance, most students misplace the qualities and length of vowels. It is in view of these problems that recent development in language teaching and learning has made the teaching and learning of oral English not only a necessity but also a pre-requisite for assessing the learner’s competence in language use and acquisition. Therefore, since emphasis has shifted to studying varied rules aimed at the identification, interpretation and reproduction of English sounds (phonemes), there is every cause to emphasise and to review the teaching of oral English especially in post-primary schools. Furthermore, speech is regarded as persona which represents an individual’s ability to articulate phonemes according to some established norms. It also entails the ability of an individual to identify and understand the representation and meaning of English sounds. It is quite unfortunate that most of our secondary school learners do not exhibit the knowledge of oral English when using the language which could be associated with the aforementioned factors. In a nutshell, there is the need for concern. Thus, it is necessary to emphasise and encourage the study and understanding of oral English by learners. Oral proficiency should be made inherent in both teachers and learners (students). Jowitt (1991) confirms that the emphasis on proficiency in spoken English was introduced in the New National Curriculum in English language for Nigerian Secondary Schools in the 1980s. It was previously neglected in the teaching of English in Nigeria as oral English was made optional for the West African School Certificate students (though a compulsory course for teacher grade II examinations). Roach (2000) confirms that pronunciation teaching has not always been popular with teachers and language theorists and in the 1970s and 1980s. It was fashionable to treat it as a rather outdated activity. It was claimed that it makes learners try to sound like native speakers of Received Pronunciation, which became difficult and led to repetitive exercises, and it also failed to give importance to communication. Jowitt (1991) comments about the negligence of oral English teaching on teachers. He stated that pupils unconsciously relied on mother tongue models when deprived of consistently reliable guidance from teachers, as indeed many of teachers did: assuming that there was a perfect correspondence between sound and spelling. They use orthography as their guide to pronunciation. Anthony (2001) and Uche (1998) emphasise the difficulties of acquiring oracy skills. According to Williams (1990), the factors to be enumerated could be categorised under one factor – the interference of mother tongue. It is worth noting that for the non-native speakers, the mother tongue always affects the acquisition of the second language. This has


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always, been a major problem in oral English or pronunciation teaching especially in Nigerian schools. Unoh (1986) also examines the situation of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools. He asserts that teaching of English pronunciation in Nigeria suffers from peculiar handicaps unknown to the teaching of English language or any other school subject (for that matter). For any subject to be effectively taught, there are at least two very important conditions that must be met: (i) a high degree of motivation on the part of both student and teacher; and (ii) the teachers’ competence in the subject, and his or her mastery of the techniques of imparting knowledge in it. While the aforementioned conditions are rarely achieved in the teaching of English Language, they are also hardly met in the case of the teaching and learning of English pronunciation. Okoli (2000) comments on the need to be proficient in the sound system of a new language and explains that English should be pronounced in the accent normally chosen as the standard form especially the model most often recommended for foreign learners studying standard British English and also Received Pronunciation. The teaching of oral English in Nigerian secondary schools has previously been overlooked. However, recent development in the teaching of English Language requires greater emphasis on this aspect of English language. Oral English complements the understanding and the use of English language so as to improve the standard of spoken English. According to Idris (2001), not much has been achieved since the introduction of oral English in our West African School Certificate and National Examination Council due to the problems associated with the teaching and learning of oral English. There are existing publications on phonology written by Linguists such as A.C. Gimson, Daniel Jones, David Jowitt, Peter Roach, among others. Recently, there is the emergence of new publications particularly on Oral English by other language teachers, researchers and scholars such as Mannell, Cox, and Harrington (2009), Akperero (2000), Enyeazu (2001), and Idris (2001). This development has gone a long way in bringing oral English into focus. Its recent inclusion in the English Language Examination Paper (Test of Orals) has drawn the attention of many teachers and students. Consequently, the teaching of oral English is rather weighed down by various factors which have contributed to the slow pace and ineffectiveness in teaching the course. These factors include poor background, interference of mother tongue, unqualified teachers, poor teaching methodology, lack of constant practice, lack of orientation and facilities, and shortage and limited accessibility to relevant books. Most of the students in our secondary schools are faced with either one of the problems or the other. Some are deficient due to more than one problem especially students from rural and poor backgrounds. This study examines some of the major challenges that the teaching of oral English could be faced with in Nigerian secondary schools.

Methodology The research was carried out using questionnaires to seek teachers’ and students’ opinions concerning the issue under investigation. The research participants


17


consisted of teachers of English language and students, particularly; senior secondary schools students (SSSI-SSS III) within the four selected schools in Minna municipal namely Government day Secondary School, Minna; Government day Secondary School, Maitumbi; Ahmadu Bahago Secondary School, Minna and Government Secondary School, Minna. In this investigation, 200 questionnaires were distributed to English Language teachers and students in the selected schools. However, only 182 were completed and returned, of which 101 were from students and 81 were from English Language teachers. Therefore, these 182 completed questionnaires are the ones from which the percentages were computed. Table 1 shows the selected schools used and the number of questionnaires distributed to each of the schools. The number of questionnaires distributed to the schools varied according to the population capacity of both students and the subject teachers in each school. Table 1 Distribution of questionnaires to teachers and students in four schools Name of School

Government Day Secondary School, Minna Ahmadu Bahago Secondary School, Minna Government Secondary School, Minna Zarumai Model School, Minna Total:

No. of questionnaires distributed to teachers 30

No. of Qquestionnaires distributed to students 30

20

30

30

15

20 100

25 100

Results and Discussion Table 2 shows the enumerated factors and the number of responses against each factor by respondents as well as their percentages. However, it should be noted that the factors enumerated are directly or indirectly reflected in the questionnaires distributed. The degree to which each of the factors affects the teaching of Oral English is shown in numbers and percentages.


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Table 2 Summary of enumerated factors affecting teaching of Oral English Factors Teachers Students (n=81) (n=101) No. of Percentage No. of Percentage Responses Responses Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No 1. Interference of mother tongue 2. Ineffective teaching methodology 3. Shortage of relevant textbooks 4. Lack of orientation 5. Lack of constant practice. 6. Lack of language laboratories. 7. Dearth of necessary facilities

66

15

81%

19%

90

11

89%

11%

55

26

68%

32%

63

38

62%

38%

70

11

86%

14%

73

28

72%

28%

68

13

84%

16%

64

37

63%

37%

71

10

88%

12%

82

19

81%

19%

44

37

54%

46%

55

46

54%

46%

62

19

77%

23%

88

13

87%

13%

On the interference of mother tongue on the teaching of Oral English in our secondary schools, the results confirm the hypothesis. The percentages of teachers and students with the opinion that mother tongue strongly affects the teaching of Oral English are 81% and 89% respectively. The assumption that ineffective teaching method affects the teaching of Oral English was tested and the percentage of responses indicates that it also affects the teaching of Oral English. In the data collected, 68% of the teachers and 62% of the students think that effective teaching methods affects the teaching of Oral English. The results show that shortage of textbooks also constitutes a problem to the teaching of Oral English in Nigerian secondary schools. Table 2 reveals that 86% of the teachers and 72% of the students felt that shortage of relevant textbooks affects the teaching of Oral English. The lack of orientation on the significance of Oral English in ensuring competence in language use also affects the teaching of the course, as shown by 84% of teachers and 63% of students who reported that they were unaware of the significance of Oral English teaching in the acquisition of Oracy skills. This shows that


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there is the need for orientation for students and teachers on the significance of Oral English. Practice is a physical activity. It also requires a confirmation on its relevance to effective teaching of this component of English Language. The responses received from the respondents show that lack of constant practice is seen as a problem hampering the effective teaching and learning of Oral English by 88% of teachers and 81% of students. The essence of language laboratory in language teaching is to assist the learning (students) and to facilitate their understanding of the phonetics of a language. This problem states that lack of language laboratories affects the teaching of Oral English. However, in the data analysis, only 54% of teachers and 54% of students reported that lack of language laboratories also affects the teaching of Oral English. Language laboratories aid comprehension in Oral English teaching but it is not as important as other factors. This problem affirms that the teaching of Oral English requires the use of other necessary relevant facilities, that is, teaching aids such as radio, tape recorder, television set, flash cards and resource persons that could also facilitate easier teaching, learning and understanding of the component. The results shows that 77% of teachers and 87% of students identify the dearth of necessary faciltiies as strongly affecting the teaching of Oral English. From the analysis, the data collected through the responses from the questionnaires confirm that all the factors identified and enumerated as major challenges affecting the teaching of Oral English are valid. However, there are other challenges that are also affecting the teaching of this course, such as the misconception of the course by teachers, learners and users, the attitude of teachers to English Language teaching, lack of interest by many teachers and students; lack of emphasis from the onset, the existence of English varieties, lack of workshops or seminars for English Language teachers, lack of interest by many teachers and students, and lack of emphasis from the onset. On the other hand, students identified the existence of varieties of English, lack of workshops or seminars for English Language teachers and probably truancy on the part of the students. The implications of the findings can thus be summarised in the following ways: Semantically, there is a shift from Standard English and this constitutes a departure from the target norms. It (may) constitute errors. It (may) bring about substandard forms which are neither acceptable nor intelligible to both native speakers as well as educated Nigerian users of Standard English. Summary of Findings The findings of the study as reflected in the questionnaires can be summarised as follows: i.

Interference of mother tongue - Nigeria is a multi-lingual nation and English language is mostly the second language of virtually every learner of English.


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Therefore, the phonetic sound system of the mother tongue affects the mastery of the target language. This leads to non- standard English. ii.

Ineffective teaching methodology - Statistics has shown that most of the teachers teaching in Nigerian secondary schools do not pass through teachers colleges. Therefore, they lack the professional skills needed to carry out their teaching assignments. This affects the teachers’ ability to impact knowledge effectively.

iii.

Shortage of relevant textbooks - Textbooks are very necessary in the teaching and learning process. They enhance the learners’ understanding of what has been taught. The libraries in most public schools are not fully equipped to meet the needs of the learners. This also affects their proficiency especially in spoken English.

iv.

Lack of orientation - Students need to be made aware on the need to be good in spoken English as this will enhance international intelligibility.

v.

Lack of constant practice - Oral English is an aspect of language that is concerned with our ability to speak good English. Regular usage of standard pronunciation can lead to perfection. This is not the case with many students as they revert to the mother tongue immediately after the normal lesson or class hours.

vi.

Lack of language laboratories - Language laboratories are very useful in carrying out practical phonology in our post primary schools. They allow the learner to carry out individualised instruction. These facilities are very scarce which affects the teaching of oral English.

vii.

Lack of necessary facilities - This is not far from the ones mentioned above, but they are not the only facilities required for the teaching of oral English such as radio, television and improvised materials are not available for use. This affects the learners’ competence in oral English. Conclusion

In conclusion, it should be noted that our major concern in this research is the challenges facing the teaching of Oral English. The study shows that the major challenges facing the teaching of Oral English in our secondary schools are interference of mother tongue, effective teaching methodology, shortage of relevant textbooks, lack of orientation, lack of constant practice, and lack of necessary facilities but lack of language laboratories is not as crucial as the other six factors. It is pertinent to reiterate that oral proficiency in language use is invaluable and, as a matter of fact, a necessity to all learners of English as a second language. It manifests one’s competence in language acquisition and use. Therefore, this study


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has focused on the teaching and learning situation of the course, particularly the challenges that are connected to its effective teaching in our secondary schools. The study also attempts to offer possible solution (suggestions) that could improve the status of the course. The following are some recommendations based on this study: 



 



  

   

All learners of English Language should identify their problems in practical speech. Such identification will help to improve one’s proficiency in oracy. It will also help the individual to avert the problem. The mother tongue or first language interferes a great deal with the second language to be learnt. Different Nigerian Languages have their own different ways of interfering with practical English. It is said that “practice leads to perfection.” Learners of English as a second language should endeavour to learn, understand and practice the correct pronunciation of English phonemes or words in order to attain oral proficiency. The use of an English Dictionary could also be of great assistance. Effort should be made by individuals (students/teachers) in various schools to avoid the constant use of Pidgin English or vernacular languages as excessive use of these varieties could affects one’s oral proficiency. There is the need to give orientation to teachers and students on the significance of the course. Teachers should be encouraged to attend workshops, seminars, refresher courses and the like in order to update their knowledge and improve on their teaching methodology. The government, private organisation or individuals should assist in providing necessary facilities as teaching aids such as television sets, radios, tape recorder, flash cards and other related facilities that will help in facilitating easier understanding of the course. The provision and availability of language laboratories in various schools will also encourage teachers and students to appreciate and put more effort in embracing the component. Teachers should provide a model in all aspects relating to English Language particularly Oral English. This can be on cassettes or discs. It is also advisable for learners of English as a second language to make time to listen to the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria (FRCN) and other Television networks. This will improve the learners listening and speaking skills. Emphasis on oracy skills should begin from the cradle (primary school) through all levels. This will make fluency in language use inherent among learners. Provision of relevant textbooks on the course should be made available to learners either by the government or through individuals’ efforts. Application of penalty in terms of communication failure or laziness and how it should be done. Donough (1981) encouraged that in teaching second language in schools. This will also compel learners to adapt to learning conditions. Oral work should also take prominence in language teaching in the classroom. For instance, impromptu speech, news reading, news translation, speech acts, the use of dialogue, and conversations.


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   



School management should ensure that only those who specialise in English Language should be allowed to teach the course or subject in both primary and post primary schools. Enough lesson periods should be allocated to the course in the lesson timetable in various schools. A minimum of three lessons for Oral English per week is hereby suggested. Curriculum planners should put into consideration the factors enumerated as affecting the teaching and learning of Oral English when planning the curriculum. It is recommended that this component of English Language is invaluable and indispensable in the teaching and learning process and language use in general. Consequently, much emphasis and concentration should be given to the course at all levels of learning. The quest for knowledge in Oral language is significant as English is considered as a global language. It is also recommended that similar research be carried out in other areas whether within or outside the state, so that the findings will also help to remedy the problems connected to the teaching of course in various secondary schools in Nigeria.

References Anthony, E. C. (2001). Simplified approach to Oral English. Ibadan: Amora Publication. Idris, U. (2001). Oral English. Lagos: Longman Nigeria. Jones, D. (1917). English Pronouncing Dictionary. Hongkong: Wingkingtong Company Ltd. Jowitt, D. (1991). Nigerian English usage. Lagos: Longman Nigeria. Okoli, F.C. (2000). Communication in English. Onitsha: Thonik Prints Production Ltd. Roach, P. (2000). Phonetics and phonology (3rd ed.). United Kingdom; Cambridge University Press. Unoh, S. O. (1986). Use of English in communication. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited. Williams, D. (1990). English language teaching. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.


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MALAYSIAN L2 LEARNERS’ ENGLISH LEARNING MOTIVATION: A STUDY OF GOALS, ATTITUDES AND SELF K.S.N. Prasangani Centre for Language Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak [email protected] Abstract This paper investigates factors motivating Malaysian students to learn English through Dornyei’s (2009) construct of the L2 Motivational Self System. The purpose of the study is to examine the validity of self- concept (Ideal L2 and Ought to L2) in the L2 Motivational Self System and examine effect of learner social goals. Furthermore, the study aims to determine the relationship among L2 attitudes, social goals and motivated learning behaviour. Data were collected through a questionnaire survey conducted among 76 Malaysian undergraduates. The results of the study revealed a strong correlation between social goals and selves as well as social goals and motivated learning behaviour. There was a correlation between the L2 self and motivated learning, suggesting social interference to be an important factor for forming attitude. Keywords: goals, selves, attitudes, L2 Motivation

Introduction The research direction of language learning motivation has changed considerably over the past decades due to the spread of globalisation. Gardner’s pioneering motivation theories rooted in principles of integrativeness have been subjected to huge criticisms. As posited by van Rooy (2006), the untenable integrativeness has been questioned due to the expansion of new inner circles of concentric model where local L2 varieties are becoming more established in the L2 world, making previous factors redundant or less important. In fact, the concept of integrativeness has been questioned further in terms of whether all learners really want to be a member of imagined global English speaking community to achieve their goals. What is obvious is that learners have now developed their bicultural identity with reference to local culture and global culture (Arnett, 2002) and prefer to view themselves as closer to their local English speaking communities. In reality, globalisation has affected the learner’s psychological attachment to the native language community and the need to integrate with the L2 culture is outdated.

Malaysian L2 learners’ English learning motivation: A study of goals, attitudes and self

24


The controversy about integrativeness has been countered by the L2 Motivational Self-System (LMSS) which was prioritised as the learner’s self-concept. In addition, the learners’ ideal future image was accounted as a strong predictor of motivation (Dornyei, 2009). The current research seeks to investigate the relationship of learner goals, selves, attitudes, and motivation by exploiting Dornyei’s LMSS as grounded theory.

Literature Review Motivation theory Over the past decade motivation theory has transformed from integrativeness to LMSS. Gardner’s pioneering studies on integrativeness as the key factor to language learning motivation and his socio-educational model is increasingly being seen as less significant. In Gardner’s theory, integrativeness was referred to as the learner’s desire to learn the language to become close to the L2 community and its culture (Gardner, 2001). However, globalisation has brought about new views over the past decade forcing researchers to heighten the need to re-conceptualise the factors contributing to language learning motivation. Rapid changes in the identity of English language in terms of “world English” and its dominance as the communication mode of globalisation has renewed the interest of going beyond the traditional integrativeness principles (Coetzee-van Rooy, 2006; Lamb, 2004). Nevertheless the questions raised concerning the integrativeness principle were solved through the implementation of Dornyei’s LMSS (Dornyei & Csizer, 2005). In brief, Dornyei’s LMMS has three main components. The first one is Ideal L2 self which denotes the L2 specific facet of one’s ideal self and which acts as the motivator of language learning. The second is Ought to L2 Self which concerns the attributes one ought to achieve to overcome the possible negative outcomes. Third being the L2 Learning Experience which concerns the situated motives related to the immediate learning environment such as the impact of the teacher, curriculum, and peers (Dornyei, 2010). Presently, recent developments in motivation theories have led to renewed interest in learner self along with the LMSS. A number of researchers worldwide have confirmed the validity of LMSS by focusing on different learner groups (Csizer & Kormos, 2009; Islam, Lamb, & Chambers, 2013; Kormos, Kiddle, & Csizer, 2011; Lamb, 2012; Papi, 2010; Taguchi, Magid, & Papi, 2009). In fact, the learner self was identified as the predominant factor for language learning motivation. New components were added into the LMSS to identify and define learner self. The Ideal L2 self and learning experiences were found to be factors for reducing the anxiety and Ought to L2 self as the factor of increasing the anxiety (Papi, 2010). International posture was found to be a causative factor of Ideal L2 self (Csizer & Kormos, 2009; Kormos et al., 2011). More recently parental encouragement has been added to the LMSS and there has been found a significant correlation with the Ought to L2 self (Csizer & Kormos, 2009; Kormos et al., 2011). International posture (desire to connect with the international community) was added into the LMSS as an additional goal. As a result, a new interactive model including goals, attitudes and selves was implemented for assessing learner


25


motivation over time. Presently, international posture has proven to be a significant factor for increasing the ideal L2 self (Kormos et al., 2011). With learner goals’ becoming important predictors of the self-concept, they are also being viewed as the energy of motivation and source of sustaining the effort and achievement (Mercer, Ryan, & Williams, 2012). However there has been little attention on the whole concept of learner goals including their academic goals and social goals. Recently, most motivation studies have been carried out in urban or metropolitan areas with little attention being paid to South East Asian language learners. This issue has been highlighted in a recent Indonesian study but the study was not able to explore the strong ideal L2 self-due to the relatively young age of the respondents (Lamb, 2012). Similarly, the concept of national identity in Asia appears to have emerged due to the spread of globalisation and a recent study in Pakistan found national interest to be a significant factor for improving Ideal L2 self (Islam et al., 2013). However, far too little attention has been paid to the national identities of the learners. Goals Goals are identified as the cognitive representation of what an individual is trying to achieve in a given situation. As such paying attention to the content of learner goals will enable researchers to understand how multiple goals like social and academic needs can affect learners’ academic success (Wentzel, 2000). Often, learner goals vary within and between the cultures according to the cultural context as often indicated by a number of researchers (Lin, Siegler, & Sullivan, 2010). As such, motivational theorists have divided academic goals or achievement goals into two basic categories. Mastery goals often denote the development of the learner ability and performance goals denote the demonstrating ability or avoiding demonstrating lack of ability (Midgley, Kaplan, & Middleton, 2001). Mastery goals are identified as related to the learning and thinking process in achievement situations and are linked with the adaptive orientation toward life. This includes encouraging appropriate social behaviour, positive feeling about self and others, and an overall sense of wellbeing. Presently, performance goals have been found to be problematic, because these goals highly consider the achievement as valuable. In many cases when students believe that they lack the competence to perform effectively and they are concerned with failure, performance goals are seen as harmful (Kaplan & Maehr, 2006). Both performance goals and mastery goals can be identified as individualistic goals, because they neglect the social reasons that motivate to achieve academic success (King & Watkins, 2011). Given the context that Asian students’ academic achievement are closely related to socially oriented goals, there is a need to determine if Asian students’ L2 goals may be different. In this matter, parent orientation and teacher orientation have been identified as socially oriented motivations of Filipino university students and personal performance and personal goal choice as individual motivation orientations (Bernardo, 2008). These findings may be applicable to other parts of Asia as well but there is a need to establish this setting for other parts of Asia as well. Presently, there has been little discussion about learner goals and the L2 self in relation to English language learning


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motivation. Kormos et al (2011) looked at a number of factors, did not take into account the learners’ social goals, though the study was able to proof the impact of international posture to be a goal to the Ideal L2 in Chile (Kormos et al., 2011) . This paper is therefore an attempt to illustrate the relationship between learner social goals and selves and, on the other hand, relationship between the social goals, L2 attitude, and motivation in the South East Asia context where national identities, parental guidance and teacher orientation act as a predominant factor in directing learner achievements. To determine the strength of relationships, three research questions were formulated as follows: 1. How social goals affect to LMSS in Malaysian context? a. What is the relationship between learner social goals and selves? b.What is the relationship between learner social goals and motivated learning? 2. How LMSS applicable to Malaysian context? a. What is the relationship between ideal L2 self and motivated learning? b. What is the relationship between Ought to L2 self and motivated learning? 3. How L2 attitude affects to English learning? a. What is the relationship between L2 attitude and social goals? b. What is the relationship between L2 attitude and motivated learning?

Method This study involved 76 undergraduates aged between 22 and 25 from a university in Malaysia. Participation was voluntary. The participants were from various faculties in the university and regions of Malaysia. Tables 1, 2, and 3 show the distribution of the subjects by state. Most students came from the states of Kelantan and Sarawak, and they had a limited level of English. In terms of first language, 68 percent of the students indicated Malay as their mother tongue or L1. Data were gathered through a questionnaire. Questionnaires were filled leisurely at the university hostels. The Malaysian Entrance Test (MUET) band level was taken as the indicator for learners’ perceived intellect at the point of study. All participants took the required English courses at the time of the study. A questionnaire on motivation and goals was developed to gather views of learners. Previously developed motivation questionnaires of Taguchi et. al (2009), Islam et.al (2013), Dowson & McInerney (2004), Dornyei and et. al (1994), and Lamb (2012) were adapted to design the questionnaire. Firstly, the questionnaire was piloted among the 31 undergraduates in a university in Malaysia. The final version of the questionnaire consisted of 36 five-point Likert scale items and took an average of 10 minutes to complete. The scales are as follows.


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Table 1 Distribution of participants by state in Malaysia State

Percentage (N=76) Sarawak 27 Kelantan 16 Johor 9 Pahang 8 Perak 8 Sabah 6 Selangor 6 Terengganu 6 Kuala Lumpur 4 Melaka 3 Perlis 3 Penang 2 Negeri Sembilan 1 Kedah 1 Total 100 Table 2 Distribution of participants by academic discipline Academic discipline

Percentage (N=76) Applied & creative arts 38 Social sciences 20 Cognitive science & human development 11 Economics and business 17 Computer science & information technology 8 Resource science & technology 4 Engineering 2 Total 100 Table 3 Distribution of mother tongues of participants Mother tongue Percentage (N=76) Malay 68 Chinese 16 Iban 12 Tamil 4 Total 100


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1. Motivated learning: This scale measures extent of motivated learning of learners 2. Ideal L2 self: The items are designed to measure imagined personality of learners they wish to achieve through learning English 3. Ought to L2 self: The obligations and responsibilities they wish to accomplish to avoid negative future outcomes are measured through this scale 4. Social goals: Socially constructed aspirations of the learners included into this scale 5. L2 attitude: Learners’ attitudes towards travel in English speaking countries and meet English speaking people included into this scale Data were first subjected to SPSS 21.0 for the Pearson Correlation test. Then reliability analysis was run to check Cronbach’s Alpha internal consistency reliability coefficients of the items. Correlation analysis used as the basic statistical analysis method to examine correlation between the independent variables and dependent variable.

Results and Discussion The various items were tested for their reliability and the scores are presented in Table 4. The scores were in accordance with the Cronbah’s Alpha requirement which is above 0.7 (Pallant, 2007) and this makes the test items for the various groupings reliable. Table 4 Reliability of the variables Variables No of items Motivated Learning Behavior 10 Ideal L2 self 8 Ought to L2 self 4 Social Goals 8 L2 Attitude 6

Α .890 .935 .816 .901 .873

Correlation between Social Goals and Selves The mean and standard deviation for Ideal L2 self and social goals was established to be at x=31.8421 (SD=5.41369) and x=32.8289 (SD=5.00237) respectively, and the correlation effect was significant as indicated in Table 5. Table 5 Correlation between Ideal L2 Self & Social Goals Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 – Variables Variable Correlation tailed) Social Goals Ideal L2 self .600** .000 ** Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)


N 76

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As Table 5 shows, there is a strong correlation between learner social goals and the Ideal L2 self. The findings of the current study added an additional explanation for Kormos et. al (2011) study, which indicated international posture as a causative factor of Ideal L2 self. Furthermore, the findings of the current study highlight the Asian L2 learners’ strong attachment of ideal L2 self with the society. This result may be due to the Asian students’ dependency on co-participants in the society (parents, friends, siblings, teachers) (Markus et al., 1991). This finding has important implications for developing L2 Motivational Self system of Asian learners. Correlation between Ought to L2 Self and Social Goals The mean value for the Ought to L2 self and social goals was 15.3158 (SD =3.11645) and 32.8289 (SD=5.00237) respectively. Table 6 indicates a significant relationship between the Ought to L2 self and the social goals. Table 6 Correlation between Ought to L2 self & Social Goals Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 –tailed) Variables Variable Correlation Social Goals Ought to L2 self .579** .000 ** Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)

N 76

The strongest correlation between social goals and Ought to L2 self is highlighted in Table 6. Interestingly this correlation is related to the Dornyei's LMSS (2005) who found a strong correlation between instrumentality and milieu. This finding further highlights the learners’ close bond with the society. They expect to focus their goals to satisfy the needs of the society. In that scenario, parental pressures seem to be a pertinent factor of Asian learner motivation. Moreover, this finding further proves the learners’ positive feeling about self, others and sense of wellbeing (Kaplan & Maehr, 2006), because they do have necessary duties to accomplish by learning English. Correlation between Motivated learning and social goals The mean value and standard deviation for the motivated learning and the social goals was found to be at x= 39.6053 (SD=6.13858) and x= 32.8289 (SD=5.00237). respectively Table 7 indicates the significant correlation between motivated learning and social goals. Table 7 Correlation between Motivated Learning & Social Goals Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 Variables Variable Correlation tailed) Social Goals Motivated .623** .000 Learning **Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)

– N 76


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In accordance with Table 7 learners’ social goals have a significant correlation with the motivated learning. This result provides further support for the hypothesis that goals have a dominant role in learner motivation. In this study, social goals have a significantly strong relationship to motivated learning. This finding, while preliminary, suggests the increasing demand for English in the Asian social context due to the spread of globalisation. This also accords with Ushioda (2013), who suggested the expansion of English language identity and the loss of its boundaries of culture, values and standards due to the globalisation. Due to the huge social demand for English in the Asian context, learners are motivated to learn English to achieve their social goals of acquiring social respect, to serve and represent the country. Correlation between Selves and Motivated Learning The mean and standard deviation for motivated learning and ideal L2 self and ought to L2 self were found to be at x= 39.6053 (SD=6.13858); x=31.8421 (SD=5.41369) and x= 15.3158 (SD=3.11645) respectively. Table 12 indicates the correlations of motivated learning, Ideal L2 self and Ought to L2 self. Table 8 Correlation between Selves & Motivated Learning Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 – Variables Variable Correlation tailed) Ideal L2 Self Motivated .713** .000 Learning Ought to L2 Motivated .470** .000 Self Learning **Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)

N 76 76

With reference to the Table 8, Ideal L2 self has the strongest correlation with motivated learning. The reason for this is that university students as adults are highly motivated in terms of learning English because English is the key for many of them to achieve their academic success and future professional success. This finding further confirms earlier findings in motivation studies (Csizer & Kormos, 2009; Islam et. al, 2013; Kormos et. al, 2011). However, this result differs from some published studies (Papi, 2010; Taguchi et. al, 2009), which found the highest correlation of learning experiences and attitudes with the criterion measure. In contrast to earlier findings of Kormos et. al (2011); Papi (2010); Taguchi et. al (2009) and Csizer and Kormos (2009), this study found a strong correlation between ought to L2 self and motivated learning. This result is due to the strength of responsibilities and obligations of Asian learners in the L2 context. Nevertheless, this needs to be interpreted with caution because the findings are based on a specific L2 context where students come from different academic disciplines.


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Correlation between L2 attitudes and social goals The mean and standard deviation for social goals and L2 attitude was found to be at x=32.8289 (SD=5.00237) and x=23.9342 (SD=3.70346) respectively. As indicated in Table 9, it was evident that L2 attitude is a stronger pull factor to social goals. There is clear evidence that the L2 learners’ strong desire to be connected with the L2 community is important to accomplish their social goals. Table 9 Correlation between L2 Attitude and Social Goals Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 – Variables Variable Correlation tailed) L2 Attitude Social Goals .444** .000 **Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)

N 76

The current study is parallel with the findings of Kormos et. al (2011) because they found a significant contribution of parental encouragement to the L2 learning attitude. Moreover, according to the findings, it can be predicted that Malaysian learners L2 attitude is influenced by their social goals. This further denotes the significance of social attachment in English learning context. Correlation between L2 attitudes and motivated learning The mean and standard deviation of L2 attitudes and motivated learning was found to be at x=23.9342(SD=3.70346) and x=39.6053(SD=6.13858) respectively. Table 10 emphasises the correlation between L2 attitudes and motivated learning.

Table 10 Correlation between L2 Attitudes and Motivated Learning Independent Dependent Pearson Sig. (2 – Variables Variable Correlation tailed) L2 Attitude Motivated .686** .000 Learning **Correlation is significant at 0.01 confidence level (2-tailed)

N 76

It can be seen from the Table 10 that L2 attitude and motivated learning are strongly correlated. This signifies the significance of L2 attitudes related to the communication and travel in English speaking countries of learners in motivated learning. Moreover, findings of the current study are consistent with the study of Yashima (2004) because like Japanese Foreign Language Malaysian learners are motivated to learn English for travelling and communication purposes. It can be noted that learners are motivated to learn English due to social requirements and the international purposes especially in Asian countries.


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Conclusion This paper has given an account of goals, selves and English learning motivation of Malaysian students. This investigation was aimed at examining the relationship between social goals and selves, social goals and motivated learning, selves and motivated learning, social goals and L2 attitude, and L2 attitude and motivated learning. The applicability of Ideal L2 self and Ought to L2 self in Asian context is further validated by the findings. It has also shown a strong correlation between Ideal L2 self and motivated learning. The most obvious finding to emerge from this study is the significant correlation of social goals to the learner self and motivated learning. Generally, this study has found that learner social goal as an important indicator of learner self-concept and motivation. Taken together, these results suggest that L2 learners in Asia have a strong link with the society, and their goals, selves, attitudes and motivation are derived from the values and norms of the society. The empirical findings in this study provide new understanding of self and motivation of Asian L2 learners. This research has opened up a number of questions that are in need of further investigation. Additional work needs to be done to establish the social goals in the L2 motivational self -system. Further research might be required to better explore the learner self and goals in different Asian social settings and specific disciplines. More information on social goals would help us to establish a clearer picture of the social goals of L2 learner’s motivational self–system. References Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American Psychologist, 57(10), 774–783. doi:10.1037//0003-066X.57.10.774 Bernardo, A. B. I. (2008). Individual and social dimensions of Filipino students’ achievement goals. International Journal of Psychology: Journal international de psychologie, 43(5), 886–891. doi:10.1080/00207590701837834 Coetzee-van Rooy, S. (2006). Integrativeness: untenable for world Englishes learners? World Englishes, 25(3-4), 437–450. doi:10.1111/j.1467971X.2006.00479.x Csizer, K., & Kormos, J. (2009). Learning experiences , selves and motivated learning behaviour: A comparative analysis of structural models for Hungarian secondary and university learners of English. In Motivation, language identity and the L2 Self (pp. 98–119). Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(1), 19-36. Dornyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Dornyei, Z. (2009). The L2 motivational self-system. In Z. Dornyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 9-42). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.


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Dornyei, Z. (2010). Researching motivation: From integrativeness to the ideal L2 self. In S. Hunston & D. Oakey (Eds.) Introducing applied linguistics: Concepts and skills (pp. 74-83). London: Routledge. Dornyei, Z., & Csizer, K. (2005). The internal structure of language learning motivation and its relationship with language choice and learning effort. The Modern Language Journal, 89(i), 19–36. Dowson, M., & McInerney, D. M. (2004). The development and validation of the goal orientation and Learning Strategies Survey (Goals-S). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64(2), 290–310. doi:10.1177/0013164403251335 Gardner, R. C. (2001). Language learning motivation: The student, the teacher, and the researcher. Texas Papers in Foreign Language Education, 6(1), 1–18. doi:10.1177/0261927X99018004004 Islam, M., Lamb, M., & Chambers, G. (2013). The L2 Motivational Self System and national interest: A Pakistani perspective. System, 41(2), 231–244. doi:10.1016/j.system.2013.01.025 Kaplan, A., & Maehr, M. L. (2006). The contributions and prospects of Goal Orientation Theory. Educational Psychology Review, 19(2), 141–184. doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9012-5 King, R. B., & Watkins, D. a. (2011). “Socializing” Achievement Goal Theory: The need for social goals. Psychological Studies, 57(1), 112–116. doi:10.1007/s12646011-0140-8 Kormos, J., Kiddle, T., & Csizér, K. (2011). Goals, attitudes and self-related beliefs in second language learning motivation: An interactive model of language learning motivation Judit Kormos, Thom Kiddle and Kata Csizér. Applied Linguistics, 32(5), 495–516. Lamb, M. (2004). Integrative motivation in a globalizing world. System, 32(1), 3–19. doi:10.1016/j.system.2003.04.002 Lamb, M. (2012). A self system perspective on young adolescents’ motivation to Learn English in urban and rural settings. Language Learning, 62(4), 997–1023. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00719.x Lin, X., Siegler, R. S., & Sullivan, F. R. (2010). Students’ goals influence their learning. In D. D. Preiss & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Innovations in educational psychology Perspectives on learning teaching and human development (pp. 79–105). Springer. Markus, H. R., Cross, S., Fiske, A., Gilligan, C., Givon, T., Kanagawa, C., … Miller, J. (1991). Culture and the self : Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation, 98(2), 224–253. Mercer, S., Ryan, S., & Williams, M. (2012). Self-concept: Situating the Self. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for Language Learning (pp. 10–26). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1057/9781137032829 Midgley, C., Kaplan, A., & Middleton, M. (2001). Performance-approach goals: Good for what, for whom, under what circumstances, and at what cost? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 77–86. doi:10.1037//0022-0663.93.1.77 Papi, M. (2010). The L2 motivational self system, L2 anxiety, and motivated behavior: A structural equation modeling approach. System, 38(3), 467–479. doi:10.1016/j.system.2010.06.011


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Taguchi, T., Magid, M., & Papi, M. (2009). The L2 motivational self system among Japanese , Chinese and Iranian Learners of English: A comparative study, 66– 97. Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation and ELT: Global Issues and local concerns. In E. Ushioda (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and professional challenges (pp. 1-17). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Wentzel, K. (2000). What is it that I’m trying to achieve? Classroom goals from a content perspective. Contemporary educational psychology, 25(1), 105–115. doi:10.1006/ceps.1999.1021


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KEMAHIRAN MENULIS DALAM BAHASA ARAB MENERUSI AKTIVITI ‘JAWLAH LUGHAWIYYAH’ Mohd Firdaus Yahaya1 Mohd Shahrizal Nasir2 Wan Abdul Hayyi Wan Omar3 Zulazhan Ab. Halim4 Essmat Nasr Sweedan5 Fakulti Bahasa Dan Komunikasi, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstrak Kemahiran menulis merupakan salah satu daripada empat kemahiran berbahasa yang perlu dikuasai dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Selain aktiviti P&P di dalam kelas, aktiviti bahasa di luar kelas yang dijalankan secara berstruktur mampu memberi motivasi kepada pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Pembentukan suasana belajar yang melibatkan penggunaan panca indera insan dalam situasi tertentu di luar ruang kelas memberi banyak manfaat kepada pelajar terutama dalam proses pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata. Dengan perbendaharaan kata yang mencukupi, ia dapat membantu pelajar dalam meningkatkan tahap penguasaan kemahiran berbahasa terutama kemahiran menulis. Artikel ini bertujuan memperkenalkan satu medium alternatif yang melibatkan aktiviti pembelajaran di luar kelas yang diberi nama “Jawlah Lughawiyyah”. Bagi mengenal pasti tahap kemahiran menulis pelajar melalui aktiviti ini, satu kajian telah dijalankan melibatkan 15 pelajar tingkatan empat di Sekolah Menengah Agama Khairiah, Kuala Terengganu. Proses pengumpulan data melalui ujian pra dan ujian pasca telah dijalankan terhadap sampel yang terlibat. Dapatan kajian menunjukkan terdapat peningkatan pada tahap penguasaan pelajar terhadap kemahiran menulis. Justeru, kajian ini mencadangkan agar aktiviti Jawlah Lughawiyyah dipraktikkan dalam proses P&P bahasa Arab khususnya melibatkan pelajar daripada kalangan bukan penutur jati. Kata Kunci: Jawlah Lughawiyyah, kemahiran menulis, pendidikan bahasa Arab, pengajaran bahasa asing, aktiviti bahasa

Kemahiran menulis dalam bahasa arab menerusi aktiviti ‘Jawlah Lughawiyyah’

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ARABIC WRITING SKILLS THROUGH “JAWLAH LUGHAWIYYAH” ACTIVITY Abstract Writing is one of four major skills in language acquisition, which is acquired when learning a language. Besides teaching and learning in the classroom, well-organised language activities outside the classroom will motivate the learner in the process of language learning. Establishing a learning atmosphere which involves the senses in certain situations outside the classroom will benefit the language learner, especially in acquiring language vocabulary. Sufficient vocabulary will then help the language learner to develop competency in language, primarily in their writing skills. The main purpose of this article is to introduce an outside classroom activity named as “Jawlah Lughawiyyah”. A study has been carried out to investigate the writing skill competency of language learners through this activity. The samples were among 15 secondary school students in Form Four at Khairiah Religious Secondary School, Kuala Terengganu. The collection of data was made at the pre-test and post-test level. The results showed that the learners in this study had improved their writing skills. Therefore, this article suggests that Jawlah Lughawiyyah should be implemented in teaching and learning the Arabic language, specifically to non-native speakers. Keywords: Jawlah Lughawiyyah, writing skill, Arabic language, foreign language teaching, language activity

Pendahuluan Kepelbagaian bahasa di dunia yang digunakan oleh manusia untuk berkomunikasi merupakan antara bukti kebesaran Allah SWT. Firman Allah SWT di dalam al-Quran yang bermaksud, “Dan di antara tanda-tanda yang membuktikan kekuasaan-Nya dan kebijaksanaan-Nya ialah kejadian langit dan bumi, dan perbezaan bahasa kamu dan warna kulit kamu. Sesungguhnya yang demikian itu mengandungi keteranganketerangan bagi orang-orang yang berpengetahuan” (Surah al-Rum, 30, m.s. 22). Penguasaan seseorang individu terhadap bahasa asing memberi nilai tambah dalam dirinya. Justeru, pelbagai pihak berusaha menawarkan pembelajaran bahasa asing sama ada di peringkat sekolah, institusi pengajian tinggi mahupun pertubuhan atau persatuan yang mempunyai kaitan dengan bidang bahasa. Sebagai contoh, pengenalan program j-QAF (Jawi, Quran, Bahasa Arab dan Fardu Ain) kepada para pelajar sekolah rendah di Malaysia merupakan antara contoh usaha memberi nilai tambah kepada pelajar melibatkan penguasaan bahasa Arab. Menurut Jasmi Amin (2002), bahasa Arab sebagai salah satu model program j-QAF merupakan bahasa asing di Malaysia. Justeru, pelaksanaan pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab di sekolah rendah merupakan salah satu usaha besar bagi meningkatkan mutu pendidikan negara dan melahirkan insan yang memiliki nilai tambah dalam diri melibatkan penguasaan bahasa asing selain daripada penguasaan terhadap bahasa ibunda.


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Tanpa melihat tahap pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab iaitu sama ada pada peringkat rendah mahupun peringkat tinggi, proses pembelajaran bahasa Arab oleh pelajar daripada kalangan bukan penutur jati seperti pelajar Melayu di Malaysia yang melibatkan aktiviti di luar bilik darjah mampu memberi kesan positif dalam peningkatan pemerolehan bahasa. Aktiviti bahasa di luar bilik darjah yang dijalankan secara berstruktur dengan mementingkan aspek pemerolehan kemahiran berbahasa mampu memberi motivasi kepada pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Pembentukan suasana belajar yang melibatkan penggunaan panca indera insan dalam situasi tertentu di luar ruang bilik darjah memberi banyak manfaat kepada pelajar terutama dalam proses pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata. Dengan perbendaharaan kata yang mencukupi, ia dapat membantu pelajar dalam meningkatkan tahap penguasaan kemahiran berbahasa terutama kemahiran menulis. Oleh itu, satu medium alternatif yang melibatkan aktiviti pembelajaran di luar bilik darjah perlu diketengahkan dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. “Jawlah Lughawiyyah” merupakan salah satu medium alternatif yang boleh dilaksanakan kepada para pelajar sebagai salah satu aktiviti cadangan bagi pembelajaran di luar bilik darjah. Aktiviti ini lebih memberi fokus kepada para pelajar yang terdiri daripada kalangan bukan penutur jati bahasa Arab. Kertas kerja ini dihasilkan melibatkan penyelidikan berkenaan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Kajian ini dijalankan dengan objektif sepertimana berikut: 1) Memperkenalkan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah kepada para pelajar yang mempelajari bahasa Arab pada peringkat menengah. 2) Mengenal pasti tahap kemahiran menulis para pelajar yang mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Sorotan Literatur Kemahiran berbahasa secara umumnya terbahagi kepada empat bahagian iaitu; kemahiran mendengar, kemahiran bertutur, kemahiran membaca dan kemahiran menulis. Kemahiran-kemahiran ini dipelajari secara beransur-ansur dari yang paling asas dan mudah kepada yang kemahiran yang kompleks. Kemahiran mendengar adalah merupakan kemahiran asas pertama yang dipelajari oleh kanak-kanak pada peringkat awal (Ali Al-Madkur, 1991), malah ia menjadi kemahiran yang utama sebelum menguasai kemahiran-kemahiran yang lain (Hyslop & Tone, 1988). Namun begitu, kemahiran lain seperti kemahiran menulis juga merupakan antara kemahiran yang perlu diberi penekanan yang serius dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Malah, salah satu cara komunikasi adalah melalui penulisan. Seseorang individu mampu mengungkap dan menzahirkan buah fikirannya, menceritakan peristiwa serta meluahkan perasaan melalui penulisan. Menulis merupakan proses penghasilan simbol-simbol grafik yang disusun berdasarkan pertuturan yang membentuk perkataan-perkataan dan seterusnya menjadi ayat (Ismail Muhamad, Wan Maizatul Akmar Wan Ahmad & Azman Che Mat, 2013). Ayat-ayat yang disusun itu adakalanya panjang dan adakalanya pendek berdasarkan beberapa urutan yang bermakna yang membentuk teks, nota, draf dan


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bahan-bahan bercetak (Kamarudin Hj. Husin & Siti Hajar Hj. Abdul Aziz, 1997). Hal ini bermakna proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran kemahiran menulis amat mencabar kerana ia melibatkan beberapa kemahiran lain seperti kemahiran membaca. Pemerolehan kosa kata yang mencukupi turut mempengaruhi proses penguasaan kemahiran menulis. Selain itu, pengajaran melibatkan kemahiran menulis juga hendaklah melibatkan kemampuan mengungkap iaitu memilih perkataan yang betul dan menyusun mengikut susunan yang betul bagi menggambarkan makna yang diungkapkan (Hassan Shahatah, 1993). Oleh itu, Yah Awang Nik, Badariah Sani, Muhamad Noor Wan Chik, Kamaruzaman Jusoff dan Hasif Rafidee Hasbollah (2010) dalam kajian mereka mendapati bahawa pendedahan yang mencukupi amat membantu bagi meningkatkan kemahiran menulis pelajar kepada tahap yang memuaskan. Pendedahan yang berterusan perlu diberikan kepada pelajar kerana kemahiran menulis merupakan satu proses yang kompleks dan ia perlu dilaksanakan dengan menjalani proses dan tahap secara sistematik (Roselan Baki, 2003). Dalam usaha meningkatkan tahap kemahiran berbahasa dalam kalangan pelajar bukan penutur jati, beberapa langkah penambahbaikan perlu diperkenalkan dalam sistem pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa. Lebih-lebih lagi dalam konteks penguasaan kemahiran menulis yang seperti sedia dimaklumi bahawa ia merupakan satu proses yang kompleks. Tambahan pula, sikap pelajar selalunya terbentuk daripada persepsi mereka terhadap sesuatu perkara. Menurut Ghazali Yusri, Nik Mohd Rahimi dan Parilah M. Shah (2010), terhadap bahasa merujuk kepada sikap satu kelompok masyarakat atau sesuatu komuniti terhadap sesuatu bahasa seperti menarik, sedap didengar, mudah dipelajari dan sebagainya. Sebenarnya terdapat banyak faktor yang boleh dijadikan rujukan tentang sikap seseorang terhadap pembelajaran bahasa antaranya seperti minat, kesungguhan, pencapaian dan dorongan (Ismail Muhamad, Wan Maizatul Akmar Wan Ahmad, & Azman Che Mat, 2013). Kajian Hisham Khuddaj (2007) menyatakan bahawa pembelajaran yang melibatkan aktiviti di luar bilik darjah mampu memberi kesan positif dalam peningkatan pemerolehan bahasa. Aktiviti bahasa di luar bilik darjah yang dijalankan secara santai, namun mementingkan aspek pemerolehan kemahiran berbahasa mampu memberi motivasi kepada pelajar dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa. Hasil kajian membuktikan bahawa aktiviti bahasa yang dijalankan di luar ruang bilik darjah memberi banyak manfaat kepada pelajar terutama dalam pemerolehan kemahiran menulis. Hal ini kerana pelajar dikehendaki untuk membuat laporan pada akhir sesi pembelajaran sebagai hasil daripada aktiviti luar bilik darjah yang telah dijalankan. Kajian ini menjadi asas kepada pengaplikasian program Jawlah Lughawiyyah terhadap peningkatan tahap kemahiran bahasa Arab bagi para pelajar bukan penutur jati. Elemen yang dimanfaatkan dalam program ini telah menjadi kajian beberapa pihak dalam usaha meningkatkan tahap penguasaan bahasa Arab di Malaysia. Menurut Ashinida Aladdin (2012), situasi pembelajaran bahasa Arab di Malaysia hanya tertumpu kepada aktiviti di dalam bilik darjah, dan amat jarang sekali aktiviti luar bilik darjah dijalankan kepada para pelajar. Keadaan ini membuatkan para pelajar tidak dapat mempraktikkan apa yang telah mereka


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pelajari di dalam kelas dalam aktiviti harian mereka di luar kelas selepas sesi pembelajaran. Kajian yang dilakukan oleh Azani Ismail @ Yaakub, Azman Che Mat dan Mat Taib Pa (2012) yang menyatakan bahawa aktiviti pembelajaran yang berpusatkan pelajar memberi ruang yang luas kepada mereka untuk meneroka kemahiran bahasa. Mohd Feham Ghalib dan Mohd Firdaus Yahaya (2011) mencadangkan supaya cara pengajaran tradisional yang berpusatkan guru semata-mata perlu diberi nafas baru. Pendekatan yang dicadangkan dan perlu diterapkan pada masa kini adalah pendekatan yang lebih memfokuskan kepada pelajar. Peranan pelajar perlu diubah daripada hanya menjadi penerima maklumat kepada menjadi peneroka dalam pelbagai bidang maklumat. Dalam masa yang sama, para guru berperanan sebagai pemudah cara atau fasilitator dalam pengendalian sesi pengajaran dan pembelajaran seperti yang diterangkan dalam rajah 1. Perkara ini turut disokong oleh Esah Sulaiman (2003) dalam Che Zanariah Che Hassan dan Fadzillah Abd. Rahman (2011) yang mencadangkan pendekatan pengajaran yang sama. Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat

Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat Maklumat

Guru/Fasilitator

Guru Berubah kepada

Pelajar

Pelajar Rajah 1. Perubahan peranan guru

Selain itu, penggabungan beberapa teknik dan strategi dilihat turut membawa impak positif dalam proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran. Hal ini dapat membina kefahaman pelajar terhadap pelajaran serta dapat memastikan aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran berjalan lancar, sistematik, menarik dan menyeronokkan pelajar, seterusnya memudahkan pelajar memahami kandungan pelajaran. Perkara ini dijelaskan dalam kajian Zawawi Ismail, Ab Halim Tamuri, Nik Mohd Rahimi Nik Yusoff dan Mohd Ala-Uddin Othman (2011) yang menyatakan bahawa penggabungan beberapa teknik dalam pengajaran dapat memberi kesan positif dalam pengajaran bahasa Arab. Berdasarkan sorotan beberapa kajian lepas berkenaan kemahiran menulis dan aktiviti luar kelas yang berpusatkan pelajar, dapat dirumuskan bahawa pemanfaatan program pembelajaran yang berasaskan penggabungan beberapa kaedah dan teknik pembelajaran perlu dilaksanakan bagi meningkatkan tahap kemahiran bahasa Arab sebagai bahasa asing terutamanya kemahiran menulis. Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah yang menerapkan gabungan beberapa teknik


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pembelajaran bahasa perlu diuji bagi menentukan keberkesanannya dalam meningkatkan tahap penguasaan bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar khususnya melibatkan kemahiran menulis. Metodologi Kajian Kajian yang dilaksanakan berbentuk kajian lapangan dengan menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif. Kajian ini telah dijalankan di Sekolah Menengah Agama Khairiah, Kuala Terengganu melibatkan seramai 15 orang pelajar daripada tingkatan empat. Kesemua sampel merupakan pelajar perempuan kerana sekolah tersebut merupakan sekolah beraliran agama khusus untuk gender perempuan. Pelajar dipilih secara rawak melibatkan dua aliran iaitu sains dan sastera ikhtisas. Bagi mendapatkan data, kajian ini menggunakan ujian pra dan ujian pasca program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Rajah 2 berikut menjelaskan kerangka prosedur kajian. PEMILIHAN PELAJAR

UJIAN PRA

PROGRAM “JAWLAH LUGHAWIYYAH”

UJIAN PASCA

ANALISIS DATA Rajah 2. Kerangka prosedur kajian Selepas melakukan pemilihan sampel secara rawak, kesemua sampel akan menduduki pra ujian iaitu selama satu jam untuk menilai tahap pencapaian awal penulisan karangan mereka. Tajuk karangan adalah berkenaan dengan lawatan sambil belajar atau rihlah ilmiyyah. Selepas melaksanakan ujian pra, sampel akan mengikuti lawatan sambil belajar ke Muzium Negeri Terengganu. Tempoh masa antara ujian pra dan lawatan sambil belajar adalah selama seminggu. Semua langkah yang bermula selepas pemilihan pelajar sehingga sebelum pelaksanaan ujian pasca termasuk dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah mengandungi tujuh langkah berstruktur dan ia perlu dilalui oleh semua sampel yang terlibat dengan kajian ini. Penjelasan secara terperinci mengenai program Jawlah Lughawiyyah akan dijelaskan pada bahagian seterusnya dalam kertas kerja ini.


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Setelah melalui semua langkah dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah, sampel kajian akan menjalani ujian pasca selama satu jam. Soalan ujian pasca menghendaki sampel untuk menulis karangan sepertimana yang telah dilakukan semasa ujian pra. Ujian-ujian disemak dan diteliti berdasarkan markah yang dicapai oleh setiap sampel kajian bagi mengenal pasti tahap kemahiran menulis para sampel kajian yang mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Rubrik pemarkahan bagi ujian ini diadaptasi daripada rubrik pemarkahan Wikispaces (Social Writing for Education). Jadual 1 berikut menyatakan rubrik pemarkahan untuk ujian pra dan ujian pasca. Jadual 1 Rubrik pemarkahan ujian pra dan ujian pasca Tahap 5 Cemerlang

4 Sangat Baik

3 Baik

2 Sederhana

1 Lemah

Penerangan Menyelesaikan tugasan dengan sempurna, dengan kesemua isi disertakan. Susunan idea sangat baik dan teratur. Penggunaan kata hubung yang sangat baik. Kaya dengan penggunaan kosa kata. Penggunaan bahasa yang sangat baik. Kesalahan adalah sangat minimum. Mengikut format penulisan. Semua isi diutarakan dalam perenggan. Susunan idea baik dan teratur. Penggunaan kata hubung yang sesuai. Penggunaan kosa kata yang baik. Penggunaan bahasa yang baik. Mempunyai kesalahan ayat yang sedikit. Mengikut format penulisan yang sesuai. Semua isi diutarakan dalam perenggan. Kesemua idea disusun dengan baik. Penggunaan kata hubung yang mudah. Penggunaan kosa kata yang memuaskan. Penggunaan bahasa yang baik. Terdapat sedikit kesalahan pada ayat. Mengikut format penulisan yang boleh diterima. Isi dan mesej tidak begitu jelas. Memberi kesan yang negatif kepada pembaca. Tidak sertakan beberapa isi yang diperlukan. Terdapat perkara yang kurang sesuai. Penggunaan kosa kata yang terbatas. Terdapat kesalahan dalam ayat yang mengganggu pembaca. Format penulisan yang tidak konsisten. Isi dan mesej tidak jelas. Memberi kesan yang sangat negatif kepada pembaca. Penggunaan kata penghubung yang sangat lemah. Penggunaan kosa kata yang sangat terbatas. Terdapat kesalahan yang berulang dan sukar difahami. Tidak mempunyai format penulisan.


Markah (%)

81-100

61-80

41-60

21-40

0-20

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Pengenalan Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah merupakan satu program yang menggabungkan beberapa kaedah pembelajaran bahasa Arab bagi bukan penutur jati dalam usaha meningkatkan tahap kemahiran bahasa Arab. Kaedah seperti perbincangan dalam kumpulan, aktiviti luar bilik darjah, latih tubi secara konsisten, dan pembentangan hasil kerja merupakan antara kaedah pembelajaran yang ditekankan dalam program ini. Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah bagi tujuan meningkatkan tahap kemahiran bahasa Arab ini memberi fokus kepada proses peningkatan penguasaan kemahiran berbahasa, khususnya yang melibatkan kemahiran bertutur dan menulis. Jawlah Lughawiyyah merupakan salah satu aktiviti luar bilik darjah berstruktur. Program ini diatur mengikut kepentingan dan keperluan pengajaran dengan mempraktikkan pembelajaran berterusan dalam pemerolehan kemahiran berbahasa dan perbendaharaan kata. Ini bermaksud sistem pembelajaran masa kini tidak hanya tertumpu kepada bentuk pembelajaran secara bersemuka di dalam kelas. Sebaliknya pelbagai alternatif baru boleh dimanfaatkan dalam usaha memperbaiki proses pengajaran dan pembelajaran selari dengan peredaran zaman. Penyusunan program dibuat dengan mengambil kira pandangan dan pendekatan yang diketengahkan oleh Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, dan Krathwohl (1956) pada tahun 1956. Menerusi Taksonomi Bloom dalam mencapai tahap kemahiran dan outcome yang selari dengan objektif. Taksonomi bloom merangkumi tiga domain iaitu kognitif, afektif dan motor-psiko. Domain kognitif digunakan untuk menilai kemahiran intelektual menerusi dapatan maklumat, analisis dan menilai maklumat. Manakala domain afektif digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran generik, penghayatan dan penggunaan panca indera yang diterapkan melalui penglibatan pelajar dalam aktiviti dan perbincangan secara berkumpulan seperti pengalaman lawatan, perasaan ketika menyentuh, melihat artifak sejarah dan sebagainya. Seterusnya domain motor-psiko pula bertujuan untuk mengukuhkan kemahiran praktikal dan teknikal dalam penerapan dapatan ilmu menerusi proses latihan komunikasi, pembentangan, pembinaan kertas kerja, pengajaran dan perkongsian dapatan secara audio dan visual (Aqilah B. Huddin, W. M. Diyana W. Zaki, Aini Hussain Hafizah Husain & Nor Fadzilah Abdullah, 2005). Program ini juga menggabungkan pendekatan Pembelajaran Kendiri (Student Centred Learning), Pembelajaran Aktif (Active Learning) dan Pembelajaran Berkumpulan (Study Group) yang digerakkan secara bersama dalam menjalankan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Rajah 3 berikut menunjukkan cadangan tujuh langkah bagaimana untuk melaksanakan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah dalam aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran bahasa Arab dengan fokus diberikan untuk meningkatkan dua kemahiran berbahasa para pelajar iaitu kemahiran bertutur (maharat al-kalam) dan kemahiran menulis (maharat al-kitabah).


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LANGKAH 1 Penetapan tahap penguasaan bahasa para pelajar

LANGKAH 2 Sesi ta’aruf dan penerangan mengenai tugasan dalam Jawlah Lughawiyyah

LANGKAH 3 Pengumpulan maklumat berkaitan tugasan dalam Jawlah Lughawiyyah (secara berkumpulan)

LANGKAH 4 Perkongsian maklumat yang diperoleh daripada tugasan (secara berkumpulan)

LANGKAH 5 Bengkel diskusi maklumat yang terkumpul daripada tugasan (secara individu)

LANGKAH 6 Penulisan karangan berkaitan maklumat yang terkumpul (secara berkumpulan)

LANGKAH 7 Seminar Bahasa yang melibatkan pembentangan keseluruhan aktiviti Jawlah Lughawiyyah Rajah 3. Tujuh langkah dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah Langkah 1: Penetapan tahap penguasaan bahasa Pada peringkat awal, pengajar dicadangkan untuk mengadakan satu penilaian awal (ujian pra) sebelum melaksanakan program ini bagi mengukur tahap penguasaan bahasa dalam kalangan pelajar. Tujuan penilaian awal ini dijalankan adalah bagi membantu para pengajar dalam proses pembahagian kumpulan. Pembahagian kumpulan hendaklah seimbang antara pelajar yang pencapaiannya berada pada


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tahap tinggi, sederhana dan rendah. Seterusnya penilaian awal juga boleh digunakan untuk melihat peningkatan tahap penguasaan bahasa sebelum dan selepas menyertai program ini. Kemahiran yang diuji dalam program ini adalah kemahiran bertutur dan menulis sahaja. Sebenarnya, Langkah 1 ini turut memberi ruang kepada pengajar untuk mengenali tahap penguasaan setiap pelajar. Pengetahuan sedia ada berkenaan bahasa Arab yang dimiliki oleh para pelajar tidak boleh diabaikan, sebaliknya ia perlu dimanfaatkan agar proses pembelajaran dalam diri setiap pelajar mengalami peningkatan dari semasa ke semasa. Set soalan bagi pra ujian ini perlu memasukkan komponen kandungan pelajaran yang telah dipelajari oleh pelajar sebelum mengikuti kelas semasa. Bagi kumpulan pelajar yang baru pertama kali mengikuti pembelajaran bahasa Arab, soalan berkaitan bacaan al-Quran dan tulisan menggunakan huruf hija’iyyah atau jawi adalah relevan untuk dimasukkan dalam set soalan ujian pra. Langkah 2: Ta’aruf dan penerangan mengenai tugasan Pada langkah ini, pengajar dicadangkan untuk mengadakan sesi ta’aruf (suai kenal) antara ahli kumpulan serta penerangan mengenai tugasan yang akan mereka jalankan. Hal ini bagi membantu pelajar untuk membiasakan diri bersama para ahli kumpulan mereka yang lain. Sesi ta’aruf akan dijalankan dengan menggunakan bahasa Arab. Hal ini dapat mengelakkan para pelajar daripada masalah-masalah yang kerap berlaku dalam komunikasi seperti gementar, tiada semangat untuk mencuba, tiada persediaan yang mencukupi, tidak yakin pada diri sendiri, khuatir diketawakan oleh rakan sendiri serta takut untuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab. Dengan cara ini, ia memberi ruang yang selesa serta motivasi kepada para pelajar agar menggunakan bahasa Arab sebagai medium untuk berkomunikasi sesama rakan mereka. Disebabkan langkah ini merupakan antara langkah permulaan dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah, pengajar boleh memberi sedikit kelonggaran kepada pelajar yang lemah untuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab dan bahasa Melayu. Apa yang lebih penting, setiap pelajar berusaha pada tahap yang maksimum untuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab. Mereka tidak berasa rendah diri ketika berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Arab, malah lebih bersemangat untuk bercakap dalam bahasa Arab dengan perbendaharaan kata yang telah sediakala dimiliki. Selain itu, pengajar boleh menyampaikan maklumat-maklumat tambahan yang berkaitan dengan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah kepada para pelajar. Sebagai contoh, galakan membawa kamus sepanjang program ini dijalankan perlu diberikan kepada para pelajar. Kamus yang boleh digunakan meliputi kamus bahasa Arab penuh atau dalam bentuk dwi bahasa iaitu bahasa Arab dan bahasa Melayu. Langkah 3: Pengumpulan maklumat berkaitan tugasan (aktiviti berkumpulan) Pada langkah ini, pelajar akan menjalankan aktiviti luar bilik darjah. Contoh aktiviti yang dijalankan adalah seperti aktiviti lawatan ke muzium, tempat bersejarah, perpustakaan, pusat sains, taman haiwan dan seumpamanya. Pemilihan tempat perlu bersesuaian dengan kandungan sukatan bagi mata pelajaran bahasa Arab. Pemilihan tempat yang tepat akan mendorong para pelajar untuk lebih memahami


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seterusnya menghayati perkataan-perkataan yang mereka peroleh dalam situasi sebenar. Tempat-tempat seperti ini menjadi pilihan untuk program Jawlah Lughawiyyah kerana terdapat banyak perbendaharaan kata yang boleh diperoleh oleh pelajar sama ada dalam bentuk kata nama (ism) atau kata kerja (fi’l). Sepertimana yang telah dijelaskan sebelum ini, pembentukan suasana belajar yang melibatkan penggunaan panca indera dalam situasi tertentu di luar ruang bilik darjah memberi banyak manfaat kepada pelajar terutama dalam proses pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata. Dengan perbendaharaan kata yang mencukupi, ia akan dapat membantu pelajar dalam meningkatkan tahap penguasaan kemahiran berbahasa terutama kemahiran bertutur dan menulis. Perbendaharaan kata yang diperoleh oleh pelajar terbahagi kepada dua kategori: 1) perbendaharaan kata umum, 2) perbendaharaan kata khusus. Perbendaharaan kata umum merujuk kepada perkataan-perkataan yang boleh digunakan pada pelbagai tempat dan situasi. Contohnya perkataan (dzahaba) yang membawa maksud “telah pergi”. Perkataan ini boleh diperoleh dan digunakan tanpa batasan tempat tertentu. Manakala perbendaharaan kata khusus pula merujuk kepada perkataan yang biasanya terdapat pada tempat tertentu sahaja. Contohnya perkataan (athar tarikhiyyah) yang membawa maksud “kesan-kesan sejarah”. Perkataan ini hanya boleh diperoleh dan digunakan pada tempat-tempat tertentu sahaja seperti muzium. Bagi memperoleh perbendaharaan kata khusus inilah, peranan guru amat penting dalam memilih tempat yang menepati kandungan sukatan mata pelajaran. Pengajar dicadangkan membahagikan tugasan dalam bentuk kumpulan dengan tidak meletakkan pelajar dari tahap yang sama. Aktiviti seperti ini dicadangkan agar pelajar lemah boleh belajar daripada pelajar yang cemerlang di samping memperkukuhkan kemahiran pelajar cemerlang melalui perkongsian ilmu sesama rakan. Pelajar dikehendaki mengumpul maklumat yang boleh didapati daripada pemerhatian, pembacaan, penghayatan, sentuhan, pendengaran dan lain-lain ketika aktiviti ini dijalankan di tempat-tempat yang telah ditetapkan. Setiap kumpulan akan ditempatkan di bahagian-bahagian tertentu dalam tempat yang dipilih bagi menjalankan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Setiap dapatan yang dikumpulkan perlu dicatatkan dalam bahasa Arab. Pada ketika ini penggunaan kamus sangat membantu para pelajar. Seterusnya, semua perkataan yang diperoleh akan dikongsikan dalam kumpulan masing-masing. Dalam aktiviti ini, pelajar disarankan untuk membawa bersama mereka kamus dan buku catatan bagi melancarkan perjalanan program pada langkah ini. Langkah 4: Perkongsian maklumat yang diperoleh daripada tugasan (aktiviti kumpulan) Proses yang dicadangkan pada langkah ini berfokus kepada perkongsian maklumat yang diperoleh melalui Langkah 3 dengan rakan-rakan daripada kumpulan lain yang dibentuk dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Dengan kata lain, pada langkah ini, aktiviti yang dijalankan bermula dengan penggabungan ahli setiap kumpulan dalam kumpulan baru. Ini bermakna setiap kumpulan baru yang dibentuk mempunyai wakil daripada setiap kumpulan asal iaitu kumpulan semasa melakukan Langkah 3 sebelum ini. Selanjutnya, setiap wakil dalam kumpulan baru tersebut dikehendaki


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berkongsi maklumat terkumpul daripada kumpulan masing-masing. Perkongsian maklumat ini dijalankan dengan menggunakan bahasa Arab. Sepertimana yang sedia dimaklumi, maklumat yang dimaksudkan adalah merujuk kepada perbendaharaan kata atau mufradat yang diperoleh semasa melakukan Langkah 3. Rajah 4 menunjukkan proses pembentukan kumpulan baru yang terdiri daripada wakil setiap kumpulan asal.

Rajah 4. Pembahagian kumpulan baru Langkah 5: Bengkel / diskusi maklumat dikumpul (aktiviti individu) Selepas menjalani Langkah 4, semua pelajar dikehendaki kembali kepada kumpulan asal masing-masing. Mereka kemudiannya dikehendaki untuk berkongsi maklumat yang diperoleh semasa perkongsian dalam kumpulan baru. Ini bermakna setiap pelajar akan memperoleh maklumat yang sama. Namun, pada tahap ini persamaan dan perbezaan maklumat mungkin akan berlaku kerana masing-masing memperoleh maklumat daripada sumber yang berbeza. Menjadi tugas para pengajar untuk menjadi moderator dalam proses penyelarasan maklumat bagi setiap kumpulan. Di sinilah letaknya peranan pengajar yang akan menjadi orang tengah dalam sebarang percanggahan maklumat dalam kalangan pelajar dalam kumpulan masing-masing. Pada Langkah 5 ini, dijangkakan proses perbincangan atau diskusi dalam kalangan ahli kumpulan akan menjadi lebih aktif. Setiap pelajar akan mempersembahkan input yang diperoleh semasa berada dalam kumpulan baru pada Langkah 4. Sepanjang Langkah 5 ini berlangsung, pendapat dan perkongsian perlu dicatat oleh setiap ahli dan dianalisis untuk memperoleh maklumat yang paling tepat dan juga untuk tujuan penyelarasan maklumat. Rajah 5 menunjukkan proses penyatuan semula para pelajar dalam kumpulan asal masing-masing.

Rajah 5. Penyatuan kumpulan asal


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Langkah 6: Penulisan karangan berkaitan maklumat terkumpul (aktiviti individu) Pada langkah ini, pengajar dikehendaki untuk memastikan setiap pelajar menulis maklumat yang terkumpul sepanjang program Jawlah Lughawiyyah iaitu melibatkan langkah-langkah sebelum ini. Pengumpulan maklumat ini dibuat dalam bentuk karangan atau kertas kerja. Aktiviti ini dilaksanakan secara individu bagi membolehkan pengukuran tahap peningkatan kemahiran pelajar secara individu. Penulisan ini bertujuan untuk mengukur kefahaman pelajar terhadap dapatan pemerhatian dan dianalisis secara kendiri (ujian pasca-menulis). Sebenarnya, Langkah 6 memberi fokus kepada proses peningkatan kemahiran menulis. Setiap pelajar dikehendaki menulis karangan atau kertas kerja dengan memanfaatkan perbendaharaan kata yang diperoleh sepanjang program Jawlah Lughawiyyah ini dijalankan. Para pelajar masih boleh menggunakan bantuan kamus semasa menyelesaikan tugasan pada langkah ini. Dicadangkan kepada pengajar agar tidak mengehadkan jumlah perkataan yang boleh digunakan oleh para pelajar dalam menyelesaikan tugasan mereka pada langkah ini. Para pelajar bebas memanfaatkan seberapa banyak perbendaharaan kata yang mereka telah peroleh sepanjang program Jawlah Lughawiyyah ini. Langkah 7: Seminar Bahasa yang melibatkan pembentangan keseluruhan aktiviti Jawlah Lughawiyyah Pada langkah akhir ini, akan diadakan seminar bahasa yang melibatkan pembentangan hasil dapatan para pelajar sepanjang enam langkah yang mereka ikuti sebelum ini. Sesi pembentangan dijalankan secara berkumpulan. Pelajar diminta membentangkan hasil dapatan aktiviti mereka secara lisan dengan menggunakan perbendaharaan kata yang diperoleh sepanjang program Jawlah Lughawiyyah ini berlangsung. Para pelajar juga dikehendaki untuk menyediakan bahan pembentangan yang mengandungi ayat atau karangan berkaitan topik pembentangan. Dari sini, dua kemahiran berbahasa Arab iaitu kemahiran bertutur dan menulis dapat dinilai bagi mengetahui tahap peningkatan dua kemahiran ini dalam diri pelajar. Demikian dijelaskan secara terperinci perjalanan setiap langkah dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Sebenarnya, perincian berkenaan langkah-langkah ini tidak bersifat rigid sebaliknya ia bersifat fleksibel. Para pengajar boleh melakukan sebarang penambahbaikan yang wajar dan bersesuaian dengan tahap pelajar dan kandungan sukatan mata pelajaran. Berkenaan dengan tempoh masa bagi menjalankan setiap langkah-langkah tersebut, ia ditetapkan atas kesesuaian dan tahap para pelajar yang mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Begitu juga dengan sistem pemarkahan bagi menilai setiap hasil kerja para pelajar sama ada dalam bentuk individu mahupun kumpulan, ia terletak kepada kesesuaian yang akan ditentukan oleh para pengajar subjek bahasa Arab. Namun, tidak dapat dinafikan bahawa dengan adanya pemberian markah atau proses penilaian tertentu bagi setiap hasil kerja yang berjaya disiapkan oleh para pelajar akan memberi satu motivasi tambahan kepada mereka, bukan sahaja untuk terus mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah tetapi juga untuk mendalami bahasa Arab.


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Dapatan Kajian Dan Perbincangan Seramai lima belas orang responden daripada pelajar tingkatan empat di Sekolah Menengah Agama Khairiah, Kuala Terengganu telah mengikuti aktiviti Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Jadual 2 menunjukkan maklumat demografi pelajar dalam kajian ini. Kesemua sampel merupakan pelajar perempuan kerana sekolah tersebut merupakan sekolah beraliran agama khusus untuk gender perempuan. Jadual 2 Maklumat demografi responden kajian Aliran Sains Sastera Ikhtisas Jumlah

Bilangan Pelajar 7 8 15

Data dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca dianalisis berdasarkan rubrik pemarkahan seperti yang dinyatakan dalam Jadual 1. Antara komponen utama yang diambil kira ketika proses pemarkahan ini adalah idea, perbendaharaan kata, gaya bahasa, tatabahasa dan format penulisan. Data ujian pra menunjukkan bahawa tiada seorang pelajar yang mendapat tahap “cemerlang” dan “sangat baik”. Data menunjukkan hanya dua orang pelajar mencapai tahap “baik”, lapan orang pelajar mendapat tahap “sederhana” dan baki lima orang pelajar mendapat tahap “lemah”. Manakala bagi ujian pasca pula, data menunjukkan tiada seorang pelajar yang mendapat tahap “cemerlang” dan “lemah”, tujuh orang pelajar memperoleh tahap “sangat baik” dan “baik”, dan hanya seorang pelajar sahaja yang mendapat tahap “sederhana”. Peningkatan prestasi pelajar bagi kemahiran menulis dapat dilihat apabila tiada seorang pelajar yang mendapat tahap “lemah” dalam ujian pasca. Jadual 3 menunjukkan bilangan pelajar serta tahap yang dicapai oleh mereka dalam ujian pra dan ujian pasca. Jadual 3 Bilangan pelajar ujian pra dan ujian pasca Markah 81-100 61-80 41-60 21-40 0-20

Tahap Cemerlang Sangat Baik Baik Sederhana Lemah Jumlah

Bilangan Pelajar Ujian Pra Ujian Pasca 7 2 7 8 1 5 15 15

Analisis data ujian pra dan ujian pasca dalam kajian ini mendapati bahawa terdapat peningkatan kepada semua pelajar yang telah mengikuti aktiviti Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Jadual 4 menunjukkan peningkatan markah yang diperoleh oleh setiap sampel kajian yang melibatkan keputusan ujian pra dan ujian pasca. Peratus


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peningkatan markah ini dikira berdasarkan jumlah perbezaan markah antara markah ujian pasca dan ujian pra. Jadual 4 Peningkatan markah antara ujian pra dan pasca Markah Bil. Pelajar 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Ujian Pra

Ujian Pasca

35 40 35 40 45 35 20 30 20 20 25 30 60 20 20

75 75 70 75 65 65 45 45 40 55 55 60 70 45 55

Peningkatan Perbezaan Markah Peratus (%) (Pra-Pasca) 40 114.3 35 87.5 35 100 35 87.5 20 44.4 30 85.7 25 125 15 50 20 100 35 175 30 120 30 100 10 16.7 25 125 35 175

Berdasarkan Jadual 4, peningkatan markah yang paling ketara melibatkan pelajar nombor 10 dan nombor 15, peningkatan markah mereka dari 20 markah ke 55 markah iaitu sebanyak 35 markah atau 175%. Manakala peningkatan markah yang paling minimum adalah bagi pelajar nombor 13, peningkatan dari 60 markah ke 70 markah iaitu sebanyak 10 markah sahaja atau hanya 16.7%. Jika diperhatikan pada pelajar nombor 9, peningkatan markah dari 20 markah ke 40 markah atau 100%. Walaupun peratus peningkatannya lebih tinggi berbanding pelajar nombor 13, akan tetapi pelajar nombor 9 hanya memperoleh tahap “sederhana” berbanding pelajar nombor 13 yang mendapat tahap “sangat baik” dalam ujian pasca. Majoriti pelajar menunjukkan peningkatan melebihi 100% dalam ujian pasca. Daripada Jadual 3 dan Jadual 4, disimpulkan bahawa program Jawlah Lughawiyyah dapat meningkatkan pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata dalam bahasa yang dipelajari. Terdapat beberapa faktor yang mempengaruhi peningkatan markah ujian pasca dalam kajian ini. Antara faktor-faktor yang menyumbang kepada peningkatan ini adalah pemanfaatan kepelbagaian aktiviti yang berpusat kepada pelajar di dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah seperti perbincangan dalam kumpulan, perkongsian maklumat sesama rakan dan diakhiri dengan pembentangan hasil pemerhatian mereka sepanjang mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah. Aktiviti-aktiviti ini memberi kesan terhadap pertambahan jumlah perbendaharaan kata, seterusnya dapat membantu pelajar membina ayat-ayat dalam penulisan karangan. Manakala faktor yang menyebabkan tiada seorang daripada pelajar yang mendapat tahap “cemerlang” dalam ujian pasca antaranya adalah faktor waktu


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pelaksanaan program Jawlah Lughawiyyah yang terhad. Keterbatasan waktu program yang terhad memberi kesan terhadap proses pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata dalam kalangan pelajar. Hal ini kerana mempelajari perbendaharaan kata atau kosa kata memerlukan waktu yang mencukupi (Yang & Dai, 2011). Di samping itu, proses pembelajaran perlu berterusan bagi meningkatkan potensi pelajar ke arah kecemerlangan akademik (Rasidah Rashid, 2007). Justeru, para guru disarankan untuk melaksanakan aktiviti luar bilik darjah secara konsisten mengikut kesesuaian tempat dan kandungan pelajaran bagi membantu pelajar meningkatkan jumlah perbendaharaan kata mereka. Aktiviti luar bilik darjah sepertimana yang dicadangkan dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah ini tidak semestinya dilaksanakan di luar kawasan sekolah. Pemanfaatan kawasan sekitar sekolah juga dilihat sebagai satu usaha terbaik bagi menambah jumlah pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata yang akan membantu pelajar dalam meningkatkan tahap kemahiran berbahasa terutamanya kemahiran menulis. Penutup Program Jawlah Lughawiyyah merupakan satu medium alternatif kepada para pendidik khususnya yang terlibat dalam pengajaran bahasa asing atau bahasa kedua. Program ini dilihat mampu untuk meningkatkan tahap kemahiran menulis bahasa Arab dalam kalangan pelajar bukan penutur jati. Pemerolehan kosa kata baru sepanjang mengikuti program Jawlah Lughawiyyah telah dimanfaatkan sebaiknya oleh pelajar dalam penulisan karangan mereka. Aktiviti yang terkandung dalam program Jawlah Lughawiyyah seperti pemerhatian menggunakan panca indera, perbincangan dalam kumpulan, perkongsian maklumat sesama rakan, pembentangan hasil pemerhatian dan penulisan karangan merupakan komponen yang saling melengkapi dalam pemerolehan perbendaharaan kata baru yang boleh dimanfaatkan dalam meningkatkan tahap kemahiran menulis bagi para pelajar. Sepertimana yang telah dijelaskan bahawa program Jawlah Lughawiyyah bukan satu bentuk program pendidikan bahasa yang baru secara total, sebaliknya ia merupakan satu program yang menggabungkan beberapa aktiviti berpusatkan pelajar. Program ini disusun secara berstruktur agar dapat dijalankan dengan sistematik dan dilakukan penilaian bagi mengenal pasti tahap kemahiran bahasa yang menjadi tumpuan iaitu kemahiran bertutur dan menulis. Berdasarkan kajian ini, diharapkan ia membuka ruang yang lebih luas untuk diterokai oleh para penyelidik khususnya yang terlibat dalam pendidikan bahasa Arab dengan fokus utama melibatkan usaha meningkatkan tahap kemahiran menulis dalam kalangan pelajar bukan penutur jati. Penghargaan Kajian mengenai program Jawlah Lughawiyyah ini dijalankan dengan memanfaatkan dana Geran Penyelidikan Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA), kod geran: UniSZA/12/GU (016). Para penyelidik merakamkan penghargaan kepada pihak UniSZA khususnya Pusat Pengurusan Penyelidikan dan Inovasi (CRIM) di atas kelulusan menjalankan kajian ini.


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