Volume 3, Number 1

Volume 3, Number 1

h Editorial. Presidents, Principals and Teachers. New Ways of Leading Schools and Universities - Mireia Tintoré - 1 Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21st Century - Roser Salavert - 4 Conditioning Factors and Opportunities for Teamwork. A Case Study from a Catalan University - Ruth Galtés & Marina Tomás - 25 The appointment of School Leaders in Mexican Primary Schools: An Exploratory Study of the System of Promotion - Manuel López - 55 Academic Leadership: Concepts, Ideas and Insights for the Development of New Studies - Roberto Vega - 80

Women & Leadership in Higher Education [Book Review] - Carmen Carrillo - 104

Instructions for authors, subscriptions and further details: http://ijelm.hipatiapress.com

Editorial: Presidents, principals and teachers. New ways of leading schools and universities Mireia Tintoré1 1) Universitat Internacional de Catalunya. Spain Date of publication: January 16th, 2015 Edition period: January 2015-July 2015

To cite this article: Tintoré, M. (2015). Editorial: Presidents, principals and teachers. New ways of leading schools and universities. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 1-3. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.01 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.01

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE The terms and conditions of use are related to the Open Journal System and to Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-BY).

IJELM – International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management Vol. 3 No. 1 January 2015 pp. 1-3

Editorial: Presidents, Principals and Teachers. New Ways of Leading Schools and Universities Mireia Tintoré Universitat Internacional de Catalunya

W

e begin another year of IJELM with a renewed illusion. In the first editorial of last year, we congratulated ourselves for the very different geographical backgrounds of our authors, although we also stated that “we will be very pleased to receive further submissions from other areas” (Tintoré, 2014, p. 3) and we cited specifically Latin-America. In this new issue we are pleased to introduce four articles from five academics that, even living and working in other countries, have in common their Iberian or Latin-American origins. From very different perspectives, this new issue of IJELM presents researches about university presidents, women in top high school positions, school principals, and teachers who want to improve their organizations being leaders at the same time. The current issue of IJELM begins with an article by Dr. Roser Salavert, a Catalan researcher and practitioner living at New York. Dr. Salavert explores

2015 Hipatia Press ISSN: 2015-9018 DOI: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.01

2

Tintoré, M. – Editorial

both coaching and leadership, and points out that coaching partnership can help students – especially in underperforming schools- to avoid the cycle of failure. She defends the apprenticeship approach like that of medieval times, when apprentices learned with on-the-job training beside a master until they themselves become the next experts, prepared to lead another novices. She concludes saying that the collaboration and actions around leadership and instructional coaching stimulate the acquisition of knowledge and the mastery of skills in the learner (Salavert, 2015, p. 19). Readers can learn about the lights and shadows of teamwork in the case study from a Catalan university introduced by Galtés and Tomás in the second article. From data obtained through documental analysis, semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire, the authors provide insights into how university teachers perceive their teamwork and what should be done in order to improve their effectiveness. Galtés and Tomás recommend considering teacher teams as an internal strategy for institutional growth at universities. Moving from the Iberian Peninsula to Latin-America, we present the last two articles. In the third article of the present issue, López Delgado examines, from Birmingham, the appointment of school heads in Mexican primary schools based on a system called “El escalafón” (the ladder), promulgated more than 40 years ago. His research examines the promotion system, its strengths and shortcomings, and concludes that it is necessary to thoroughly revise the system, to increase still more the transparency of the processes, and to make an accurate selection of the best candidates to be school heads. The second article from Latin-America ends this first part of our journal with the reflections of the vice president of the Finis Terrae University in Chile. Doctor Vega explores from a theoretical point of view, the academic leadership of some university presidents in Latin-America comparing how they perform leadership with the academic literature on the subject. We find especially relevant his study of the history of leadership and his reflections on this subject. Vega denounces the lack of research on management in universities, especially in his geographical area, and ends the article with some suggestions in order to improve research on this subject. Our book review, prepared by Doctor Carmen Carrillo, closes the issue introducing a recent publication coordinated by Longman and Madsen, within the “Women and Leadership” book series. This new book series on women leadership is supported by the International Leadership Association in concert with Information Age Publishing. “Women & Leadership in Higher

IJELM– International Journal of Educational Leadership & Management, 3(1)

3

Education” – the book we are reviewing - is the first volume in the series. The book begins with a foreword from the recently died and extraordinary academic on leadership, Warren Bennis. Bennis thanks the ILA for promoting this kind of subject, which he considers of extraordinary importance. The editors open the book with a great statement that shows the nature of the rest of chapters: ”Some leaders are born female” meaning that women leadership is still something odd, even in the USA and in the field of higher education. As the authors say: “Higher Education has much to gain by identifying, preparing and advancing more high-potential women into leadership roles” (Longman & Madsen, 2014, p. X). Considering the importance of this theme, we strongly recommend the reading of this new book and we will consider contributions to the journal based on this subject. We cannot finish this issue without a new call to expand our geographical area: we still need more contributions from Asia and we hope to receive some articles from Africa in order to capture the diversity of the leadership discipline all over the world. All of them will be welcomed. As the publication of this issue arrived to the end, we received news of the death of two great leaders and founders of the Leadership Discipline: James MacGregor Burns and Warren Bennis. From the pages of IJELM, we want to pay a tribute to these extraordinary researchers and practitioners of leadership. Thank you, James and Warren, for your contribution to leadership studies. We will try to follow the path you opened.

References Longman, K. A. & Madsen, S. R. (Eds.) (2014). Women & Leadership in Higher Education. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing, Inc. Salavert, R. (2015). Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21 st Century. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, Vol. 3(1), 4-23. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.02 Tintoré, M. (2014). Editorial: Managing Leadership and Learning at the School Level. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, Vol 2(1), 1-3. doi: 104471/ijelm.2014.06


Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21st Century Roser Salavert1 1) Fordham University. United States of America Date of publication: January 16th, 2015 Edition period: January 2015-July 2015

To cite this article: Salavert, R. (2015). Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21st Century. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 4-24. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.02 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.02



Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21st Century Roser Salavert Fordham University Abstract Coaching, an apprentice-based approach to support professional and personal development towards achieving set goals, is a well-established practice in the fields of sports training and management and one of the fastest growing professional development methods in the education field. How the coaching partnership fosters leadership and improves practices that directly impact on the social/emotional development of students and their academic achievement is of interest to educators, policy makers and school communities alike. Recent findings have started to define the type of leadership that results from a coaching partnership, the lasting benefits on teaching quality and the positive impact on student performance. By reviewing and reflecting on the current literature on this apprenticeship approach, this article explores strengths and strategies that could further contribute to the organization of schools around high learning outcomes for all students while fostering leadership and accountability at the management, classroom and student levels. Keywords: coaching, leadership and accountability



Coaching: Un Enfoque de Aprendizaje para el siglo XXI Roser Salavert Fordham University Resumen Coaching, un enfoque basado en el aprendizaje para apoyar el desarrollo profesional y personal hacia el logro de los objetivos fijados, es una práctica bien establecida en los campos de entrenamiento deportivo y de gestión, y uno de los métodos de desarrollo profesional de mayor crecimiento en el campo de la educación. Cómo la relación de coaching fomenta el liderazgo y mejora las prácticas que afectan directamente al desarrollo social / emocional de los estudiantes y su rendimiento académico es de interés para los educadores, políticos y comunidades escolares. Hallazgos recientes han comenzado a definir el tipo de liderazgo que resulta de una relación de coaching, los beneficios duraderos en la calidad docente y el impacto positivo en el rendimiento de los estudiantes. Al revisar y reflexionar sobre la literatura actual sobre este enfoque de aprendizaje, este artículo explora las fortalezas y estrategias que podrían contribuir aún más a la organización de las escuelas de alto nivel de aprendizaje para todos los estudiantes, a la vez que fomentar el liderazgo y la responsabilidad en la gestión, en el aula y el alumnado. Palabras clave: coaching, liderazgo y responsabilidad sobre los resultados


6

R. Salavert – Coaching: An Apprenticeship Approach for the 21 st Century

I

nsights into the organizational systems, instructional practices and student academic behaviors in underperforming schools set the context for the needs and benefits of leadership and instructional coaching. These insights are grounded on three main facts: First, average school leaders spend most of their time on tasks that remove them from those that relate to instruction. The emphasis on management does not necessarily lead to increase student engagement and academic performance (Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development (OECD) Secretariat, 2013; Bambrick-Santoyo, 2012; International Center for Leadership in Education (ICLE), 2010). Furthermore, “the general underperformance of schools can be directly attributed to a failure to implement three simple, well-known elements: a common curriculum, sound lessons, and authentic literacy.” (Schmoker, 2011). Second, there continues to be a need to better understand what high quality education and differentiation look like, as the following commonly found scenario illustrates: As the teacher delivers a carefully plan lesson, with clear learning targets, he organizes the students into collaborative teams to ensure differentiated instruction. However, a closer look at student behaviours will reveal that in one of the groups, students are busily and mindlessly filling our worksheets and a few other students are sitting in front of a computer, but neither the worksheet exercises nor the skills practiced at the computer are aligned to the lesson targets. The need for a better understanding of differentiated strategies and effective scaffolds are critical to ensure that all students work towards grade level competencies. (Schmoker, 2011; City, Elmore et al., 2009). Third, low teacher expectations are one of the main reasons of student academic failure (Loeb & Plank, 2008) and most frequently, the students who fall behind day in and day out, such as those seating in classrooms illustrated in above example, are recent arrivals learning the language of the school, students with limited formal schooling and/or students from disadvantaged home (Boykin & Noguera 2011, SotoHinman, 2009). As a result, the academic experience of these students and that of failing schools presents a compelling need for improved school practices and thus avoid a cycle of failure that as Canada expresses (Tough, 2009), should be avoided: “There’s just no way that in good conscience we can allow poverty to remain the dividing line between success and failure in this country, where if you’re born poor in a community like this one [Harlem], you stay


7

poor. We have to even that out. We ought to give these kids a chance.” (Tough, 2009). The improvement of leadership through coaching is one of the strategies that can support the transformation of a school, as evidenced by growing body of academic papers reporting on successful schools (ICLE, 2010).

The Apprenticeship Approach The apprenticeship approach to learning resonates with most educators. This principle acknowledges how in traditional cultures the apprentice learns from observing and working alongside a master and within an actual physical working environment. In this manner, the apprentice acquires skills, complex knowledge and forms of social behaviour in consonance with the culture of the working setting. The master guides the process and gradually releases responsibility to the apprentice as he or she performs the tasks confidently. This dynamic process includes five phases: 1) Modelling: The learner keenly observes the execution of a task or craft while listening how the master articulates all the steps with precision and using terminology and language specific to that trade. 2) Approximating: The learner experiments with the task or the craft under the guidance of the master. The master engages the learner in a reflective practice to examine his actions and prompting him to think and plan what he plans to do to improve upon them. 3) Fading: The learner, still within the safety net of the master’s support, shows that he can innovate within the parameters he has been practicing 4) Self-directing: The learner begins to take ownership of the process of planning and executing the craft and only seeks the support of the master when needed and 5) Generalizing: The learner understands and masters the craft and demonstrates this mastery by applying the skills to other domains and /or innovating beyond the specific trade of the initial task (Hansman, 2001). This apprenticeship is a dynamic process in which the master exerts an influence on the learner, but also one in which the learner interacts and influences the work environment. As the learner becomes more skillful in the job and demonstrates his talents, his contributions begin to be noticed and appreciated. At the end of the apprenticeship process, the learner has become an expert and a member of that work environment and prepared to lead a novice through the process. In this way, the apprenticeship process allows for the continued transfer, sharing and creation of knowledge and

8


skills. In addition, this approach can help a master to gain more complex knowledge or refine his skills at a deeper level. Thus, it is a continuous teaching and learning process where skills and knowledge are constantly created, shared, refined and refreshed (Barab & Hay 2001; Pratt, 1998). Coaching: Definitions and History Coaching is defined as “giving advice and instruction to (someone) regarding the course or process to be followed” (Merriam-Webster, online dictionary). It is a goal-oriented process by which the learner gains knowledge and skills towards the accomplishment of set goals. These set goals may also include the advancement of professional, the individual’s psychological and subjective well - being and general life experience (Grant, 2005). Sometimes we use the words coaching and mentoring as synonym, but there is a clear distinction between them; whereas a mentor is a role model with experience that a learner might aspire to emulate, the coach becomes an expert partner and trusted advisor that encourages the learner to see the bigger picture, rethink a given assumption, or consider a new practice within the context of his particular school or context towards the accomplishment of clearly established goals. The origin of coaching is rooted in the behavioral sciences and in the business literature. In 2005, Grant published an annotated bibliography citing a total 634 of peer-reviewed publications between 1937 and January of 2011. The study of coaching as a strategy of change through the understanding of the psychology of motivation and the value of good communication linked to productivity and growth has been extensively documented (Morgan, H. Harkins P & Goldsmith, 2005, Scott, 2004). The research of the business industry into productivity and competitive models has also drawn from classical works, most notably the Japanese manual on martial arts The Book of Five Rings that was written around 1645 by Miyamoto Musashi and became a best seller when Donald Krause (1999) adapted it as a strategy and coaching manual for executives. And whereas coaching was initially promoted to address issues of low performance, the competition and fast pace of today’s global economies recognizes the value and impact of coaching as a strategy for leaders and key personnel (Morgan, 2005). In the education field, the use of coaching to motivate, provide peer support and increase the knowledge and skills of school leaders and teachers


9

towards higher student achievement may have started later than in the sports and business fields, but today it is one of the most recognized leadership development practices for teachers, school leaders and Professional Learning Communities (Darling-Hammond, 2013; Marzano, 2012; DuFour et al., 2006), despite the fact that the research supporting its effectiveness appears to be inconsistent (Reeves, 2009). Learning Through Guided Practice It is increasingly clear that the practices of reflection and continuous learning are essential characteristics of effective leaders. Today’s fastmoving environment requires dynamic planning and the ability to create and share knowledge to respond to new ideas and new challenges with speed and precision. Therefore, school leaders and company executives benefit from the guidance of a coach when assessing the shifting realities of their environment as well as the underlying assumptions and culture of their organizations (Morgan, 2005; Senge, 2006). This ability, or as Scott (2004) states, the courage to interrogate reality, is key to the guided practice of coaching. In order to lead effectively, the school leader or the company executive needs to learn how assess without laying blame, seek the input of others to construct a shared vision and action plans that empower teams and individuals towards achieving shared goals and objectives. Remarkably the word empowerment so popular in the last decade of the 20th century is hardly found in today’s literature. By contrast, the term coaching has become increasingly popular. Is there a difference in meaning between empowering teachers and coaching teachers? In the best seller Zapp! In Education, Byham (1992) states that it is through the empowerment of a teacher that we empower students to think, make decisions and become responsible for their own academic progress. In his book, Byham offers a clear argument against professional development that is based on lecturing and turnkey training. He also argues against role-playing. Teacher empowerment equips teachers with the skills to be better teachers and build their confidence and motivation, but it requires repeated practice in the job. Thus, the importance of empowering teachers first and then, developing empowerment in the student. Recent work in instructional coaching has shown that focused and actionable feedback from peers, consultant coaches and/or supervisors takes

10


a very active role in the improvement of instruction (Bambrick-Santoyo, 2013; Danielson, 2007; Marzano 2012). In this context, instructional coaching encourages teachers to work hard, strategically and with perseverance to effectively respond to the challenges posed by high competency expectations (Common Core Learning Standards (CCLS), 2010; PISA, 2013) and the learning gaps of struggling students, against a more traditional and conformist approach of low expectations and modified curriculum, characteristic of traditional settings and still pervasive in many failing schools (Salavert, 2010). This type of instructional coaching empowers teachers who not only acquire content knowledge and skills to improve instruction, but and most importantly, as learners themselves, they develop the presence of mind and habits that accelerate learning in their students. Leadership Coaching Leadership coaching, a standard practice in most accomplished organizations is becoming a crucial training tool for today’s school leaders who as a result of greater autonomy and results-oriented accountability, face increasingly complex and expanded responsibilities. Regardless of their years of experience, school leaders require additional support in order to successfully improve student outcomes and sustain a school’s overall success. Some of these coaching practices include, for example, coaching principal to principal during a school’s learning walk (LearningWalkSM, 2004), coaching as a component of an aspiring principals university program (Darling-Hammond, 2007), or coaching by an outside expert and trusted advisor. In this partnership, the coach seeks to support the successful implementation of an action plan aligned to specific performance goals. As the conversations grow deeper and richer, the coach encourages the school leader to think about the effectiveness of the school structures and its systems as well as their effect on the learning environment, the actions of teachers and those of the administrators. According to Senge (2006), “some of these key interrelationships can be seen among the degree of teacher collaboration, and the rigor of the student learning environment”(p. 44). To that end, the role of a coach is to encourage the leader to consider the school’s action plan within a bigger picture, such as the district goals and the demands of the current competencies, rethink a given assumption including,


11

for example, raising expectations for students with interrupted formal education, and when appropriate, lead the incorporation of cutting edge research practices through on-site professional development towards improved and lasting change. The Leadership/Executive/Transformational Coach The question of whether a leadership coach is a colleague from another school, an expert consultant or a university faculty is less relevant than the profile and skills of the leadership coach that are directly related to the expectations for the school and the performance goals of the school leader. According to the International Center for Leadership in Education (ICLE, 2010), an executive or leadership coach is an experienced leader with a history of making positive change; a visionary and goal setter with the capacity to grasp the reality of others and guide them in articulating their own vision and plan of action. This coach is a team builder and an effective communicator who can analyze and interpret data from a variety of sources, and most importantly, a professional who understands the value of feedback. That is, the coach knows when and how to provide specific and relevant feedback to enable school leaders make sound and timely decisions. Finally, an executive or leadership coach is an educator who believes in success for all students and acts accordingly. This coach supports programs that hold all students to rigorous expectations, and if necessary, guides school leaders in the reorganization of the school around effort learning education and the realignment of school goals and plan of action to ensure appropriate alignment with grade level outcomes for all students. What is the Leadership Style that Results from Coaching? The coaching partnership can be a transformative experience for school leaders and for their schools. School leaders see coaching as a way to continue to improve their own practice. They also recognize that as a result of this partnership they improve how to interact with their teachers, modeling the learning that they expect from them. In the context of creating and sharing knowledge throughout the school organization, these school leaders promote the type of learning environment defined by Tichy, (2002) as “ […] interactive teaching in which the students [teachers and other

12


adults] are encouraged to process what they’ve heard against their own experience and knowledge. They then become the teachers, sharing their knowledge and insights with the leaders.” This interactive quality between the school leader and teachers fosters collaboration, deeper conversations and ongoing reflection about school practices. Such interactions probably play a prominent role in favoring the emergence of a school culture that focuses on student learning. For instance, in describing the explicit and implicit aspects of leadership, MacBeath (2013) states that leadership is – “what leaders do when they accomplish well what is formally expected of them” and implicitly, leaders are “the conscience, or moral compass, of the community-doing what is right, just and equitable.” (p.84). However, it is the tension between these two forms of leadership what enables this school leader to engage with its members and create learning communities (Jolonch, Martinez and Badia, 2013). The desired transformative outcome of effective coaching has been succinctly summarized by Scott (2004) in one powerful statement, “the conversation is the relationship”. It is through the power of fierce conversations that an organization can move from micro -managing, mediocrity and isolated activities to an organization with clear priorities, shared enthusiasm towards professional growth and a collaborative culture. The implications of how a school leader interacts with his or her staff, how he or she engages teachers in real conversations towards common objectives and a shared vision are some of the determining factors of continued school success. The evidence of the impact of fierce conversations which are the type of conversations between the coach and the school leader favors the conclusion that leadership coaching gives rise to the type of leadership that enables school transformation and sustainable change. During the coaching process, school leaders become apprentices learning under the guidance of a trusted expert in their own workplace. The coach uses protocols that enable the school leader to practice and develop better listening and communication skills, as well as modeling and reflection routines towards the achievement of individual and organizational performance goals. This is a school leader who believes in the vision of the school and the people who shape his/her learning organization. This type of leadership is aligned with the highest level of executive capabilities, that Collins (2001) identifies as Level 5 type leader, in a hierarchy of five levels: 1. Highly capable individuals, 2. Contributing team members, 3. Competent


13

managers, and 4. Effective leaders. Effective leaders are capable of significant change, but change is often linked to their own persona and their own ambitions. By contrast, the impact of level 5 leaders is enduring; these are leaders who combines a high level of personal humility with an incredible ambition, but their “ambition is first and foremost for the institution, not themselves” (Collins, p.21, 2001). Another model that responds to improved leadership practices is the Quadrant D Leadership Framework: “Quadrant D leaders seek ways to change and improve the system. They are quick to recognize areas where there is greater potential to support student success, and they strive to create the systems to ensure that school community realizes that potential” (p. 29, ICLE, 2010). The leadership framework developed by the International Center for Leadership in Education conceptualizes the development of leadership in a framework set along a vertical (knowledge) and a horizontal (application) continuum and divided into four sections or quadrants. Within this framework, there are four types of leadership levels. The first two types, the Authoritative (A) and the Collaborative (B) run along the application or horizontal continuum, but whereas type A leadership focuses on management and tends to act independently based on a sense of positional authority, type-B leaders seek the participation of staff and students at all levels of the organization. As a leader acquires additional knowledge and becomes more reflective and innovative, collaboration and decision- making are enriched by additional possibilities, new programs and the incorporation of forward thinking research- based practices (Creative Leadership, C). Lastly, Quadrant –D leaders as indicated above, exhibit skills that combine experiences and knowledge, which make them adaptable and creative at the same time. In this school environment, there is evidence of distributive or shared leadership (Wilhelm, 2013; MacBeath, 2013) not only among teachers who take responsibility for a variety of tasks such as facilitating inquiry meetings, but among students who also take a significant leadership roles in the school and are encouraged to take responsibility for their own learning. The leadership of a Level-5 type or that in the D-quadrant is leadership style that school leaders should seek to develop, even when dayto-day demands and decisions may require to take actions that seem better fit for styles that belong to a different level or to a different quadrant.

14


Instructional Coaching Instructional coaching is an approach to teacher training that aims at improving the quality and effectiveness of classroom practices towards increased student achievement. A distinct characteristic of coaching when compared to other forms of professional development such as turnkey training, is that coaching is job-embedded and takes places regularly over a period of time and in the classroom of the teacher receiving coaching. Instructional coaching can assist teachers in developing and delivering instructional strategies that are content specific, and they may be identified with their specific subject, e.g. Math coach, Literacy coach, Bilingual coach and/or a Technology coach. However, there is a general understanding of the roles that these coaches need to support, that is, build content knowledge and inspire teachers so as to foster their professional growth (Puig & Froelich, 2010). Gains in skills and knowledge are accompanied by leadership development, which is a key characteristic of successful schools and successful school districts (Marzano & Simms, 2012: Heller, 2004). The coach may use a variety of strategies towards this goal, including the use of specific protocols to facilitate a presentation of a successful classroom practice at a faculty meeting, guided conversations following classroom observations on the implementation of a new strategy, or a collaborative review of student portfolios to discuss the effectiveness and the impact of a new practice. In the United States, teachers can apply for National Board Certification that is considered the gold standard of teaching (NBPTS, 2013). The application requires the submission of a portfolio that consists of a few selected lessons plans, student work and video clips as evidence for the gold standard instructional practices of the applicant. By offering the opportunity to video brief segments of a lesson and engaging in analysis, review, and feedback from a coach –and other peers, teachers aspiring to the national gold standards and those receiving coaching tap into their leadership potential and feel empowered by their own capacity and ability to improve professionally and also personally.


15

The Instructional Coach Depth of knowledge in the content area, instructional experience in the teaching of the subject and strong interpersonal skills are essential traits of an instructional coach. In response to the rapid growth of instructional coaching and to ensure the implementation of research-based practices with accuracy and effectively, the International Reading Association (IRA) in collaboration with the National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) published a position statement regarding the qualifications of a reading coach. This association emphasizes the importance of selecting as coaches teachers with expertise who also hold a recognized certification in their particular specialization, such as that of a reading specialist (2004). And the Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence Center states that, “the job description of a literacy coach is as multidimensional as reading itself. One must possess the social skills of a seasoned politician, the knowledge of an ivy-league professor, the experience of a veteran teacher, and the flexibility of a gymnast” (FLaRE, 2008). These criteria are certainly applicable to instructional coaches across content subjects. The instructional coach is also an expert who can facilitate the development and implementation of data driven lesson plans with evidence of student progress, such as ‘quickwrites’ posted on a ‘parking lot‘ chart. He also guides the teacher in the use of formative assessments so as to modify, adjust, and extend the lessons as student advance in the study of the subject matter. Frequently, he demonstrates the implementation of the lesson through in-class modeling, which provides opportunities to observe the teacher, and most importantly encourages the teacher to try out and practice new strategies. An instructional coach may also guide the teacher through the steps on how to incorporate a language objective into a well-planned lesson so as to integrate the study of new vocabulary and language structures into the flow of the lesson to support the learning of second language students –as opposed to the practice of teaching vocabulary words in isolation (Chamot, A., 2009). Formative feedback is an essential component of the coaching process, but feedback may also be the specific focus. To that purpose, an instructional focus may gather low inference observations and then provide differentiated coaching with timely and constructive feedback according to the needs of the teachers to refine a particular practice (Bambrick-Santoyo, 2013; Coggins & Diffenbaugh, 2013; Reeves, 2009).

16


Inquiry Teacher Teams and Professional Learning Communities (PLCs)1 Under the guidance of an instructional coach, teacher teams can learn to analyze and triangulate data from different sources as they look closely at instructional practices and their alignment to the needs of the target students. For instance, a coach may help identify inquiry target groups, define benchmarks and long-term goals and facilitate or co-facilitate regular meetings of these teams throughout the school year (Salavert, 2013b). According to City, Elmore et al. (2009), and Talbert & Scharff, (2008), the introduction of successful innovations in small scale can make a significant difference in the process of school transformation. These steps, which may seem small, can generate the critical force that leads to largescale change when the school or the district has established the structures and systems that support these innovations. The theory of change behind this model postulates that to extend the sphere of student success in a complex organization, one must “stay small”. That is, teacher teams work systematically and creatively –often with the support and guidance of a coach –a colleague, an administrator or a consultant, to improve the outcomes of a targeted group of students. Together, they drive the implementation of strategies that can work for their particular students and evaluate their impact towards achieving ambitious end of year learning goals. The outcomes of these teams then inform the instructional and/or organizational practices of the school thus creating the conditions for an innovating learning environment, and a school culture that promotes evidence-based student achievement (Salavert, 2013). This counter-intuitive and paradoxical theory also applies to Professional Learning Communities or PLCs. These are teams that undertake sustained professional collaboration, making decisions and taking actions to improve school performance. However, Kruse, Louis, and Bryk (1994) report that granting teachers greater responsibility regarding their jobs, including curriculum development, will not necessarily improve instruction, because there is a learning process, an apprenticeship /coaching type learning process that fosters the skills and collective responsibility to achieve shared goals for student learning (DuFour, 2006).


17

What is the Teaching Style that Results from Instructional Coaching? During the coaching process, teachers –regardless of years of experience, acquire new knowledge and practice strategies that help them make teaching intentional and purposeful for their students. Teaching becomes less about covering a curriculum than ensuring that all students make progress towards competencies that are fundamental to their school success. As a result of the instructional coaching, teachers also feel better equipped to address diverse and challenging student populations, more confident in raising their academic expectations and more effective guiding them in the acquisition of the language of the school and the subject matter. A successful coach works strategically and intentionally to develop mastery in the learner, but they both know that their success depends on the support provided by the school environment, otherwise as Goodwin (2013, p.78) indicates “coaching can fall flat” and have no positive impact on student achievement. By contrast, when a school leader creates the time and the space for peer coaching among staff members, teachers exchange feedback regularly, role-play practices for each other, and strengthen collaborations that “the result is high-speed, high-quality teacher development” (Bambrick-Santoyo, 2013, p.47). Some school leaders take the role of instructional coaches; Principal Jones, for example, leads as intervisitations in her school to acknowledge and celebrate teacher practices (Salavert, 2013a). In this way, the apprenticeship process allows for the continued transfer, sharing and creation of knowledge and skills. In addition, their approach can help a master teacher gain more complex knowledge or refine his skills at a deeper level. It is a process of continuous teaching and learning where skills and knowledge are constantly created, shared, refined and refreshed (Barab & Hay 2001; Pratt, 1998). The Apprenticeship Model in the 21st Century Classroom Today’s predominant view of education, as reflected on competency –based systems, is that every student has the ability and the right to learn regardless of their social, linguistic , or cultural backgrounds and experiences. It is increasingly clear that student effort and not necessarily aptitude results in school success (Resnick, 1998; Resnick, Spillane, et al. 2010; McConachie & Petrosky, 2010). This is the first of the eight principles that define today’s

18


learning-centered classrooms. They assert the premise that every student has the capacity to learn. Measuring success based on hard work implies that the curriculum is the same for all students and that teaching should be organized for effort. The research around reading and writing by Calkins (2001, p.21) adds a discovery dimension to student effort when talking about “children as great world builders”. Calkins’ reading and writing workshop model embraces the principle of effort as well the other seven principles based on Dr. Lauren Resnick’s (2001) research which include: clear expectations, accountable talk, recognition of accomplishments, fair and credible evaluations with systemic anecdotal observations and individual conferencing, in a classroom environment where children are authors, readers and writers thus creating an authentic and purposeful learning environment. In order to set the conditions for a purposeful and constructive learning environment, schools must focus on the three variables that constitute the instructional core (City, Elmore et al. 2009), that is the teacher, the learner and the contents. These variables are interdependent and in constant motion. Thus, a change in any of these variables has an impact on others and on the final result. A student’s academic success results from the quality and frequency of the interconnections between student, teacher and content. In a classroom where teaching is predominantly lecture-based and the students remain mostly receptive and passive learners, the interconnections among content/ teacher/learner are far less frequent that in classrooms where students understand the purpose of the lesson and actively work toward meeting its objectives. The teaching and learning flow in a student- centered classroom engages teacher and student in a constructive and formative partnership that influences the classroom environment in ways similar to those that exist in a coaching partnership and/or apprentice situations. These are classrooms where students are encouraged to reflect on their progress by sharing what they have learned and by asking questions about what they did not understand. In these classrooms, teachers use this ongoing formative feedback to inform their lessons in a continuous, differentiated and enriching loop.


19

Perspectives Recent work in the education field has aimed at better prepare school leaders and teachers towards increased student achievement through coaching. Closing the achievement gap to ensure that all students meet the rigorous demands of today’s competencies and to properly prepare them to succeed in today’s global market remains challenging, but coaching offers a significant opportunity to develop the leadership capacities of school leaders and teaches with a direct and powerful impact on student learning. This article highlights several characteristics of leadership and instructional coaching that seem worth of attention. They are as follows:  One of the learning principles that certainly resonate with all educators is that of ‘apprenticeship’. This principle acknowledges how in traditional cultures the apprentice learns from observing a master modeling and executing a task that he practices under his guidance.  Coaching leverages leadership growth, which has a direct impact on a school’s organization and culture. Leadership for learning results in an engaging school environment where students feel supported; an environment that fosters the acquisition of complex thinking and knowledge, stimulates students’ intellectual curiosity and fosters the development of responsibility through effort, rigor and effective learning practices/strategies.  The teaching/learning process is best illustrated by the quality of interaction between teacher and student. An effective teaching/learning process includes interactions rich with modeling, questioning, opportunities for practice, and the gradual release of responsibility that helps the student become an independent and lifelong learner. The systemic collaboration and actions around leadership and instructional coaching to improve student outcomes is characterized by a partnership built on an apprenticeship approach that stimulates the acquisition of knowledge and the mastery of skills and expertise in the learner. The reciprocity of this process also enables learner to influence his work environment including his colleagues while enriching the expertise of the coach thus nurturing mutual respect, leadership and knowledge. When these processes become part of the school environment, and they are

20


modelled by the school leaders, teachers and students, they become an instrumental role in establishing the conditions for a rigorous and collaborative culture that encourage the implementation of cutting edge research, and supports teachers to continuously improve upon their practices towards successful learning outcomes for all students.

Notes 1

A Professional Learning Community, or PLC, is one of the names given to a group of educators that meets regularly to share expertise to improve teaching skills and the academic performance of students. Other terms used are professional learning groups, collaborative learning communities, critical friends groups, and communities of practice.

References Bambrick-Santoyo, P. (2013) “Stone Soup”: The Teacher Leader’s Contribution. Educational Leadership, October 2013, 46-49. Bambrick-Santoyo, P. (2012). Leverage Leadership: A Practical Guide to Building Exceptional Schools. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass A Wiley Imprint. Barab, S.A. & Hay, K.E. (2001). Doing Science at the Elbows of Experts: Issues related to the science apprenticeship camp. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 38(1), 70-72. doi: 10.1002/10982736(200101)38:13.0.CO;2-L Boykin, A.W. & Noguera, P. (2011). Creating the Opportunity to Learn: Moving from Research to Practice to Close the Achievement Gap. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing Byham, C. (1992). Zapp! In Education: How Empowerment Can Improve the Quality of Instruction, and Student and Teacher Satisfaction. New York, NY: Fawcett Columbine. Calkins, L. (2001). The Art of Teaching Reading. New York, NY: AddisonWesley Educational Publishers Inc. Chamot, A. (2009, 2nd edition). The CALLA Handbook: Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach. Boston, MA: Longman, Pearson Publisher.


21

City, E., Elmore, R., Fiarman, S. & Teitel, L. (2009). Instructional Rounds in Education: A Network Approach to Improving Teaching and Learning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Coggins, C. & Diffenbaugh, PK (2013). Teachers with Drive: One way to motivate teachers to stay in the classroom is to offer them opportunities for leadership. Educational Leadership, October, 42-45. Collins, J. (2001). Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap…and Others Don’t. New York, NY: Collins Publishers. Danielson, C. (2007, 2nd edition). Enhancing Professional Practice: A Framework for Teaching. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing. Darling-Hammond, L. (2013). “When Teachers Support & Evaluate Their Peers”. Educational Leadership, October, pp.24-29. Darling-Hammond, L. (2007). Excellent Teachers Deserve Excellent Leaders. Paper based on remarks delivered by Professor Darling-Hammond at The Wallace Foundation’s National Conference, “Education Leadership: A Bridge to School Reform,” on October 22, 2007 in New York City. DuFour, R., DuFour, R., Eaker, R. & Many, T. (2006). Learning by Doing: A Handbook for Professional Learning Communities at Work. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press. Executive Coach – Leadership Profile. The International Center for Leadership in Education (ICLE), (February 2010). Rexford, NY: Scholastic Publishing Inc. Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FlaRE) (2008) Position statement: http://www.air.org/project/florida-literacy-and-reading-excellence-flare Grant, A.M. (2011) Workplace, Executive and Life Coaching: An Annotated Bibliography from the Behavioral Science and Business Literature, University of Sydney, Australia: Coaching Psychology Unit. Goodwin, A.P. & Ahn, S. (2013). A Meta-Analysis of Morphological Interventions in English: Effects on Literacy outcomes for school-age children. Scientific Studies of Reading, 17(4)), 257-285. doi: 10.1080/10888438.2012.689791 Hansman, C.A. (2001). Context-based adult learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 89, 43–51. doi: 10.1002/ace.7 Heller, D.A. (2004). Teachers Wanted: Attracting and Retaining Good Teachers. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing.

22


International Reading Association (IRA) (2004) The Role and Qualifications of the Reading Coach in the United States. Position Statement. http://www.reading.org Jolonch, A.,Martinez, M., Badia, J. (2013). Promoting Learning Leadership in Catalonia and Beyond. In OECD, Educational Research and Innovation: Leadership for 21st Century Learning (pp. 181-204). Paris: OECD Publishing. Krause, D.G. (1998). The Book of Five Rings for Executives: Musashi’s Classic Book of Competitive Tactics. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Kruse, S., Louis, K. S., & Bryk, A. (1994). Building professional community in schools. Issues in Restructuring Schools 3-6. http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/cors/Issues_in_Restructuring_School s/ISSUES_NO_6_SPRING_1994.pdf LearningWalkSM SourceBook (Version 2.0, July 2004). Institute for Learning. Research and Development Center. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh. Loeb, S. & Plank, D. (2008) Learning What Works: Continuous Improvement in California’s Education System. Policy Brief. Stanford: CA, The Institute for Research on Educational Policy and Practice, and PACE. MacBeath, J. (2013). Leading Learning in a World of Change. In OECD, Leadership for 21st Century Learning (pp. 181-204). Paris: OECD Publishing. Marzano, R. & Simms, J. (2012). Coaching Classroom Instruction. Bloomington, IN: Marzano Research Laboratory Publisher. McConachie S. & Petrosky, A. (2010). Content Matters: A Disciplinary Literacy Approach to Improving Student Learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, A Wiley Imprint. Morgan, H.,Harkins, P., Goldsmith, M (2005). The Art and Practice of Leadership Coaching. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. National Teacher Board Certification (2013). Guide to National Board Certification. Prepared by Pearson for submission under contract with the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards® New York State Education Department (2010) P-12 Common Core Learning Standards, New York, NY: Engageny.com OECD Secretariat. (2013). Learning Leadership for Innovative Learning Environments: The Overview. In OECD, Educational Research and


23

Innovation: Leadership for 21st Century Learning (pp. 13-58). Paris: OECD Publishing. OECD (2013) PISA 2012 Results in Focus: What 15-year olds know and what they can do with what they know. Programme for International Student Assessment. Paris” OECD Publishing. Pratt, D.D. (1998). Five perspectives on teaching in adult and higher education. Malabar, FL: Krieger Publishing Company. Puig, E. & Froelich, K. (2010, 2nd edition). The Literacy Coach: Guiding in the Right Direction. Boston, MA: Pearson Publishers. Reeves, D., (2009). Leading Change in Your School: How to Conquer Myths, Build Commitment, and Get Results. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing. Resnick, L, Spillane, J., Goldman, P. & Rangel, E. (2010). Implementing Innovation: From Visionary Models to Everyday Practice. In OECD, The Nature of Learning (pp. 285-317). Paris: OECD Publishing. doi: 10.1787/9789264086487-14-en Resnick, L. (1989). Toward the Thinking Curriculum. Current Cognitive Research. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing. Salavert, R. (2010). Excel·lència educativa per a tothom: una realitat possible. Debats d’Educació de la Fundació Jaume Bofill, Barcelona: Alta Fulla Taller. Salavert, R. (2013, Winter issue). Professional learning communities: improving the practice, improving the learning. In NYC RBE-RN@Fordham University Newsletter, (pp.2-4). New York, NY: Fordham University. Salavert R. (2013). Approaches to Learning Leadership Development in School Systems. In OECD, Educational research and innovation: leadership for 21st century learning (pp. 152-156). Paris: OECD Publishing. Salavert R. (2013). Lideratge per a l’Aprenentage: Fonaments Teòrics. In OECD, Lideratge per a l’aprenentatge: estudis de cas a Catalunya (pp. 33-54). Barcelona: Fundació Bofill. Schmoker, M. (2011). Focus: elevating the essentials to radically improve student learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing. Scott, S. (2004). Fierce conversations: achieving success at work & in life, one conversation at a time. New York, NY: Berkley Books. Senge P. (2006, revised edition). The fifth discipline: the art & practice of the learning organization. New York, NY: Currency Doubleday.

24


Soto-Hinman, I. & Hetzel, J. (2009). The literacy gaps: bridge-building strategies for English language learners and standard English learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin, a SAGE Company. Talbert and Scharff, (2009). Leadership development and school reform through the scaffolded apprenticeship model (SAM). Center for Research on the Context of Teaching Stanford University. New York, NY: New Visions for Public Schools. Tichy, N. (2002). The cycles of leadership: how great leaders teach their companies to win. New York, NY: Harper Business. Tough, P. (2009). Whatever it takes: Geoffrey Canada’s quest to change Harlem and America. Boston, MA: First Mariner Books, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Wilhelm, T. (2013). How principals cultivate shared leadership. Educational Leadership, October 2013, (pp. 62-66). Alexandria, VA: ASCD Publishing.

Roser Salavert is Resource Specialist at Fordham University. Contact Address: [email protected]


Conditioning Factors and Opportunities for Teamwork. A Case Study from a Catalan University Ruth Galtés1, Marina Tomás1 1) Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona. Spain Date of publication: January 16th, 2015 Edition period: January 2015-July 2015

To cite this article: Galtés, R., Tomás, M. (2015). Conditioning factors and opportunities for teamwork. A case study from a Catalan university. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 2554. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.03 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.03



Conditioning Factors and Opportunities for Teamwork. A Case Study from a Catalan University. Ruth Galtés Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Marina Tomás Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Abstract The aim of this article is to analyse the conditioning factors and opportunities that influence teamwork among teachers at a Catalan university. The creation of new academic identities based on a culture of mutual and continuing learning are essential if teacher teams are to be encouraged. A descriptive methodology was used, based on a case study approach. Conditioning factors and opportunities were examined from a structural, organisational and functional perspective. The data were obtained through analysis of the literature, semi-structured interviews and a survey with five levels of response. Application of these data collection techniques permitted both a qualitative and quantitative (SPSS) use of data for evaluation purposes. The results derived from individual perceptions of the internal functioning of teacher teams within the faculty show that insufficient importance is attached to these teams as functional management units. This has a direct impact on the tasks and quality of the processes they implement, and consequently on team and faculty objectives. Keywords: university, teacher team, conditioning factors, opportunities



Condicionantes y Oportunidades para el Trabajo en Equipo. Estudio de Caso en una Universidad de Cataluña Ruth Galtés Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Marina Tomás Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona

Resumen El objetivo de este artículo es analizar los condicionantes y las oportunidades que influyen en el trabajo en equipo de los docentes, en una facultad de Cataluña. La creación de nuevas identidades académicas, basadas en una cultura de aprendizaje mutuo y continuo, se presenta necesaria para impulsar a los equipos docentes. La metodología empleada ha sido la descriptiva a través del enfoque de estudio de caso para examinar los condicionantes y oportunidades para el trabajo en equipo, desde una perspectiva estructural, organizativa y funcional. Los datos se han obtenido a través de la aplicación del análisis documental, la entrevista semiestructurada y un cuestionario con cinco niveles de respuesta. La aplicación de estas técnicas de recolección de datos ha permitido utilizar tanto el método cualitativo como el cuantitativo (SPSS) para su análisis. Los resultados, obtenidos a través de la percepción de las personas, muestran que la facultad estudiada no otorga la suficiente importancia a los equipos docentes para considerarlos unidades funcionales de gestión. Este enfoque facultativo repercute en las tareas y los procesos que desarrollan los grupos humanos, y en consecuencia en los objetivos tanto de los equipos docentes como de la facultad. Palabras clave: universidad, equipo docente, condicionantes, oportunidades



O

27

rganizations often use the term teamwork as if it were a functional unit inherent t the institution or company itself. In Catalan faculties something similar occurs, although in practice, teamwork is not so visible. If faculties are successfully to face up to current challenges and demands, a coherent strategy is to know how people function within teams and how effective and efficient they are in achieving institutional goals. Starting from the premise that teachers need to become process managers, the faculties must give due consideration to contexts that are favourable to the self-organisation of teacher teams and at the same time establish a team model that can be replicated and thus generate synergy effects between the team and distributed leadership (Bolden, Petrov and Gosling 2009; McRoy and Gibbs 2009; Rué and Lodeiro 2010). Creating teacher teams as intermediate management units implies basing their functioning on the principles of cohesion, coordination and understanding (Witziers, Sleegers and Imants 1999). These are the basic elements that facilitate the autonomy, cooperation and coordinated work of project development (Rué and Lodeiro 2010). Defining teamwork from a holistic view requires analysis that ranges from faculty structure to the experiences of individual team members. Catalan universities grant faculties power to organise teaching in a way that addresses social demands. Consequently, the faculties must create appropriate organisational structures and consider teacher teams as middle-management units with the capacity to identify potential internal malfunctions and to base their approach on concrete aspects of their structures and processes (Alcover de la Hera, Rico and Gil Rodríguez 2011; González-Romá 2011; Lencioni 2003; Rué and Lodeiro 2010). Studies on teamwork often focus on specific aspects, such as motivation, participation, effectiveness, efficiency, processes, results, tasks and leadership. However, some authors, including McRoy and Gibbs (2009), provide a more holistic approach, exposing the need for a more context-based leadership in order to foster change; or Rachford and Coghlan (1992), who refer to the significance of understanding the relationships between the various levels in the organisation; or Watson (2007), who creates a conceptual framework in order to examine how the creative process develops within an organization. In this article we describe how individuals perceive the internal functioning of teacher teams and how these teams are seen to function within

28

Galtés & Tomás – Conditioning Factors and Opportunities for Teamwork

the faculty. We used the data obtained to arrive at a holistic view, in which the environment, the faculty and the individuals all interact. By adopting a case study approach to identify the conditioning factors and opportunities for teamwork, we were able to consider what teams need if they are to improve their internal effectiveness. In accordance with our review of the literature, we established specific objectives that would enable us to analyse the factors that influence teamwork. These were: Objective 1: to analyse how the university structure influences the creation of teacher teams. Objective 2: to ascertain whether centres make provision for resources and support to enable teacher teams to function and develop. Objective 3: to examine from a socio-technical perspective how individuals experience teamwork (task, process and result). A Catalan University Catalonia is one of 20 autonomous regions in Spain established by the democratic constitution of 1978. Since the 1980s the state has undergone a process of increasing decentralisation, devolving power to the various autonomous communities in ways which, despite similarities, also show up significant differences. With a population of seven million, Catalonia is a region with a long history, a language of its own and distinct traditions, many of which date back to the medieval period. Today it enjoys very wide powers in many areas of administration, including its universities. In practice, this means that although certain general aspects come under state control, the specific regulations and administrative management of Catalan universities are the responsibility of the regional government, in this case the Generalitat de Catalunya (Catalan Autonomous Government). Harmonisation of the Catalan university system with the framework of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) has meant reforming the structure and organisation of teaching to respond to social requirements. This has forced certain faculties to implement simultaneously the changes necessary to bring teaching into line with the requirements and adaptation to the EHEA framework.


29

To generate a rapid and flexible response to this changing environment, the faculties have been granted greater autonomy, but at the same time their performance requirements have been increased. In this way each faculty has the scope to put in place an optimum organisational structure and to organise its own teaching and processes. These adjustments have led to greater responsibilities in both the faculties and their teacher teams. For this reason, the centres must consider two factors: first, the difficulties involved in creating organisational structures consistent with requirements; and secondly, the institution must commit to reaching agreements and decisions adapted to the current crisis. Teacher Teams at University The best organisations in the knowledge economy are those which base their activities on learning and where professionals work in teams. These organisations consolidate forms of operation which involve the sharing, exchange and generation of new knowledge (Hargreaves and Mata 2003). The current need to adapt to a rapidly changing environment has turned faculties into complex organisations in which coordination is essential. The academic environment in Catalonia still depends on a culture of mutual learning, supported by the capacity to build teacher teams capable of developing it. Circumstances such as these demand teachers with the specific skills to enable adaptation to change, process management, mutual learning and research (McRoy and Gibbs 2009). In this way many faculties will be able to position themselves as competitive knowledge organisations. The words ‘group’ and ‘team’ are often used synonymously. Definitions of the word ‘team’ are consistent in general terms, but acquire significant nuances in academic literature. At its most basic, a team is a collection of individuals who work within an institution, sharing common objectives and with some type of hierarchical structure which usually coincides with the structure of that institution. More elaborate examples, however, address more specific dimensions, including the number of components, degree of interaction and relationship, organisational structure, responsibilities, shared objectives and psycho-social aspects (Rey, Martín and Sebastian 2008). After reviewing the specialist literature, Tarricone and Luca (2002) summarise the six attributes necessary for a successful team as follows:

30


commitment of team members to the successful completion of objectives; a positive interdependence between team members that engenders an atmosphere of support and mutual learning; the presence of specific skills among team members that promote a work environment geared to effectiveness; open communication and positive feedback, in which criticism and suggestion find equal acceptance; team composition, in which all members know and understand the importance of their role within the team; and commitment in terms of processes, leadership and accountability to facilitate shared decision-making for problem-solving. Knowledge about the way teams function has improved greatly over the last three decades (Bass 1985; Burke et al. 2006; Dyer 1984; Goodwin 1999; Salas, Goodwin and Burke 2008; Salas 2012; Rosen, Bedwell, Wildman, Fritzsche, Salas and Burke 2011). Nevertheless, factors such as technology, globalisation and the often complex nature of work force organisations to reconsider how important it is to understand the effectiveness of teams in their environment. Current organisational trends once again consider the team as a key element, as was the case throughout the 1980s; but as stated by Salas, et al. (2008), it is now necessary to reformulate and reinterpret the ways in which teams operate in line with new contexts. The vision of the team from a functional perspective, in which tasks, processes and results are interdependent, is not new, but it has led to the current differentiation between teamwork and taskwork as critical factors for the team’s effectiveness. (Navarro, Quijano de Arana, Berger, & Meneses 2011). The functional perspective permits analysis of the team as a microsystem of work and coexistence, i.e. as a middle-management unit within an organisation. The faculty, which is made up of teacher groups with team characteristics, can consider these as basic functional units within the organisation to which can be delegated responsibility for and coordination of the teaching curriculum (Katzenbach 2000:11-12; Witziers et al. 1999). Conditioning Factors and Opportunities for Teamwork The previous section alluded to the need for faculties to reform their organisational model if they are to face up to new social, educational, structural and functional challenges. Their ability to achieve this will depend


31

largely on their having the flexibility, adaptability, creativity and capacity to take advantage of opportunities. To this end, faculties must embrace cooperation and continuous improvement and show a positive approach to problem-solving and a commitment to optimising their capacity for learning about themselves and their environment (Hargreaves 1996). As stated previously, teamwork calls for specific circumstances that are not always found in the faculties. On the one hand, obstacles arise which may hamper the functioning, development and performance of the teacher team. On the other, inadequate support is given to the circumstances necessary for teams to develop their functions consistent with a socio-technical approach, in which tasks, processes and results interact simultaneously (Navarro et al. 2011; Deneckere, Euwema, Van Herck, Lodewijckx, Panella, Sermeus and Vanhaecht 2012). By defining the scope of the necessary circumstances (conditioning factors) and their appropriateness in time and space (opportunities), we are able to conduct a thorough analysis of how these two dimensions influence the new structural, organisational and functional demands of the faculties. Structural Conditioning Factors Teamwork within the faculties may be either fostered or hampered, depending on what is set down in state and regional legislature and the statutes of each university. Governments see higher education as an important aspect of bringing productivity and efficiency into line with the country’s economic and social needs. Current trends in higher education policy are causing tension at universities with respect to internal administration. Governments fear uncontrolled expansion, yet at the same time expect faculties to reform to meet the challenges brought about by change. The legislative basis appears ambiguous. On the one hand, laws promote the diversification of university profiles; and on the other, they expect the faculties to develop new projects that are more competitive within the knowledge economy. All this generates a conflict of choice between diversification and specialisation. Faced with this dilemma, the faculties are forced to select the option most compatible with their history and with their strengths and weaknesses in terms

32


of human resources, image and reputation (Arata Andreani and Rodríguez Ponce 2009). Organisational Conditioning Factors Developing external and internal strategies, which permit adaptation to change, is a vital exercise for the faculties. Initiatives of the university system, considered here as external strategies, are promoting change within the faculties to bring about alignment with the economic and social needs of the country in terms of productivity and efficiency. Internal change strategies, closely related to external strategies, require the faculty to consider the management and development of human resources as a key element. This is an organisational matter in which managerial staff play an essential role; however, other structures such as those represented by the teachers and teams are also relevant. (Tomàs 2006). Internal aspects of the faculty may hamper or facilitate the teacher team processes and the results that promote change, both for the groups of individuals and for the centre itself (Alcover de la Hera et al. 2011). If faculties are to take into account internal enabling conditions, they must pay close attention to two aspects: first, planning for the time and space required for teams to meet and develop their activities unimpeded; and second, to give the teams sufficient flexibility to modify their internal structure as required, as well as to grant them the freedom to act in line with both institutional and team objectives. Functional Conditioning Factors The situations generated within a team may influence the work it does. By this we mean aspects such as the relationship between team functions and the results they need to achieve, the degree of interaction of members in line with workflow, their cognitive functioning as a team and the perception team members have of the relationship between the results obtained and the team’s effectiveness. At the internal level, the team as an entity must ensure that its individual members are flexible to the idea of change, tolerant towards internal differences and ambiguities, and prepared to accept situations of uncertainty


33

(West 2003). The effectiveness and efficiency of the team will be determined by the tasks they carry out and the results they obtain. The tasks, defined as group behaviours oriented towards the execution of activities, together with the results they obtain through the processes they apply, jointly determine the need for and effectiveness of working in a team (Navarro et al. 2011). The extent to which teamwork is required depends on the characteristics of the task to be carried out and the nature of the workflow. If the perception among individuals is one of effectiveness for both tasks and processes, there will be more feedback among the group and increased motivation to work together (Müller, Alliata and Benninghoff 2009). Two aspects of the task define teamwork: uncertainty and interdependence. Uncertainty, defined by the relationship between what the group aims to achieve and actual results, provides information about the capacity of the team to undertake tasks. To obtain this information, it is necessary to explore whether each team member has the same perception of the various specific issues: what has to be done and how best to do it, the quantity and variety of information to be managed, the incompatibility of the tasks and the approach to new tasks. Interdependence provides information on the direction of workflow between individuals and determines the degree of interaction among team members. Navarro et al. (2011) proposes four types of workflow. Minimum: the members have similar tasks and the final outcome is the sum of the individual outcomes. Sequential: the members develop different areas of the task in line with an established order and the final outcome depends on the efficiency of each step. Reciprocal: the members have different tasks in line with their skills and knowledge and the final outcome depends on each member of the team and the coordination between them. Maximum network flow: the members collaborate on the task simultaneously and organise themselves with a view to diagnosing and resolving the task effectively and efficiently. This is a workflow which defines teamwork. The fundamental reason for creating a team stems from the hope of completing a task with maximum efficiency. Since the task is a field in which the team seeks to attain task-linked objectives, a group without a task commissioned either by the organisation or the team itself is no longer a team, merely a social group (West 2003).

34


Teamwork becomes necessary when there are medium-to-high levels of uncertainty and reciprocal-maximal types of interaction (Navarro et al. 2011). The results, the second aspect that determines teamwork, are dependent from a socio-technical perspective on the team’s tasks and processes (Deneckere et al. 2012; Navarro et al. 2011). The close relationship between these three dimensions implies that the results depend on three aspects related to the perceptions of individual team members. First, the degree of internal organisation and coordination within the team; second, the level of mutual acceptance and interaction between individuals; and third, the degree of attention paid to the needs of team members. An effective team is one that displays high values for all three aspects. The ability of the team to complete the task satisfactorily, intensify efforts to strengthen the group or the activity and attend to the needs of individual team members, will promote the sense of team membership and continuity. Organisational Opportunities Applying internal strategies to manage and develop human capital presents an opportunity to improve conditions in the university context. Giving teams the resources they require will help them evolve and increase their effectiveness. The balance between the resources of the faculty and the needs of the teams manifests itself in the form of the support it offers. The faculty should consider three types of support. First, a human resources system which includes training policies that focus on developing the capacity of people to work in teams and organise human capital in such a way as to permit team autonomy and establish mechanisms for compensation and performance evaluation. Secondly, an organisational structure which fosters the relationship between teams and the faculty. This means that information channels are available in all directions. It also encourages teams to feel responsible towards the mission and vision of the faculty, since it sees them as effective tools. The organisational structure is one in which the upper levels support the proposals, the intermediate levels are catalysts and the teaching staff are agents. Thirdly, a system of internal interaction, in which the teams participate in decision-making thanks to a leadership that fosters cooperation and a sense of belonging. We refer here to the concept of distributed leadership – an alternative to the centralised model – which is characterised by dynamism,


35

relationship and collaboration, as well as being intrinsic to the context in which leadership evolves. Authors such as Inman (2010) and McRoy and Gibbs (2009) consider distributed leadership as a characteristic of the organisation, whereas others such as Bolden et al. (2009) see it as a theoretical rather than a practical concept. In the university context, in which the development pathway is forced to face up to competitiveness and the conflict between expectation and demand, the question is how the faculties can best offer a sense of continuity, motivate people towards a common purpose and mobilise collective forces throughout the institution. One coherent strategy may be to change the established organisational model. The shift from a centralised leadership model to a distributed one may provide an excellent opportunity for improvement, since it harmonizes the social environment with the fluidity of actions. Certainly this approach calls into question traditional bureaucratic and hierarchical organisational models. It is a model in which broader social relationships are seen as an opportunity for the faculty, which at the same time may help eliminate potential risks involved in the application of distributed leadership, such as distortion of the vertical organisation chart, a lack of connection between the different levels and the dispersion of responsibility. Functional Opportunities As an efficient tool for meeting the demands of the internal and external university environment, teacher teams have the potential to improve all activities geared to boosting efficiency and effectiveness. The processes a teacher team develops internally influence the cognitive functioning of the group. One vital team exercise is to apply improvement strategies that target weaknesses. These internal group weaknesses are expressed through the team’s degree of maturity; from a socio-technical perspective (Navarro et al. 2011) they manifest themselves through existing group development, the potency and identification of individual members with the group. For a team to become efficient and effective, its members need to analyse, collectively and recurrently, how individuals perceive its internal functioning. Analysis must focus on specific aspects. On the one hand, it must look at interpersonal relations and the degree to which members identify with the group, in order to discover the nature of the relationship and individual sense

36


of belonging to the group. On the other, it must consider the extent to which there is overlap between individual perceptions of team values. This establishes the degree of confidence and motivation that will give individuals the belief that – as a team – they can attain any goal. Achieving the level of “effective and efficient team” is labour-intensive but not impossible. According to our review of the literature and in line with a structural, organisational and functional approach, our study shows the following conditioning factors and opportunities for teamwork (see Table 1). Table 1 Conditioning Factors and Opportunities at each Level Factors Conditioning Factors

Opportunities

Level

Dimension

Level

Dimension

•structural

•legislation

•organisational

•support provided by the organisation

•organisational

•resources provided by the organisation

•functional

•team processes

•functional

•team tasks and results

Method In this section we describe the methodology applied in this study as well as the techniques and strategies for data collection. A descriptive methodology was used, based on a case study approach, in order to examine the structural, organisational and functional frame. This procedure enabled us to discover how individuals perceive the functioning of teacher teams in the specific context and under current conditions. The procedure as a whole had the approval of the Animal and Human Experimentation Ethics Committee (CEEAH) of the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB).


37

Based on our review of the literature, we identified the levels, dimensions and indicators (see Table 2) and established the conditioning factors and opportunities, as set out in the previous section (see Figure 1), that were used in drafting the questionnaire and interview guidelines. Table 2 Levels, Dimensions and Indicators Applied in the Study Level

Dimension

Structural

Legislative

Organisational

Resources

•Space •Time •Flexibility

Support

•HR management system •Organisational structure •Interaction

Tasks

•Uncertainty •Interdependence

Processes

•Level of group development •Potency •Identification with the group

Functional

Indicator

Results

Data Collection and Analysis Techniques In order to meet the expectations from a holistic perspective, the data were obtained through documental analysis, semi-structured interviews and the questionnaire. By applying these data collection techniques we were able to use both qualitative and quantitative methods for their analysis (see Figure 1).

38


OBJECTIVES

O1

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

INFORMANTS

DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS DIRECTOR

INTERVIEW

O2 O3

QUESTIONNAIRE

GE GD DIRECTOR

INTERVIEW

Figure 1 Relationship between objectives (Objective 1: O1; Objective 2: O2; Objective 3: O3), data collection techniques and information. The procedure applied for each data collection technique is set out below. For the purpose of documentary analysis, we adopted the technique of Content Analysis proposed by Glaser and Strauss (1967) (see Figure. 2). The universe was the legislation and regulations governing the faculty under review, as well as I2 of the interview (see Table 4). In order to establish the nine analysis units (AUs), we took a thematic criterion centred on the direct or indirect reference to the teacher teams, by which we were able to categorise data through a mixed process of induction and deduction. Data were transferred to a spreadsheet and translated into numerical values, in order to generate a table for each of the nine categories (categories and subcategories along the Y axis; AUs along the X axis).

UNIVERSE Legislation and university regulations. Interview.

DATA REDUCTION 1. Establishing analysis units 2. Identification and classification: categorization and codification.

TRANSFORMATION of numerical information. ARRANGING in tables and graphics.

Figure 2 Content analysis process (Glaser and Strauss 1967)

OBTAINING RESULTS AND DRAWING CONCLUSIONS.


39

The questionnaire was developed on the basis of the literature review and addressed the criteria of uniqueness, relevance and significance. For this purpose we used a Likert-type Item with five levels of response, as shown in the example in Table 3. Out of a total of 91 Items, 31 were specific to dimensions at the organisational level and 60 to dimensions at the functional level. Data were processed using SPSS software (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences). For this purpose, variables (Items) were codified and qualitative dichotomous nominal variables quantified in order to generate tables and figures for each indicator’s item. Table 3 Sample of Questionnaire Statements Organisational Level 1 The centre’s organisational structure promotes interaction between the organisation and the work teams. 2 In its organisation, the centre gives consideration to allocating physical areas for teamwork. 3 The centre supports the autonomy of work teams in decisionmaking. 4 Team members see cooperation as being fundamental to the organisation’s effectiveness. 5 The centre allows a transparent flow of information in both horizontal and vertical directions. 6 The centre allows individuals to decide for themselves the team formation they consider best suited to execution of their tasks. 7 The centre strengthens and facilitates leadership that guarantees adaptation of the work team to the demands of the environment. 8 The relationship between the work team and the organisation is appropriate to the attainment of organisational objectives. 9 The centre does not have a pre-set schedule for teamwork. 10 The centre fosters social interaction of the various teams through clear and open communication.

12345

40


In order to develop a focused interview, we drafted a statement guideline (In see Table 4) based on the indicators and dimensions defined for the study. This approach enabled us to link the interview responses with the questionnaire responses and data from the documentary analysis. During the interviews, questions were asked in no particular order so as to facilitate open responses. Data obtained on statements I1, I3, I4 and I5 were categorised and linked to the questionnaire with respect to each Item (variable). Data obtained in I2 constituted AU9 and was therefore linked to the documentary analysis and processed using the content analysis technique. Table 4 Statement Guidelines for the Interview I1

Biographical data of the individual (degree(s), previous responsibilities at the centre and elsewhere, managerial experience, university experience).

I2

We would like to hear what you think about the university’s legislative framework. Do you think it specifies what the role of teacher teams should be in executing their funcions?

I3

Tell us about the resources the centre provides for teamwork.

I4

Tell us about the suport the centre provides for teamwork.

I5

Current trends in teamwork establish a link between task, processes and results. Tell us how this Works in your department.

Note. I1, I2, I3, I4, I5 = statement guideline.

Findings Questionnaire responses were received from the director and all GEs. For GDs, we received responses from 31 participants, with a margin of error of 0.1 (10%, participation was between 46% [56%-10%] and 66% [56%+10%]). For the results of the questionnaire the following parameters were considered: size of study population (n), valid values (Vv), lost values (Vp), mean (μ), median (Me), standard deviation (SD), minimum (Min), maximum network flow (Max).   The results are presented in line with the research framework and the levels considered for the study.


41

Structural level The centre under review defines its internal structure in line with its affiliation agreement, regional regulations (Autonomous Community) and national regulations. The centre possesses by law full autonomy to define the rules for functioning and internal organisation it considers most appropriate. As such, in its internal rules and regulations the centre defines the functions and competencies of single-person positions but not those relating to teacher teams, as confirmed by the subjective response of the interviewee: The functions to be accomplished by the teacher team are not clearly defined. One of the aspects introduced by the Bologna Plan was the shift from teacher to teacher team, in which teachers would share a lot more of the work. This situation is more prevalent in small centres. I think this is the case for our centre. The departmental system is very successful for research purposes but it does not work at teaching level. At least not for the departmental model we know.

Organisational Level According to the results obtained for the Resources dimension (see Table 5), the centre under review has sufficient space and time for teamwork, but does not have a pre-established schedule for teamwork (T3: Me = 2.00). Table 5 Statistics for the Resources Dimension. Relationship between Indicators and their Related Item. Space indicator

Time indicator

Flexibility indicator

Esp 1

Esp 2

T3

T4

T5

F6

F7

F8

F9

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

6

6

6

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

31

31

31

μ

3.16

3.54

2.38

3.97

3.38

3.19

4.00

4.00

3.00

Me

4.00

4.00

2.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

SD

1.191

1.169

0.861 1.040 1.187

Min

0

1

0

1

0

0

3

3

2

Max

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

5

4

N

1.198 0.632 0.894 0.632

42


Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; Esp = space; T = time; F = flexibility.

Among the groups studied, there was no unanimous view concerning the criterion of flexibility necessary for teamwork. Responses from the GD group do not lead to conclusive results (F6: μ = 3.19). However, both the GE group and director (F7 and F8: μ = 4.00) assert that they have the remit to change team size and renew components whenever necessary, as long as they keep the team structure established by the centre. As stated by the director: I assume leadership and in general this will not be transferred to anyone else – in specific or ad hoc situations, perhaps, but never as a whole team. I would agree to someone else taking the lead for a specific process in which I participate as group member. But I am the one who is held accountable.

There was agreement on the individual perceptions of leadership exercised (see Table 6, L28: μ = 3.32, SD = 1.107). Results obtained in the Support dimension reflect individual perceptions relating to the indicators (see Table 6). With reference to the human resources system, the faculty does not provide for a system of rewards and training policies for teams (SR10: μ = 2.49; PF12: μ = 2.41). And with regard to the organisation’s appraisal system, although this assures institutional quality, it does not provide for a performance evaluation of teacher teams (Ev14: μ = 2.78, SD = 1.315). Lastly, results obtained for the Autonomy sub-indicator reveal the views of groups GE and GD. In their opinion, the faculty grants teacher teams minimal decision-making power (A15: μ = 3.54, SD = 1.325; A17: μ = 2.83, SD = 1.169).  With regard to the organisational structure, results showed a positive perception, since informants indicated that the faculty fosters interaction and interrelation between teams and the organisation itself (Es18: μ = 3.65, I19: μ = 3.59) through vertical information transfer (TI21: μ = 3.57, SD = 1.094; TI22: μ = 4.00).


43

Table 6 Statistics for the Support Dimension. Relationship between the Indicators for Human Resources, Organisational Structure and Interaction and the corresponding Item. Human Resources indicator

Organisational Structure indicator

SR10 SR11 PF12 PF13 Ev14 A15 A16 A17

Es18

I19

Interaction indicator

TI20 TI21 TI22 Im23 Ap24

DP25 DP26 L27

L28 Cu29 Cu30 Cu31

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

6

37

37

6

37

6

37

36

6

37

6

37

6

37

37

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

31

0

0

31

0

31

0

1

31

0

31

0

31

0

0

N μ

2.49 3.51 2.41 4.41 2.78 3.54 3.65 2.83

3.65 3.59 4.17 3.57 4.00 3.59 3.33

3.33 3.08 3.67 3.32 2.83 3.59 3.70

Me

3.00 4.00 2.00 5.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 3.00

4.00 4.00 4.50 4.00 4.00 4.00 3.50

3.00 3.00 4.00 4.00 2.50 4.00 4.00

SD

1.017 1.239 1.013 0.762 1.315 1.325 1.006 1.169

1.160 0.985 0.983 1.094 0.894 0.865 1.069

0.516 0.983 1.033 1.107 0.983 0.956 0.909

Min

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

1

0

1

3

1

3

0

0

3

0

2

1

2

1

2

Max

4

5

4

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

4

5

5

Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; SR = rewards system; PF = training policies; Ev = evaluation; A = autonomy; Es = structure; I = interrelationship; TI = transmission of Information; Im = implication; Ap = learning; DP = dynamics of participation; L = leadership; Cu = culture.

The lack of a clear view among interviewees about participation dynamics (DP26: μ = 3.08) is consistent with the ambiguity concerning responsibility towards faculty objectives (Im 23: μ = 3.59). Also noteworthy are the results obtained with respect to organisational values (Cu29: μ = 2.83).

44


Functional Level With regard to the Tasks dimension, the uncertainty indicator (see Table 7) reveals few incompatibilities or conflicts. Tasks performed by the GE and GD groups are compatible (Con 47: μ = 3.86) and clearly defined (Cl 32: μ = 4.19). Both groups perceive the need to select the most appropriate approach to be effective (Nov 41: μ = 4.14). Nevertheless, both groups perceive that the tasks assigned to them are very diverse and therefore require processing of a great deal of information (Div 39: μ = 3.24, SD = 1.011. Note the high level of dispersion in the responses). Table 7 Statistics for the Task dimension. Relationship between Uncertainty indicators and corresponding Item number. Uncertainty indicator Cl32

Cl33

Cl34

Cl35

Cl36

Cl37

Div38 Div39 Div40 Nov41 Nov42 Nov43 Nov44 Nov45 Nov46 Con47 Con48 Con49

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

μ

4.19

3.03

2.27

3.08

3.86

3.35

3.41

3.24

1.95

4.14

2.19

3.78

2.84

3.68

2.11

3.86

2.46

2.89

Me

4.00

3.00

2.00

3.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

2.00

4.00

2.00

4.00

3.00

4.00

2.00

4.00

2.00

3.00

SD

0.776

1.142

1.045

1.164

0.751

0.789

0.896

1.011

0.705

0.631

0.967

0.712

0.834

0.784

0.843

0.673

0.900

1.173

Min

2

1

0

1

2

2

2

1

1

3

1

2

1

2

1

2

1

1

Max

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

4

5

4

5

5

5

N

Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; Cl = clarity; Div = diversity; Nov = novelty; Con = conflict.


With regard to the interaction indicator (see Table 8), results show that the workflow in groups GE and GD is mainly sequential (Sec 54: μ = 4.00), although it sometimes presents a reciprocal (Rc 57: μ = 4.14) and maximal interaction (Mr 60: μ = 3.92). Table 8 Statistics for the Task dimension. Relationship between Interdependence indicators and corresponding Item number Interdependence indicator Mi50

Mi51

Sec52

Sec53

Sec54

Rc55

Rc56

Rc57

Mr58

Mr59

Mr60

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

μ

3.35

3.51

3.16

3.41

4.00

3.59

3.54

4.14

3.27

3.70

3.92

Me

3.00

4.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

SD

1.060

1.044

0.898

1.013

0.667

0.956

1.095

0.585

1.071

0.996

0.640

Min

1

1

1

2

3

2

1

3

1

1

3

Max

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

N

Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; Mi = minimum; Sec = sequential; Rc = reciprocal; Mr = maximum network flow.

These results are confirmed by the statement of the informant: Each person has a task and an assignment. There is a document in which every duty is explicitly defined for each position, from the deputy director to the coordinator. The task is relatively ambiguous. Nevertheless, we manage to get by until the end of the academic year – and that’s saying a lot. Objectives are imposed by circumstances. There are few tangibles in our work.

Turning now to the results obtained in the Process dimension (see Table 9), for the Group Development indicator, the two groups GE and GD reveal contradictory responses concerning interaction between members: one group perceived no interaction between members (Ig63: μ = 2.89, SD =1.075), the other group was not aware of the existence of poor interaction (Ig 65: μ = 2.84, SD =1.167). Note in both cases the high level of dispersion in the responses. GE and GD perceived a sense of being coordinated (Coo 67: μ = 3.86), without clearly expressing the extent to which they share values (OM 66: μ = 3.32) and care about group development (OM 68: μ = 3.54).

46


Table 9 Statistics for the Process dimension. Relationship between the indicators Group Development, Potency, Identification and corresponding Item number Group Development indicator

Potency indicator

Ig65 OM66 Coo67 OM68

Conf69 Mot70 R71 Mot72 P73

Identification indicator

Ig61

Id62

Ig63

Id64

P74 Mot75

Pe76

Pe77

Ig78

Pe79

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

μ

3.05

3.46

2.89

3.62

2.84

3.32

3.86

3.54

3.70

3.32

2.81

3.27

3.70

3.86

3.14

3.19

3.59

3.35

3.49

Me

3.00

4.00

3.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

4.00

4.00

4.00

SD

0.941 0.803 1.075 0.794 1.167 0.915 0.787 0.836

N

0.702 0.709 0.938 0.693 0.702 0.855 0.787

0.995 0.927 1.060 1.096

Min

1

2

1

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

1

0

Max

4

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; Ig = interrelationship; Id = identification; OM = goal orientation; Coo = coordination; Conf = trust; Mot = motivation; R = recognition; P = productivity; Pe = belonging; Ig = equality.

With regard to the results obtained in the potency indicator, both groups show a relative level of trust (Conf 69: μ = 3.70) and motivation (Mot 72: μ = 3.27), and despite seeing themselves as a productive group (P 74: μ = 3.86), they do not expect recognition for their success (R 71: μ = 2.81). In neither group was there a clear perception of personal identification with the group to which they belong (Ig 78: μ = 3.35, SD = 1.060; Pe 79: μ = 3.49, SD = 1.096). The ambiguity of the interviewee’s response confirms the results obtained in the Process dimension:


47

Despite our differences, interpersonal relationships are very good. Without going into particular cases, I would give our ability to cooperate a score of 8. 10 points would be impossible, considering that our group is made up of eight people with individual characteristics and opinions and that the results are not tangible. I do believe that we are able to address challenges, but we are always aware of the possibility of failure. I don’t think everybody feels the same. There is a little of everything. Some feel undervalued in certain circumstances. Others feel highly valued. To a certain extent this is my responsibility. The disparity of views within the team generates frictions and conflicts.

Finally, the results obtained in the results dimension (see Table 10) show medium to low scores. Table 10 Statistics for the Results Dimension. Relationship between the indicators and the corresponding Item number. Achievement of Objectives indicator

Group Continuation indicator

Meeting Needs indicator

CO80 CO84 CO86 CO88 CO90

MG82 MG83 MG87 MG91

SN81

SN85

SN89

Vv

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

37

Vp

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

μ

3.73

2.65

3.38

3.84

3.30

2.43

3.70

3.57

3.14

3.43

3.24

3.16

Me

4.00

2.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

2.00

4.00

4.00

3.00

4.00

3.00

3.00

SD

0.608 1.806 0.861 0.553 0.909

1.068 0.878 0.987 1.084

1.015

1.038

0.898

N

Min

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

Max

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

Note. N = size of study population; Vv = valid values; Vp = lost values; μ = mean; Me = median; SD = standard deviation; Min = minimum value; Max = maximum value; CO = achievement od objectives; MG = group continuation; SN = meeting needs.

Both groups, GE and GD, consider themselves effective (CO 88: μ = 3.84) but they do not express a clear view about maintaining coordination and organisation for efficiency (CO 90: μ = 3.30). They do not perceive problems of internal functioning (MG 82: μ = 2.43, SD = 1.068. Note the dispersion in

48


the responses) but they also fail to show a clear common feeling of being a group (MG 91: μ = 3.14, SD = 1.084. Note the dispersion in the responses). The responses also fail to provide a clear perception of whether individual personal needs are met (SN 85: μ = 3.24, SD = 1.038. Note the dispersion in the responses; SN 89: μ = 3.16). These results contrast with the following informant’s opinion: Most of them show concern. Some are relatively open, others more reserved. It depends on their personalities. If someone is having a bad time, the others usually lend their support, because the same can also happen – or perhaps already has happened – to them.

Discussion and Conclusions In this article we have presented the conditioning factors and opportunities that influence teamwork. On the basis of the defined objectives and through individual personal experiences, we describe how teacher teams are perceived at the institution under review. We argue that although there is evidence for the existence of teams within the organisation, the study reveals little success in real terms concerning the link between teams and the organisational system. This is in line with the assertions of Guzzo and Dickson (1996). The autonomy of Catalan universities to develop an organisational system more appropriate to the current reality presents an opportunity for them to improve their position in the university system as a whole. According to Arata Andreani and Rodríguez Ponce (2009), by analysing strengths and weaknesses within their environments, centres are better able to opt for an organisational model adapted to their vision and mission. However, developing an adapted model hinders recognition of the faculties within the university community. If we are to move from this developing or embryonic phase to a more mature one which recognises the faculties, these must identify their limitations and implement improvement strategies with a positive impact both on people and the institution. These limitations must be addressed through academic development practices that enable teaching-learning by leadership capable of capturing and promoting achievement in the different areas of development (Palmer, Holt and Challis 2011).


49

The faculty in our study does not take into account a team model that can be replicated in the organisation chart, as demonstrated by McRoy and Gibbs (2009), since it defines functions and competences for single-person positions but not those for teams. Given the need of the faculty in question to develop greater autonomy, possible internal strategies to be applied may include teamwork, proper interaction between teacher teams, and the conversion of team members into process managers. Teamwork, as the first internal strategy, requires a reinterpretation of the functioning of teacher teams based on the learning culture (Hargreaves and Mata 2003; Salas et al. 2008). This type of culture calls for reciprocity between the responsibility of individuals and the faculty’s recognition of teams as effective management units. The construction of this enabling framework requires the existence of concrete factors. On the one hand, the availability of optimum time-space conditions to facilitate teamwork. On the other, an organisational structure that provides for distributed leadership, in which responsibility rests with every individual in the faculty. We are referring here to a leadership in which the upper levels support the proposals, the intermediate levels are the catalysts and the lecturers are the agents (Inman 2010; McRoy and Gibbs 2009). At the faculty in question, two main factors hinder the composition of effective teacher teams and the development of a learning culture. First, a lack of time scheduled for meetings, which hampers individual learning, learning of teams within the faculty and the establishment of shared leadership. Secondly, a human resources management system without clear focus, since it does not attach sufficient importance to the training and evaluation of teacher teams. This second aspect has a direct impact on the effectiveness, recognition of achievements and responsibility of individuals towards the faculty. It would therefore be advisable for the human resources management system to develop and implement plans with a focus on training for teamwork strategies and the evaluation of teacher teams. As a second internal strategy, proper interaction between teacher teams and the faculty offers the opportunity for synchronous growth in both. The centre in question displays an asynchrony which has a direct impact on the feedback and coordination necessary for the growth and development of individuals, teams and as a consequence for attaining the objective of being effective and

50


efficient institutional management units capable of handling the innovation which adaptation to EHEA entails. Finally, the third internal strategy, which refers to the conversion of teachers into process managers, calls for well-qualified, specialised teachers with specific skills and that enrich the team (Gil Rodríguez et al. 2008; Gómez Mújica and Acosta Rodríguez 2003; Katzenbach 1996). Evidence of teamdefining conditions can be found by examining groups using the sociotechnical approach (Deneckere et al 2012; Navarro et al 2011); according to this approach, groups attain team conditions only when there are medium-tohigh levels of uncertainty and interdependence, group development (identification with group values, coordination and sharing of objectives) and efficiency through the achievement of objectives. Results obtained at a functional level show that teamwork is seen as unnecessary. First, the groups under review show medium-to-low levels for the task indicators, resulting in a weak link in the task-outcome relationship, a low level of shared mental perception and in a workflow that does not stimulate interaction between members. Secondly, the groups under review take a more individual than group approach to developing processes, which results in weak identification with the group to which they belong and the perception of being groups with a low level of potency. Thirdly, since group members perceive low levels of organisation, coordination and unity within the groups to which they belong, there is little potential to remain as teacher teams in the long-term. The lack of consideration given to teacher teams as management units within an institution has a direct impact on the individuals and the institution itself. An institution has to be creative and motivated if it wishes to position itself as competitive and successful in the university context. Creativity is generated at the individual level, in the interactions of group work and in the multi-level organisational systems (Watson 2007). Creativity will also stimulate people’s motivation when they see that their individual efforts have an impact on the success of the faculty (Müller et al. 2009). Consistent with the objectives outlined for this study, we may conclude that there are no regulatory barriers to prevent the creation of teacher teams in the faculties. However, the faculties must provide the opportunities necessary for teams to function effectively and efficiently. In order to generate this reciprocity, the faculty could provide personal development for individuals


51

within the teams and those in the faculty, thereby fostering a sense of belonging. The failure to consider teacher teams as an internal strategy for institutional growth hampers its potential to position itself as a high-quality faculty in the university environment.

References Alcover de la Hera, C. M., Rico, R., & Gil Rodríguez, F. (2011). Equipos de trabajo en contextos organizacionales: dinámicas de cambio, adaptación y aprendizaje en entornos flexibles. Papeles del psicólogo: revista del Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos, 32(1), 7–16. Retrieved from http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/extart?codigo=3406731 Arata Andreani, A., & Rodríguez Ponce, E. (2009). Desafíos y perspectivas de la dirección estratégica de las instituciones universitarias (p. 549). Santiago, Chile: Eds. Comisión Nacional de Acreditación. Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press. Burke, C.S., Stagl, K.C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G.F., Salas, E. & Halpin, S.M. (2006). What type of leadership behaviors are functional in teams? A meta-analysis. The Leadership Quarterly 17: 288–307. Dyer JL (1984). Team research and team training: A state-of-the-art review. Human Factors Review, pp. 285-319. Bolden, R., Petrov, G., & Gosling, J. (2009). Distributed Leadership in Higher Education: Rhetoric and Reality. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. doi: 10.1177/1741143208100301 Deneckere, S., Euwema, M., Van Herck, P., Lodewijckx, C., Panella, M., Sermeus, W., & Vanhaecht, K. (2012). Care pathways lead to better teamwork: Results of a systematic review. Social Science & Medicine. doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.02.060 Dyer, J.L. (1984). Team research and team training: A state-of-the-art review. Human Factors Review, pp. 285-319. Gil Rodríguez, F., Rico, R., & Sánchez Manzanares, M. (2008). Eficacia de equipos de trabajo. Papeles del psicólogo: revista del Colegio Oficial, 29(1 (Ejemplar dedicado a: Empleo, organizaciones y recursos humanos)), 25–31.

52


Glaser, B.G., & Strauss, A.L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory. Estrategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine. Gómez Mújica, A., & Acosta Rodríguez, H. (2003). Acerca del trabajo en grupos o equipos. Acimed: revista cubana de los profesionales de la información y la comunicación en salud, 11(6). González-Romá, V. (2011). El clima de los equipos de trabajo: una propiedad configuracional. Papeles del psicólogo: revista del Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos, 32(1), 48–58. Retrieved from http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/extart?codigo=3406748 Goodwin, G.F. (1999). Predicting performance in U.S. Army Special Forces teams: Staffing and composition issues (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1999). Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 3605. Guzzo, R.A., & Dickson, M.W. (1996). Teams in organizations: recent research on performance and effectiveness. Annual review of psychology, 47, 307–338. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.47.1.307 Hargreaves, A. (1996). Las paradojas poseedoras. En Hargreaves A (1996). Profesorado, cultura y postmodernidad :cambian los tiempos, cambia el profesorado (pp. 73-114). Madrid: Morata DL 1996. Hargreaves, A., & Mata, A. (2003). Enseñar en la sociedad del conocimiento: la educación en la era de la inventiva (p. 244). Barcelona: Octaedro. Inman, M. (2010). The Journey to Leadership for Academics in Higher Education. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 39(2), 228–241. doi: 10.1177/1741143210390055 Katzenbach, D.K., J.R.S. (1996). Sabiduría de los equipos. El desarrollo de la organización de alto rendimiento. Díaz de Santos. Katzenbach, J.R. (2000). El Trabajo en equipo: ventajas y dificultades. Management / Granica (p. 367). Barcelona: Granica. Lencioni, P. (2003). Las Cinco disfunciones de un equipo: un inteligente modelo para formar un equipo cohesionado y eficaz (p. 215). Barcelona: Empresa activa. McRoy, I., & Gibbs, P. (2009). Leading Change in Higher Education. Educational Management Administration & Leadership 37(5), 687– 704. doi: 10.1177/1741143209339655 Müller, K., Alliata, R., & Benninghoff, F. (2009). Attracting and Retaining Teachers. A Question of Motivation. Educational Management


53

Administration & Leadership 37 (5), 574-599. doi: 10.1177/1741143209339651 Navarro, J., Quijano de Arana, S. D. de, Berger, R., & Meneses, R. (2011). Grupos en las organizaciones: herramienta básica para gestionar la incertidumbre y ambigüedad crecientes. Papeles del psicólogo: revista del Colegio Oficial de Psicólogos, 32(1), 17–28. Retrieved from http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/extart?codigo=3406734 OECD. (2011). Higher Education in Regional and City Development: Catalonia, Spain 2011. Higher Education in Regional and City Development. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. doi: 10.1787/9789264089006-en Palmer, S., Holt, D., & Challis, D. (2011). Strategic leadership of Teaching and Learning Centres: from reality to ideal. Higher Education Research & Development, 30(6), 807–821. doi: 10.1080/07294360.2010.539600 Rachford, N., & Coghlan, D. (1992). Effective Administration Through Organizational Levels. Journal of Educacional Administration, 30 (4), 63. doi: 10.1108/09578239210020516 Rey, J., Martín, M.J., & Sebastian, J. (2008). Estructura y dinámica de los equipos de investigación. ARBOR. Ciencia, Pensamiento y Cultura. Julio-agosto (732), 743-757. Rosen, M.A., Bedwell, W.L., Wildman, J.L., Fritzsche, B.A., Salas, E., & Burke, C.S. (2011). Managing adaptive performance in teams: Guiding principles and behavioral markers for measurement. Human resource management review. New Developments in Performance Management 21(2), 107 -122. doi: 10.1016/j.hrmr.2010.09.003 Rué, J., & Lodeiro, L. (2010). Equipos docentes y nuevas identidades académicas (pp. 216). Madrid: Narcea. Salas, E., Goodwin, G. F., & Burke, C. S. (2008). Team Effectiveness In Complex Organizations: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives and Approaches. SIOP Organizational Frontiers Series. Routledge Academic. Salas, E. (2012). The science of training and development in organizations: What matters in practice. Psychological science in the public interest 13(2):74 -101. doi: 10.1177/1529100612436661

54


Tarricone, P., & Luca, J. (2002) Successful teamwork: A case study, in Quality. Conversations, Proceedings of the 25th HERDSA Annual Conference, Perth, Western Australia, 7-10 July 2002: pp 640. Tomàs, M. (2006). Misión y funciones de la universidad en los albores del siglo XX. En Tomás, M. (2006). Reconstruir la universidad a través del cambio cultural. (pp. 47-64). Barcelona: Servei de Publicaciones de la Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. Watson, E. (2007). Who or What Creates? A Conceptual Framework for Social Creativity. Human Resource Development Review 6(4): 419441. doi: 10.1177/1534484307308255 West, M.A. (2003). El trabajo eficaz en equipo. (pp.15-21). Barcelona: Paidós Ibérica. Witziers, B., Sleegers, P., & Imants, J. (1999). Departments as Teams: Functioning, Variations, and Alternatives. School leadership and management, 19(3), 293–304. doi: 10.1080/13632439969050

Ruth Galtés is Professor at Fundació Universitària del Bages. Contact Address: Fundació Universitària del Bages Av. Universitària, 4-6 08242 Manresa [email protected] Marina Tomàs is Tenured Lecturer – CUCC Coordinator. Contact Address: Departament de Pedagogia Aplicada Edifici G6-268 Campus de Bellaterra 08193, Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Bages)


The appointment of school leaders in Mexican Primary Schools: an exploratory study of the system of promotion Manuel Lopez Delgado1 1) Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez. Mexico Date of publication: January 16th, 2015 Edition period: January 2015-July 2015

To cite this article: Lopez, M. (2015). The appointment of school leaders in Mexican Primary Schools: an exploratory study of the system of promotion. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 5579. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.04 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.04



The Appointment of School Leaders in Mexican Primary Schools: an Exploratory Study of the System of Promotion Manuel Lopez Delgado Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez Abstract This study explored the Mexican system to appoint school leaders from a perspective that could consider its positive aspects and as well as its shortcomings. This research was framed as an exploratory case study. Three types of participants were interviewed: five aspiring heads, twelve incumbent heads, and four administrators of the promotion system. Thematic analysis was the procedure adopted in the analysis of transcripts. The research was carried out to the highest ethical standards in educational research as anonymity, confidentiality, and respect for the participants were observed all the time. The study revealed that there are some positive aspects in the Mexican system that could enable its consolidation. The study found also a need to upgrade the current system of promotion since school leaders in Mexico are appointed by a system in which its regulations and procedures were promulgated more than 40 years ago. The current system of promotion does not enable the appointment of prepared school leaders. The findings revealed a need for leadership preparation as a prerequisite for participants in competitions for deputy headships, headships and for those who are already holding a leadership position. Keywords: promotion to headship, appointment of school heads in Mexico, leadership preparation and development



El Nombramiento de Directores en las Escuelas Primarias Mexicanas: un Estudio Exploratorio del Sistema de Promoción Manuel López Delgado Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Resumen Este estudio exploró el sistema mexicano de nombramiento de directores escolares desde una perspectiva que pudiera considerar tanto sus aspectos positivos como sus deficiencias. Esta investigación fue enmarcada como un estudio de caso exploratorio. Se entrevistó a tres tipos de participantes: cinco aspirantes al puesto de director escolar, doce directores en el puesto, y cuatro administradores del sistema de promoción. El análisis temático fue el procedimiento utilizado para el análisis de datos. La investigación se llevó a cabo cuidando aspectos éticos como el anonimato, confidencialidad y respeto por los participantes. El estudio reveló que hay algunos aspectos positivos en el sistema mexicano de nombramiento de directores que podrían favorecer su consolidación. El estudio también encontró la necesidad de actualizar el sistema de promoción debido a que los directores escolares son promovidos al cargo mediante procedimientos y reglamentos que fueron promulgados hace más de 40 años. El sistema actual no favorece el nombramiento de directores escolares preparados para el puesto. Los resultados revelaron la necesidad de establecer preparación para el puesto como un prerrequisito a los aspirantes a puestos de subdirector y director, y para aquellos que ya están ejerciendo el puesto directivo. Palabras clave: promoción a la dirección escolar, nombramiento de directores escolares en México, preparación y desarrollo del liderazgo



T

57

here is a growing body of evidence that school leadership has a positive impact on student outcomes for children and young people second only to the influence of teachers in the classroom (Leithwood et al., 2006). Governments around the world are devoting unparalleled resources to develop aspiring school leaders, as well as those who are already in the role (Leithwood and Day, 2007; NCSLCS, 2009). School leaders play a key role in the way education is delivered since they can influence the conditions that help or limit educational practices in schools. There is evidence from research that school leaders influence the activities that are at the heart of educational endeavours such as teaching and learning. It has been demonstrated that after the classroom teacher, heads are the next most influential factor in improving student outcomes (Owings et al., 2005). There has been verification of how in schools with effective school leaders, teachers improve their practices at a greater pace than those with less effective leadership (Beteille et al., 2009). This is why one of the key aspects that educational systems have implemented to strengthen school leadership has been leadership development and preparation. It is reported that some countries offer preparation at all stages of a school head’s career e.g. preservice, induction, incumbency, and other countries providing at least one or two (Pont et al., 2008; Huber, 2008). In this regard Bush (2008) has suggested that headship is a specialist occupation that requires specific preparation. It has been demonstrated that effective school leadership emanates from prepared heads (Matters, 2005; Thomas and Bainbridge, 2002). Moorosi and Bush (2011) found that give preparation no attention means schools could be placed in the hands of unqualified personnel. Daresh and Male (2000) found the culture of shock moving into headship without previous preparation. In addition to preparation and development of potential school heads, implementing processes of choosing effective school leaders is one of the most significant decisions educational systems need to make. Most of the research conducted on the practices of appointing school leaders has been carried out only in a few countries. There is not a wide landscape of practices implemented elsewhere at an international level and the effects these practices have on appointing competent school leaders. That is the case of the processes of accessing headship in Latin America. This research was conducted in the state of Chihuahua Mexico to examine the current process to appoint school leaders established in Mexico by a programme known as the Escalafón, a vertical system that assigns leadership positions in schools and the educational

58

Lopez, M. – The appointment of school leaders in Mexican Primary Schools

system based on the accumulation of points. This research intended to deepen the understanding of the strengths and shortcomings of the programme based on the perceptions of administrators of the programme at state level, teachers who are currently participating in competitions for a leadership post, and incumbent heads who have been appointed by the point-based system. The Appointment of School Heads There is not a standard process to appoint school leaders since each country has tailored its own practices based on their contexts. Barber et al. (2010) conducted a study in Canada, England, United States, New Zealand, The Netherlands, Singapore, and Australia aimed to analyse the practices that the world's top school systems are implementing. In the study it is reported that "the selection and appoint process varies widely across school systems" (p. 13). It is evident that even in countries and regions in which the strengthening of school leadership has been a priority there are differences in the procedures to appoint school leaders. For instance, Alvarez (2003) points out that in the European Union there are several processes to appoint school heads such as national competitive exams, public competitions, or selection committees. Bryan (2008) identifies two approaches in the appointment of school leaders, the first based on criteria that have little to do with the position (kinship, filiations, partisanship, favouritism) described as particularism, and the second approach in which school leaders are selected based on objective criteria that emanate from some merit based assessment (prior performance, satisfaction of pre-established criteria, completion of a pre-service or inservice programme; participation in a carefully constructed mentor programme) defined as universalism. In the case of Mexico the official process to appoint school leaders adhere to the principles of universalism given that leadership positions are assigned in a selection process. In compulsory education composed by the educational levels of preschool, primary, and middle education, school leaders are appointed by a vertical system called the Escalafón established in 1973, which is currently dictating how school leaders should be appointed. In this system, teachers pursuing leadership positions just have to accumulate points in four main aspects: professional preparation (qualifications and continuous professional development), aptitude, years of service, and discipline and punctuality). The system does not require previous compulsory preparation


59

for headship to participate in competitions, and the system does not assess potential to lead and manage a school since promotions to leadership posts are assigned to the person that has accumulated more points. The system is controlled by the ministry of education (SEP) in partnership with the teachers' union. The programme is established with the same organisational structure in each of the 32 states and is administered jointly by the ministry of education and the teachers' union in the Joint National Commission for Teacher Promotion. Educational specialists in Mexico frequently adopt a critical position when assessing the system of promotion. In this regard, Cordero et al. (2008) commented that newly appointed heads have accumulated throughout their career list of courses and workshops little related with their role. Canales and Benzies (2009) point out that usually under this system the journey to headship takes years for the tedious task to accumulate points. Slater et al. (2006) described that a teacher must play the game of earning points and let time pass to gain seniority to become a school leader in Mexico. Another aspect reported by the literature is the element of patronage seemingly present, Slater et al. (2006) state that "there is little trust in the Escalafón because no one really knows if the people hired are the most qualified or really have the greatest number of points" (p. 72). Further they comment: "people know of many incidents of malpractice when positions are directed away from the person with the most points" (p. 72). There also seems to be present the influence of the teachers union to favour the appointment of its supporters. Arnaut (1998) points out that the union has always aimed at a large representation in the positions of leadership in schools as a mean of political control of staff. Raimers (2006) reported that the teachers' union plays a very large role in hiring, retaining and promoting teachers. This influence is seemingly favoured by current educational policy that gives the union the power to make decisions beyond the functions of a union (Hevia et al. 2010). This situation has generated the incorporation of new teachers to the profession based on political affiliation to the union in which sometimes occurs the selling, buying and inheriting of posts (Guevara and Gonzalez, 2004; Barrera, 2009). For instance, in the State of Chihuahua, Muñoz (2005) asserts, based on an interview with the first governor of opposition that previous to 1992 there had not been a notification of competition for a promotion to a headship in public schools in 14 years. In this regard, Hevia et al. (2010) point out that the appointment of heads in

60


Mexico is based on the relationship that those seeking a leadership post have with the teachers’ union more than their pedagogical, leadership, and managerial skills. The Mexican Educational System The Mexican compulsory education enrols around 35 million students (87 percent of all students in the country) and employs approximately 2 million teachers (SEP, 2012). The ministry of education and the teachers' union are the two main actors in the education policy arena. By law, all school personnel in all public schools belong to the teachers' union. Governance is centralised with the ministry of education setting the academic calendar, curricula, grading scales, graduation requirements, distributing free textbooks and, hiring and firing school personnel. Schools, teachers and school heads have little autonomy in the educational system. This centralisation is also present in the appointment of school leaders since regulations and procedures are dictated at national level. The Study This research was framed as an exploratory case study given that this design enabled to gain an in-depth understanding of the perceptions of aspirant school heads, incumbent heads, and government and union officials in relation to the process implemented in Mexico to appoint school leaders. The research explored the strengths and the areas of possible improvement of the current process implemented. The most suitable approach to explore these aspects was through a qualitative framework using the methodology of case study. Case study is the most suitable approach for exploratory research (Rowley, 2002), and this type of studies are well suited in areas of research in which existing theory and knowledge seems little researched (Eisenhardt, 1989). On this point, the process of appointment of school leaders in Mexico has not been researched from an empirical perspective. Yin (1994) also stressed the need to use multiple sources of data collection in case studies. However for Stake (1995) a case study is more related to the uniqueness of the object of study than the number of methods or techniques used for data collection. This study concurs with Stake's (1995) viewpoint of uniqueness of a case study; however, Yin's (1994) perspective was also taken into consideration in order


61

to ensure trustworthiness of the data collected. In the present study, the element of multiple perspectives was regarded as a priority in order to have a more sound discernment when reflecting on the topics addressed; this was implemented by interviewing participants who could have a different perspective of the case being studied. The participants interviewed were four members of the commission on promotion, two representing the ministry of education and two the teacher's union, five teachers pursuing a headship post, and twelve headteachers. The study was conducted in the Tarahumara region of the state of Chihuahua, Mexico in primary schools. Thematic analysis was the procedure adopted in the analysis of interview transcripts. The research was carried out to the highest ethical standards in educational research as anonymity, confidentiality, and respect for the participants were observed all the time. Findings and Discussions 1. The System’s Strengths The 21 participants shared their viewpoint on the strengths of the ladder-merit system used to appoint school leaders in Mexico. After a thorough analysis the following themes emerged as relevant in this regard. Increased trust in the system. In Mexico all teachers teaching in compulsory education are entitled to pursue a leadership posts via the pointbased system. The majority of respondents (n= 17) mentioned that they have plenty of trust that the appointment of leadership posts such as deputy headships, headships, and higher posts are carried out following the established procedures. "Now more transparent evaluation processes; trust that rules are strictly observed. The points in a competition are awarded in strict observance of the aspects that must be assessed" (TSH3) "The main strength is its transparency. It was that way in my case, yes, I share what I experienced" (HT9)

62


They asserted that the commission on promotion is a trustful institution that assigns posts in accordance with the law and established procedures. This perceptions contrast with the negative stigma reported in the literature of how Mexican school leaders in the past seemed to be appointed without following the established norms, and with influence of the teachers union. Raimers (2006) observed that the teachers' union plays a very large role in hiring, retaining and promoting teachers. This influence apparently is backed by current educational policy giving the union the right to make decisions beyond the traditional functions of a union (Hevia et al., 2010). In the Federal Act on State Employees, it is regulated that the union is entitled to decide who is appointed in 50% of new teaching posts. This, and the mandatory affiliation to the union, has enabled control over the staff of schools and it is also reported the element of patronage in which sometimes has occurred the selling, buying and inheriting of posts (Guevara and Gonzalez, 2004; Barrera, 2009). Some participants (n= 4) made reference to the previous past practices to appoint school heads, and how now participants trust that appointments are carried out following the procedures established by the Escalafón. "It is not how it used to be because in the past if you had a relative or friend in a high rank in the educational system you could get a leadership post in a school" (ADM3)

It seems that all the administrators (n= 4) strongly believe that one of the strengths of this system is the certainty that all teachers have the possibility of getting access to a leadership post in a fair and legal process. "We are trying to make everything transparent, fair, and legal. We are trying to be as ethical as it could be possible because we do not have any preference for any of the persons who compete for a leadership post" (ADM2)

Leadership posts and higher positions within the educational system had become prizes and incentives for those being loyal to the union and those who were politically involved. In this scenario, in which leadership posts were incentives, was beneficial for the union and the government since the union had more control over its members and the government had a large and organised political backing to remain in power. In this regard, Arnaut (1998) confirmed that the union has always aimed at a large representation in the


63

positions of leadership in schools as a mean of political control of staff. For instance, in the State of Chihuahua, Muñoz (2005) interviewed the first governor of opposition who explained that prior to 1992 there had not been a notification of competition for a promotion to a headship in schools in 14 years. It means that perhaps previous to 1992 headships were assigned as previously described by the union and government. It seems procedures to guarantee that the process is equal and fair for all participants have been implemented to ensure the trust of participants. This starts with the checking and reviewing every participant's file and documents. Every file and document is reviewed and checked separately by three persons, and if the participants do not agree with the points awarded by the commission there is a fourth reviewer. This is illustrated with the following description: "I am not the only reviewer we are three. Each participant's file is assessed for at least three persons" (ADM1)

It seems that the situation has been gradually changing and currently positions are assigned following the procedures established in the joint commission. Even the commission was upgraded in the early 70's, it started properly functioning in the 90's; therefore, still now officials of the commission are trying to consolidate the trust that competitions are carried out following the established procedures. Equal opportunities for pursuing a leadership post. Another strength some participants (n= 14) perceived by this system to appoint school leaders is that it offers equal opportunities for all teachers to pursue a headship post. This aspect is closely related to the previous one -the increased trust- as all teachers in compulsory public education have the right to pursue a headship via the Escalafón. However as mentioned before, this right was not completely respected in the past. Currently, it seems that available leadership posts within schools and the system are accessed based on the promotion system in which anyone interested could participate. "This is a competition because posts are not assigned anymore by other mechanisms. In the Escalafón all have the opportunity to participate under the same conditions" (ADM2)

64


This is confirmed by a school head who believes based on her experience that this system offers the same opportunities for anyone who decides to pursue headship: "I believe the ladder-merit system is very positive because all teachers have the same opportunities" (HT11)

This perception should be understood in the context that preceded the previous non-transparent practices in which regulations and procedures used not to be followed. Most teachers know that there is a promotion system, and that they are entitled to participate if they want to do it. However, it seems that the promotion system has not been completely established state-wide as one participant transferred from another city of the state described that in the district in which she was assigned as the supervisor's assistant none of the 29 school heads were appointed by the Escalafón. This still confirms the negative stigma pointed out by recent literature in relation to how school leaders are appointed in some parts of Mexico. In this regard, Hevia et al. (2010) point out that the appointment of heads in Mexico is still based on the relationship that those seeking a leadership post have with the union. The perceptions that this system offers equal opportunities for all teachers to seek headship comes from the experiences that many of the participants in this study had. It is also important to acknowledge that things seemingly have been gradually changing. It seems that the commission adheres to follow the established procedures making true the right that all teachers holding a tenure teaching post have to pursue a leadership post. Academic preparation. This study also found that the current system to appoint school leaders promotes academic preparation of candidates seeking headship. Some of the respondents (n= 8) viewed this as a strength. In the assessment of candidates' application for a headship up to 45% of the final score could come from the factor professional preparation, which is divided into two sub factors: academic preparation and continuous training. Seemingly when teachers pursue a headship post a recurrent practice is to strengthen as much as possible their qualifications. Typical responses were similar to the following:


65

"In the Escalafón win those with more qualifications; I think this is positive. It enables that new heads come to the post prepared" (HT6)

It seems that the value given to preparation under this system concurs with Matters (2005) that aspiring school leaders should receive preparation and development in order to generate peak performance in their roles. Likewise, Thomas and Bainbridge (2002) point out that effective educational leadership emanates from school leaders demonstration of knowledge. It was described that some aspiring heads hold two undergraduate degrees plus two masters since a strong educational background increases the possibility of promotion. However, an important aspect to consider under the preparation that this system favours is the connection that theoretical knowledge acquired in their preparation has with their practice as school leaders because there is limited available preparation in school leadership and management. The academic preparation that the system promotes should also be seen with a critical perspective. Aspiring heads pursuing one graduate degree after another may be doing so probably just with the intention to accumulate more points and get promoted. Continuous training. Almost half of the respondents (n= 10) raised the theme 'continuous training' as another strength of the career ladder system. They asserted that this system enables the appointment of trained school leaders mainly in teaching and learning. It is considered that this aspect favours teachers pursuing a headship post enrol in workshops and courses which give them points for promotion, and also gives them new knowledge and skills. "I think it enables continuous training; it makes those who are pursuing a headship post to enrol in courses to be pedagogically updated" (TSH2)

However, in the case of some participants (n= 4) the attendance to short courses and workshops seems to have been done with the aim just to gather as many points as possible in order to be promoted. A school head mentioned: "I put emphasis in the points I needed to get promoted. I enrolled in any course that I could" (HT3)

66


Under this system continuing professional development receive the value of 25%; however, the courses and workshops available in educational leadership and management seem to be limited. This is confirmed by Cordero et al. (2008) who point out that aspiring heads in Mexico have accumulated throughout their career list of courses and workshops little related with their role as school leaders. It makes us acknowledge that even if professional development was considered positive, it is still a limited strength since there are not available courses for aspiring heads. Bush (2008) points out that headship is a specialist occupation that requires clearly defined preparation; then, there could be offered courses in leadership that prepare aspiring heads during their path to headship being academic preparation and continuing development highly valued under the current system. Also seemingly the attendance to short courses and workshops appear is done in some cases with the aim to gather as many points as possible in order to be promoted. Courses will probably have a limited impact in their professional performance if teachers attend courses with the idea of just getting the points. This situation raises the debate that probably there is a need to reorient the focus of the assessment of continuous development in order to make it more meaningful and related to educational leadership. Partially holistic assessment. Another strength mentioned by some participants (n= 7) is that the system implemented assesses the performance of candidates in several factors. Participants considered that the appointment of school leaders based on the performance in several areas could positively influence their efficiency as school heads. A participant commented in this regard the following: "I think is positive the evaluation of many aspects such as years of teaching, qualifications, and courses could favour the appointment of good candidates" (HT1)

The Escalafón evaluates the following factors: professional preparation (45%), aptitude (25%) from which 20% represents initiative, assessed in the teaching performance report, and 5% other activities, which the system do not make clear specifically the aspects to assess, years of service (20%), discipline and punctuality (10%) also assessed in the performance report. An important aspect to consider is how valid the current system is to select the best


67

candidate for headship from a group of applicants since the most important characteristic for any successful evaluation system is the validity to measure what it purports measure. And also, how the current evaluation criteria, could predict, if not guarantee, a good professional performance of school heads once they are nominated to the post based solely on a numeric score. An improvement in the evaluation process could be to focus on the evaluation of leadership potential of applicants. It could be used a 360-degree feedback model to assess their leadership potential in which the current factors considered for promotion maybe complemented with other aspects. It was perceived positively by the participants in the study the assessment of several aspects for promotion. However, an improvement in the mechanism of assessment in which the participants were assessed in more factors related to the post of headship could favour the appointment of better potential leaders. 2. The System’s Shortcomings The system is ruled by an obsolete set of regulations. The need to upgrade the current regulations dictating the process to appoint school leaders regarded as important for (n= 17) participants. The system operates with a set of rules that were promulgated in 1973 being seen as a shortcoming by participants. They regarded as obsolete and out-dated some of the rules and urged for an improvement in the procedures for promotion. "We have rules that were promulgated 40 years ago which are out of context and favours seniority. Skills and preparation for the post are not taken into account" (ADM4)

It seems that there are several parts of the current regulations that according to the participants need to be amended. For instance, it was mentioned by some participants (n=6) that there are some rules could be understood in multiple ways: "Some rules could be understood in two ways" (TSH3) "There are some rules that generate problems of interpretation" (ADM4)

68


The majority of the perceptions mentioned belong to Part 5, factors of promotion. In this part are described the values in percentages and the limit in points of the factors considered for promotion: preparation (45%) with a limit of 1080 points, aptitude (25%) with 600 points, years of service (20%) with 480, and discipline and punctuality (10%) and 240 points. Participants also considered problematic to establish a limit in the factor preparation that includes professional qualifications and professional development. This situation could discourage participants pursuing leadership posts to be continuously engaged in professional development because once they have reached the limit in points other courses taken are not considered. The upgrading of the current regulations could focus on the promotion to leadership posts to those teachers who show readiness for leadership. Readiness could refer to the degree to which aspiring heads have the necessary knowledge and skills to assume a leadership responsibility. This implies that the educational system provides opportunities for aspiring heads in preparation and development, and also in the implementation of new mechanisms and standards to assess leadership potential of aspiring heads. Regulations and mechanisms to appoint school heads could be aligned to new approaches and practices that have proved to be effective at international level. However, local authorities are unable to do the upgrading of the rules guiding promotion since the promotion system is established at national level and the regulations, procedures, and organisational structures are the same in the 32 states of the country. The system promotes credentialism. Another weakness perceived by (n= 8) participants is the credentialism the system based on points promotes. This seemingly causes that aspiring heads pursue courses, diplomas and graduate programmes sometimes just with the intention to accumulate points in order to get promoted. In this regard, it was mentioned by some participants (n= 6) that there are cases of teachers who have completed two bachelor's degrees plus two masters. "It is just credentialism being just accumulating documents, certificates, and diplomas, but I think most of the persons who get promoted do not have the specific preparation for the post" (HT2)


69

It seems that there is a high reliance on credentials in determining promotion. Under this system, a positive aspect could be that applicants are engaged in a continuous professional preparation process. The negative side is that participants could enrol in academic programmes just to get a degree and consequently the points awarded not taking advantage in their development as educators and potential school leaders. Each workshop, course, or academic degree has a value in points. It was mentioned by the administrators that sometimes headships have been won by one point difference so that participants try to accumulate as many points as possible relying constantly on academic preparation and professional development to gain points. The emphasis given to academic preparation has generated the proliferation of low quality graduate degrees. Two participants expressed their opinions in this regard pointing out that some masters and doctorates do not have the required quality as graduate degrees. Nonetheless, the Escalafón has to accept them because they are officially recognised by the ministry of education. Seemingly there is not a strict control over these programmes being usually faster and easier to obtain. An administrator shared her opinion on this topic: "There are teachers who pursue low quality master's degrees since they are easier to obtain as long as they are officially recognised they are valid here in the Escalafón" (ADM2)

A teacher pursuing headship shared how other teachers have made comments about his second master's degree in which he is currently enrolled: "A lot of co-workers tell me I am studying just to get points. They say that my master is patito (Mexican slang literately translated as 'little duck' which means very low quality), but I do not care as long as it is valid" (TSH2)

Lack of previous preparation for the post. Even with the strong emphasis on academic preparation and continuous training participants perceived that newly appointed heads do not have specific preparation for the post. Participants (n= 14) stressed the importance of being prepared in school

70


leadership and receive previous preparation to develop specific skills needed for the post: "I think it is needed specific preparation for the post before teachers are promoted to headship. The job as school head is more demanding than the job as a classroom teacher” (HT7) "I perceive a weakness that we arrived to the post without preparation in leadership and school management" (HT9)

Participants described they entered into a new role in which they had little experience and knowledge. Daresh and Male (2000) comparative study of first year school heads in Britain and the United States pointed out the culture of shock of moving into headship for the first time facing new tasks and challenges. In this part participants addressed the need to prepare aspiring heads to favour better performance once appointed to headship. The NCSLCS (2009) in England reports that the strengthening of school leadership is a key policy priority for governments worldwide. Training and development of school leaders has been strengthened in many countries either as preparation for entry to the post or to further develop the skills of active heads since the mid-1990s (Huber, 2008). Moorosi and Bush (2011) based on a study exploring leadership preparation and development in Commonwealth countries pointed out that give preparation no attention means there is a chance that schools are placed in the hands of unqualified personnel. In Mexico the lack of requirement of leadership preparation probably comes from the assumption that good classroom teachers could be good school heads. However, Mexico needs to learn from international experiences in educational leadership development and reorient the importance preparation for leadership posts before promotion. Headship is not attractive at early stages of teaching. A small number of respondents (n=6) perceived that perhaps there is a lack of interest to pursue a headship by some teachers in an early stage of their career for the lack of economic incentives. Participants commented that the increase in their salary once appointed as school heads is not significant. There is in Mexico a programme of economic incentives called Carrera Magisterial composed of different levels that has more impact on teachers' salary than a leadership post,


71

and in which it is easier to advance as a classroom teacher than it is in a leadership position. According to participants in the study, some classroom teachers prefer progress in the incentive’s programme and then seek headship: "In a competition for a leadership position participate people who want to be school leaders, the increase in salary is not big for the new responsibilities and stress. Yes, there is an increase, but is not as big as it is in Carrera Magisterial" (HT10)

In their study, Draper and McMichael (1998) reported bureaucracy, paperwork, stress, a degree of isolation in the role, and impact on the quality of life as disincentives to apply for headship. However, in the present study participants addressed the lack of economic incentives as a factor that hinders pursuing a leadership post. According to participants classroom teachers prefer to reach a high level in Carrera Magisterial before seeking headship. The programme is composed by four levels in which it is mandatory that teachers stay a number of years before being promoted for the following level (A= 3 years, B= 3, C= 4, and D= 4), so ideally it will take 14 years for a teacher to complete all levels and then think about promotion. This translates with a waiting for at least 6 or 10 years if teachers complete two or three levels before advance to a leadership post which seemingly is common hindering early talent identification. This limitation hinders the possibility to establish mechanisms to identify teachers in their first years of teaching that could be developed and promoted as heads early in their careers. This contrasts with the approach followed for countries that have given priority to leadership strengthening even implementing talent identification programmes in which teachers that show potential for leadership are identified, prepared and appointed to headship in the first years of their careers e.g. England and Singapore. Mechanisms should be found to give the same opportunities for classroom teachers to advance in Carrera Magisterial for incumbent heads. This would enable that those teachers who want to pursue a leadership post do not wait several years until they have made a significant progress in the incentives’ programme. The system needs more transparency. Some participants (n= 8) considered that the system still needs more transparency. Participants

72


commented that they have witnessed other aspirants disagreeing with the score they get. The following is an extract of a view on this issue: "I have total trust in the commission on promotion, but it will not be an inconvenient if competitions were more transparent. It is needed to implement other mechanisms to assure that participants know how they and other participants were evaluated. I have sometimes seen very unsatisfied participants with the results" (TSH2)

These findings seem to be contradictory in the sense that one of the strengths is attributed to the increased trust in the system. However, this theme closely related to trust, also emerged as one of the shortcomings of the programme. As much as it could seem a contradiction, this situation is understandable because the commission on promotion still carries the negative stigma inherited by non-transparent practices of the past. Similar findings reported by Slater et al. (2006) in a comparative study carried out in the state of Texas in the USA and Sonora in Mexico in which they compared the processes to appoint school leaders in both states. In relation to the Escalafón, it is reported that there is little trust in the Escalafón because no one really knows if the people appointed really have the greatest number of points. They further assert that the applicants for headship do not trust the system and suspect favouritism. Trust and transparency could be achieved if the commission on promotion establishes mechanisms that enable applicants to know how their files and those of other participants are evaluated. It seems that to consolidate the trust that has been gradually gained, more transparent mechanisms are needed in order to guarantee competitions are perceived as fair and impartial. Ethical performance is not assessed. The study also found that respondents (n=6) believe that a shortcoming of the current system is the lack of ethical performance evaluation of participants in competitions. According to the participants, the Escalafón does not consider factors that assess the proper ethical and professional behaviour of candidates since in competitions any teacher can participate. Seemingly sometimes are appointed by this system school heads that have had problems in their performance as teachers. According to two administrators as long as candidates are teachers holding a tenure post they have the right to compete for headship without taking into


73

consideration if they had or are having problems in their post as teachers. An administrator shared his view on this issue: "Just imagine that come to headship a person who was about to be fired four or five times, what kind of school leader he or she is going to be” (ADM2)

Participants in the study seem to acknowledge the importance to evaluate more comprehensively the professional ethical performance of teachers pursuing a leadership post. Teachers and school heads are seen as role models for children and young people because their position of influence. Seemingly it is well regarded for some participants the ethical aspect of leadership especially that which could encompass the leader's honesty, integrity and trustworthiness. It was described that the current regulations enable the participation in competitions of any teacher regardless they have had problems in their role as teaching professionals. The evaluation of ethical performance could be considered superficial in the Escalafón given that the factors discipline and punctuality account together for 10% of the final score and a maximum of 240 points. However, the assessment seems general because the factor discipline is assessed following an estimative scale which grants 48 points if teachers observe proper and professional behaviour a few times, 72 if it is shown with some frequency, 96 very often, and almost always 120. That is why the Escalafón could potentially benefit from a more comprehensive mechanism to assess participants in competitions in their ethical aspect as educators and potential school leaders. The assessment of teaching performance seems not to be real. Teaching performance is another factor taken into account for promotion assessed at the end of the school year. It is carried out in every school by the school head that assesses the teaching staff, and teachers get an evaluation report that give a maximum of 720 points. It was commented by some participants (n= 9) that the evaluation of teaching performance is not carried out properly. It was mentioned that a common practice is to give all teachers the 720 points to avoid unfairness given that some schools assess teachers with rigour and following the procedures, while other schools just give the 720 to all teachers. This has generalised the practice to give all teachers in most schools 720

74


points, being the accurate assessment of teaching practice in many cases unreal. "The evaluation of teaching performance is not real. Almost all of them get the maximum of 720 points because in a school the assessment could be done correctly, but in another could not, since we do not know, a common practice is to give the highest amount of 720 points to all teachers" (HT2)

For the evaluation of teaching performance, the instrument of assessment considers three general elements: aptitude, discipline, and punctuality. A problem with this assessment is the seemingly lack of collection of comprehensive evidence, the confusion it could cause, and its subjectivity. In the case of the factor aptitude that evaluates teaching practice, the regulations do not mention how often, and from an operational perspective, how the assessment of teaching practice should be carried out. It was reported that teaching is usually evaluated in a subjective way without real observation of practice and without specific guidelines and parameters leaving it to the criteria of school heads. In reality the evaluation of teaching seems to be problematic because good teaching means different things to different people. If teacher assessment is overly subjective, then is likely that dissonance in standards will occur between individual schools. Limited available preparation in leadership. Participants (n= 10) expressed that there is just a master's programme in educational management available at a local university that could strengthen the preparation of teachers seeking headship. Participants suggested that candidates pursuing a headship who want to strengthen their knowledge and understanding in the areas of leadership and educational administration could do it by enrolling in the available master's programme. Two participants who had completed the programme regarded it as good in their preparation. However, this programme is offered just in the second largest city of the state restricting the possibility that other teachers pursuing a leadership posts from other cities of the state benefit from it. It seems that in Mexico could be appointing better prepared school leaders given that there are academic programmes focused on the preparation and training of heads. Therefore, there could be a reorientation in the regulations of the Escalafón to make the training and preparation in school leadership


75

mandatory, and also offering meaningful opportunities for this preparation. It seems that in preparation of school leaders Mexico is being left behind by countries that offer preparation at all stages of a school head career e.g. preservice, induction, and in-service. Pont et al. (2008) reported that some countries have all types of training running in parallel e.g. England, Finland, Northern Ireland, Israel and Slovenia, while others provide at least one or two. Conclusions This exploratory study has provided a critique of the current system to appoint school leaders in Mexico. It was a first approximation to the system of promotion trying to understand its positive aspects as well as its shortcomings. This study even being small constitutes the largest empirical work carried out to explore the system of promotion. According to the findings there is a need to conduct a deep review of the current system to appoint school leaders. The regulations governing the system and the procedures of promotion were promulgated almost 40 years ago. A common facet in highly achieving countries in student outcomes is the importance given to leadership strengthening. It seems that under the current conditions the appointment of fully developed school heads before promotion has been neglected along with a lack of meaningful preparation once they are in the post. The study emphasises a need to upgrade the current educational policy pertaining to educational leadership development in Mexico. Another implication from the findings of this study is the need to consolidate the process of transparency in the appointment of school leaders. The appointment of school leaders has historically struggled with the lack of certainty that school leaders were appointed following the established procedures. These practices seem to be more concurrent in the past previous decades. As result, the system of promotion inherited a negative stigma that has been gradually disappearing. However, transparency emerged in the present study both in the strengths and shortcomings of the system. In the first case it was acknowledged that there has been improvement in these aspects since most of the participants in this study considered that competitions for leadership posts are transparent. Nevertheless, in the shortcomings, it emerged that this improvement has been gradual and that there are still things to do to consolidate the transparency to make sure that school leaders are appointed in transparent and fair competitions.

76


The study suggests a need to upgrade the current system of appointment of school leaders to include leadership preparation as a way to strengthen the appointment of better prepared school heads. This lack of attention given to leadership preparation in Mexico seems to align with recent studies such as Moorosi and Bush (2011) "[the] less focus on [leadership] preparation means that there is a chance that schools are placed on the hands of unqualified personnel" (p. 71). This approach adopted by some countries to appoint leaders without previous preparation as Mexico seems to be problematic. The reason perhaps is a waste of time in the readiness to enact headship effectively.

References Álvarez, M. (2003). La dirección escolar en el contexto europeo. Organización y Gestión Educativa 11(2), 15-19. Arnaut, A. (1998). Historia de una profesión: Los Maestros de Educación Primaria en México 1887-1994, CIDE, México DF. Barber, M. Whelan, F. & Clark, M. (2010). Capturing the leadership premium: How the world's top school systems are building leadership capacity for the future. McKinsey & Company: New York, NY. Barrera, I. (2009). El primer concurso nacional público de oposición para el otorgamiento de plazas docentes. Mexicanos Primero AC, México DF. Beteille, T. Kalogrides, D. & Loeb, S. (2009). Effective schools: Managing the recruitment, development, and retention of high-quality teachers. National Centre for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research. Bryan, M. (2008). Variation in preparation around the globe. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Commonwealth Council for Educational Administration and Management, 8 December, Durban, South Africa, available at www.emasa.co.za/files/full/M.Bryant.pdf Bush, T. (2008) Leadership and management development in education. Sage: London. Canales, R.E.L. & Benzies, C.P. (2009). Los directivos en el último tramo de la educación básica en México. Educao, 32(2), 122-129. Cordero, A.G. Aguirre, M.L.C. Torres, H.R.M. & Lomeli, C. (2008). Qué se sabe en México sobre las necesidades de formación de directores de


77

escuela primaria? In Gairin, S.J. and Serafín, A.M (Eds.) Organizaciones educativas al servicio de la sociedad, Wolters Kluwer: Spain. Daresh, J. & Male, T. (2000). Crossing the border into leadership: Experiences of newly appointed British headteachers and American principals. Educational Management and Administration, 28(1), 89-101. doi: 10.1177/0263211X000281013 Draper, J. & McMichael, P. (1998). Making sense of primary headship: The surprises awaiting new heads. School Leadership & Management, 18 (2), 197-21. doi: 10.1080/13632439869646 Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories from case study research. Academy of Management Review,14, 532-550. Guevara, M.D. & González, L.E. (2004). Atraer, formar y retener profesorado de calidad. OCDE-SEP, México DF. Hevia, F. Tapia, M. & Morales, G. (2010). Qué pasa con la calidad de la educación en México? Diagnóstico y propuestas desde la sociedad civil, coalición ciudadana por la educación, México DF. Huber, S.G. (2008). Management and leadership development new approaches in preparing school leaders. International Encyclopaedia of Education: Elsevier. Leithwood, K. & Day, C. (2007). Successful principal leadership. Springer: The Netherlands. Leithwood, K. Day, C. Sammons, P. Harris, A. & Hopkins, D. (2006). Seven Strong Claims about Successful School Leadership. National College of School Leadership. Nottingham: UK. Lincoln, Y.S & Guba, E.G. (1988). Do Inquiry Paradigms Imply Inquiry Methodologies. In Fetterman, D.M. (Ed.), Qualitative Approaches to Evaluation in Education: the silent scientific revolution, Praeger, London. Matters, N.P. (2005). Future school leaders -who are they And what are they doing?Expect the unexpected. Australian Centre for Educational Studies. Macquarie University, Sydney: Australia. Moorosi, P. & Bush, T. (2011). School leadership development in Commonwealth countries: Learning across the boundaries. International Studies in Educational Administration, 39(3), 13241702.

78


Muñoz, A.A. (2005). El sindicalismo mexicano frente a la reforma del estado: El impacto de la descentralización educativa y el cambio político en el sindicato nacional de trabajadores de la educación 1992-1998. Universidad Iberoamericana, A.C: Mexico DF. National College for Leadership of School and Children Services. (2009). School Leadership Today: An Examination of How School Leadership in England Has Changed over the Last Decades, its Characteristics and Context in 2009, and the Challenges of Leading Schools in the 21st Century. National College Publishing: Nottingham. National College for School Leadership. (2006). National Standards for Headteachers in Focus Small Schools. NCSL, Nottingham UK. Owings, W.A. Kaplan, L.S. & Nunnery, J. (2005). Principal quality, ISLLC and student achievement: A Virginia study. Journal of School Leadership, 15 (1), 21-24. Pont, B. Nusche, D. & Moorman, H. (2008). Improving school leadership: Volume 1 policy and Practice. OECD Publications: Paris. Raimers, F. (2006). Principally women: Gender in the politics of Mexican education. In Randall, L. (Ed.) Changing Structure in Mexico: Political, Social, and Economic Prospects. M.E Sharp, Inc: New York. Rowley, J. (2002). Using case studies in research. Management Research News, 25(1), 16-27. doi: 10.1108/01409170210782990 Secretaria de Educación Pública. (2012). Sistema educativo de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos: Principales cifras ciclo escolar 2011-2012. SEP, Mexico DF. Slater, C.L. Boone, M. Nelson, S. De la Colina, M. García, E. Grimaldo, G.R. Sirios, D. Womack, D. García, J.M. (2006). First-year School Director Preparation in the US and Mexico” Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of Geneva. Stake, R.E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA. Thomas, M. & Bainbridge, W. (2002). Sharing the glory: Educational leadership in the future will emanate not from positions, but from knowledge, wisdom, the ability to persuade and a personal commitment to fairness and justice. Leadership, 31(3), 12-16.


79

Yin, R.K. (1994). Case study research: Design and methods. Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, CA.

Dr. Manuel López Delgado is a researcher and lecturer at the Autonomous University of Ciudad Juarez in Mexico. Contact Address: Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez. Departamento de Humanidades, H. Colegio Militar No. 3775, Zona Chamizal. Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México. Email: [email protected]


Academic Leadership: Concepts, ideas and insights for the development of new studies Roberto Vega Massó1, PhD 1) Universidad Finis Terrae. Chile

Date of publication: January 16th, 2015 Edition period: January 2015-July 2015

To cite this article: Vega, R. (2015). Academic Leadership: Concepts, ideas and insights for the development of new studies. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 80-103. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.05 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.05



Academic Leadership: Concepts, Ideas and Insights for the Development of New Studies Roberto Vega Massó, PhD Universidad Finis Terrae Abstract The article addresses the issue of academic leadership, covering several concepts and definitions, with the purpose of understanding and describing different researches on how Presidents of different American Universities perform leadership. The main objective is to encourage further studies on the subject in different countries and cultures, where it is possible to find a lack of investigations about management in universities. Keywords: academic leadership, charisma, organizational culture, Mission



El Ejercicio del Liderazgo Académico: Conceptos, Ideas y Reflexiones para el Desarrollo de Nuevos Estudios Roberto Vega Massó, PhD Universidad Finis Terrae Resumen El artículo aborda el tema del liderazgo académico, para ello recorre las distintas nociones y definiciones de liderazgo, para luego describir y analizar estudios sobre el ejercicio del liderazgo de los rectores de universidades norteamericanas. Todo ello orientado a impulsar investigaciones sobre la temática en otros países y contextos culturales, donde en general se observa un vacío de estudios sobre la naturaleza y alcance de la alta gestión directiva en las universidades. Palabras clave: liderazgo académico, carisma, cultura institucional, Misión


82

Vega, R. – El ejercicio del liderazgo académico

S

i bien mucho se ha escrito sobre el liderazgo en general, y sobre el liderazgo universitario en especial, muy poco de esa literatura refleja las particularidades del ejercicio de la autoridad en la universidad en Latinoamérica. Lamentablemente no tenemos en nuestros países, a diferencia de lo que ocurre en los Estados Unidos, la tradición de que los rectores publiquen sus reflexiones sobre sus gestiones luego de dejar sus cargos. Adicionalmente, la comunidad de académicos dedicados al estudio de la gestión en educación superior en América Latina es aún pequeña, y es poco lo que pueden cubrir con sus investigaciones. Existe entonces un vacío importante, en lengua hispana, sobre un tema escasamente estudiado. Nos referimos a la naturaleza y alcance de la alta gestión directiva en las universidades latinoamericanas1. La época que vivimos le confiere a la temática una relevancia especial. La noción heroica de liderazgo, esto es, la idea que personajes de leyenda que influyen decisivamente con su carisma arrebatador, férrea voluntad, con una visión motivadora a cotas más altas de desempeño, es difícil de conciliar con nuestro tiempo bajo en épica y alto en gerencialismo. A medida que la administración se hace más compleja y demandante, la dirección de las universidades se ha profesionalizado, los cargos de gestión se han multiplicado y se ha incrementado la distancia entre autoridades, por un lado, y académicos y alumnos, por el otro. Así las cosas, en un mundo donde las evidencias cuantitativas y la presencia de resultados medibles lo abordan todo, es importante también analizar cómo en las universidades, sigue vigente el papel de los líderes (rectores) en la creación y comunicación de un mensaje central que dé sentido al trabajo de los miembros de la organización y les permita abrazar una visión de futuro. Aún en estos tiempos, de gobierno con refinadas y altamente competentes burocracias universitarias, la persona del rector y sus funciones de liderazgo pueden hacer una diferencia: quizás no pueden transformar en oro el barro, pero pueden hacer que lo bueno sea mejor, o que lo malo empeore. Sea que dibujen una presencia constante y altamente visible en el campus, o que gobiernen en la trastienda “gestionando la cultura” del lugar (Schein, 1985). Para bien o para mal, los rectores son actores clave en la vida de la universidad. En este artículo proponemos hacer un breve recorrido acerca del concepto de liderazgo y luego referirnos a las características observadas por diversos


83

estudios sobre ejercicio del liderazgo en el ámbito académico, teniendo como referencia las investigaciones sobre la gestión de los rectores de universidades norteamericanas, donde la literatura es más profusa y completa. Pensamos que esas referencias pueden servir de orientación para el inicio de futuras investigaciones en el ámbito latinoamericano e hispano, sobre la alta gestión directiva en las universidades. Liderazgo: Concepto y Evolución El interés por el liderazgo2 y sus dimensiones, presenta hoy en día mayor actualidad, toda vez que las ciencias sociales, económicas, administrativas y psicológicas muestran una clara tendencia a revalorizar la importancia de las personas y de sus relaciones en el desarrollo de la sociedad y de las instituciones. El significado de la palabra liderazgo sufrió a lo largo del siglo XX importantes modificaciones, alcanzándose finalmente ciertos consensos. Uno de ellos ha sido el coincidir en que liderazgo debe ser entendido como la relación de influencia que se da entre un líder y sus seguidores, en la cual el primero influiría más de lo que él es influido; en virtud de esa influencia, los seguidores actuarían o sentirían en forma diferente de lo que ocurriría sin la presencia del líder. Por tanto, no estaríamos sólo en presencia de una superioridad jerárquica burocrática vinculada a una función directiva, sino que trascendería esta función, obteniendo un rol con un significado más profundo. Asimismo, la literatura en general permite concluir también que no existe consenso sobre la connotación específica sobre el concepto liderazgo, refiriéndose indistintamente a él como: habilidad, destreza, cualidad, proceso, función, característica personal, forma de comportamiento, patrón de conducta, capacidad de desarrollo del potencial de sus seguidores, competencia crítica, entre muchas otras. El trabajo de Iliana Páez Gabriunas y Gustavo Yepes López (2004), propone una clasificación de más de un centenar de definiciones de liderazgo que resultan ser muy ilustrativas y ayudan a comprender de mejor forma las distintas conceptualizaciones. Quizás, uno de los aspectos a destacar de esa clasificación es que algunos autores aparecen en más de una definición, como muestra de los cambios o complejización en el tiempo de sus propias interpretaciones.

84


a. La primera conceptualización reconoce al liderazgo como resultado de la expresión de características personales; por tanto, se refiere a la importancia que los autores le asignan a la presencia de una serie de atributos o características presentes en el líder. En esta línea, aparecen autores como Northouse (1997), Ginebra (1997), Smith y Morgan (1988), Bass y Stogdill (1990) y el propio Bass (1985). Este último sostiene que no deberíamos reconocer al líder sólo por la presencia de una serie de virtudes o la combinación de cualidades. Lo que sí se debe aceptar es la existencia de un patrón personal que sería relevante en las actividades y metas de sus seguidores. b. Una segunda línea conceptual se refiere al liderazgo como un comportamiento, es decir, que por sobre los atributos o características e personalidad, existiría un patrón de conducta, el cual resultaría decisivo en el éxito del liderazgo y que estaría asociado a la manifestación de tres aspectos: visión, comunicación y confianza. En esta línea, surgen autores como Bennis & Nanus (1985) y Northouse (1997). c. En una tercera línea, se intenta precisar qué aspectos personales relativos al líder serían esenciales en el ejercicio del liderazgo. Esta postura se inclina por admitir ciertas habilidades y destrezas, donde la habilidad de mandar o dirigir será entendida como la capacidad que caracteriza el actuar y se manifiesta en el momento requerido. De este modo, se asume esa capacidad como un saber hacer. Autores que respaldan esta conceptualización son Bolman y Deal (1984), MacGregor Burns (1978) y Covey (1994). Estos autores también reconocen el dominio de ciertas habilidades, entre las que destacarían la capacidad de influir, la habilidad de motivar y, en un tercer orden, talento para el desarrollo del potencial de sus seguidores. d. Otros autores, en una cuarta línea conceptual, describen el liderazgo como una función de la persona que representa o asume el papel de líder, y que, por tanto, ven al liderazgo como un rol o actividad que debe desempeñar el líder para llevar a cabo un proceso que implica varios objetivos a la vez. Estos objetivos son entendidos como la socialización de la meta o visión con el equipo de trabajo, la integración y motivación de las personas y, finalmente, la consecución de resultados, de modo que el liderazgo aparecería principalmente


85

asociado a actividades de motivación. Algunos autores en esta línea son Kotter (1990) y Crosby (1996). e. Una quinta línea conceptual entiende al liderazgo como una relación entre líder y seguidores, en la que existe influencia de una de las partes y la confianza de la otra; por tanto, será necesario contar con los medios efectivos para canalizar expectativas y percepciones. En esta conceptualización, se le otorga gran importancia a la comunicación, como al manejo de relaciones interpersonales. En esta línea, tenemos a autores como Bass y Avolio (1995); Tannenbaum, Irving, Weschler y Massarik (1971) y Boyett (1999). Otros autores, como Gardner (1990), Lussier y Achua (2001), sin negar las definiciones expuestas, ven el liderazgo como un proceso que implica la integración de varios factores: recursos, actores y etapas. Proponen dos aspectos para entender el liderazgo: el primero es que se requiere una interrelación de al menos dos partes que se acepten y se reconozcan entre sí y, el segundo, la existencia de una clara dirección hacia el objetivo, y la influencia para que este objetivo sea compartido. En los estudios de Bass (1990), los rasgos más comunes sobre los que se tendría evidencia empírica de su relación directa con el liderazgo son: inteligencia, formación, seguridad en el ejercicio de las responsabilidades, actividad, participación social y estatus socio-económico. Los principales críticos al enfoque de los rasgos, señalan que estos por sí mismos no son suficientemente explicativos para garantizar la efectividad del liderazgo, aunque sí contribuyen a ello. Posteriormente, a mediados del mismo siglo XX, se señaló que será la forma de actuar del líder lo que determinará su éxito. Estaríamos en presencia del enfoque conductual3. A partir de ello, los estudios comienzan a concebir el liderazgo dentro del contexto empresarial, lo que significaba un cambio en la mirada histórica de su concepción; en adelante, los diferentes enfoques sobre el liderazgo se basarán en la búsqueda de la efectividad en la gestión de dirección. Luego surgirá el enfoque situacional de liderazgo, el cual predominará hasta la década de 1990, siendo un enfoque ampliamente reconocido y estudiado. Su premisa básica consiste en sostener que en situaciones diferentes se requieren tipos de liderazgo igualmente variados; donde la efectividad del líder dependerá de la capacidad de adaptar su estilo a las

86


demandas de cada situación. Se abría así la posibilidad de capacitar al individuo para adquirir esta habilidad. De este enfoque situacional4 se han derivado varias teorías y modelos; quizás el más conocido sea el de Hersey y Blanchard (1999). Esta perspectiva considera que el liderazgo está compuesto de dos dimensiones: una directiva y otra de apoyo, las cuales se deben aplicar apropiadamente de acuerdo a cada situación. Este enfoque contempla múltiples circunstancias que inciden en el ejercicio del liderazgo, centrándose especialmente en tres factores: el líder, los seguidores y contexto. Si bien, el enfoque de liderazgo situacional permite una comprensión práctica de los diversos estilos de dirección, algunos autores critican el concepto de variación de estilos según la necesidad o situación, considerando que de alguna manera se desvirtúa la posición única y definida con la que se reconoce al líder; aspecto asociado a la coherencia y credibilidad, ambos muy importantes para el liderazgo y además difíciles de lograr. Sobre este punto, el trabajo de Juan Antonio Pérez López (2006) es un avance importante en la materia. Su punto de vista acerca de cómo el liderazgo está necesariamente ligado al logro de la autoridad (legitimidad) abre un ámbito de estudio sobre la efectividad del individuo y las organizaciones. De manera paralela se hablará de una teoría que pretende interpretar el liderazgo a partir de intercambios o transacciones, que se darían entre el líder y sus seguidores. En esta dinámica de intercambio, se presenta un primer tipo relación, caracterizadas por un mayor compromiso, desempeñando el líder un rol más activo y cumpliendo funciones más allá de lo establecido para su cargo. A través de este liderazgo denominado transaccional se persigue, como en otros enfoques de liderazgo gerencial, el cumplimiento de metas, pero a través de un intercambio directo entre el líder y el seguidor. De esta manera, el líder y los seguidores se perciben mutuamente como instrumentos potenciales para lograr las necesidades de cada uno. Para James McGregor Burns (1978), la teoría transaccional de relación entre líderes y seguidores, se explica como un intercambio de gratificaciones en un espacio político, en el cual el líder y los seguidores son negociadores que buscan potenciar y maximizar sus beneficios políticos. El propio Burns se refiere a una manipulación acumulativa de intercambios en torno a intereses de las partes, lo cual haría que estas gratificaciones pierdan vigencia cada vez, en virtud de los objetivos que se plantean entre sí los beneficiarios, de modo


87

que las relaciones en la teoría del liderazgo transaccional están dominadas por los rápidos cálculos de costo-beneficio que realizan, tanto líderes como seguidores, demandando su mayor conveniencia, lo que incluiría hasta el cambio de elección de líderes y seguidores (Burns 1978). En nuestra opinión el liderazgo transaccional puede ser considerado más un estilo de gestión directiva que de liderazgo. Un segundo tipo de relación será conocido como liderazgo transformacional, que propone un proceso de cambio y transformación de los individuos. Está relacionado con valores, ética, estándares y metas de largo plazo. Este enfoque surge a partir del trabajo del propio James McGregor Burns (1978). La idea de transformación describe a los líderes como aquellos que saben aprovechar las motivaciones de sus seguidores, para alcanzar mejor las metas de todos. Uno de los factores que caracterizaría al liderazgo transformacional se relaciona con el carisma5. Según Bass y Stogdill (1990), los líderes carismáticos tienen una extraordinaria influencia entre sus seguidores, quienes se contagian con la inspiración moral y el propósito. Estos líderes surgirían usualmente en tiempos de crisis como salvadores, siendo capaces de suplir las necesidades emocionales de sus seguidores. En la teoría del liderazgo carismático, se le da gran importancia al grado de aceptación personal que tiene el líder entre sus seguidores; por ello, el carisma debe ser visto como un atributo dado por los seguidores (Conger y Kanungo, 1998). De este modo, el carisma más que una característica personal o un elemento mágico, se trata más bien de un factor que le otorga tal poder al líder que convocaría la movilización ciega de otros en pro de un objetivo. Una perspectiva distinta sobre el liderazgo, es la que desarrolla Howard Gardner (1994 y 1998), al plantear que el liderazgo es un proceso que tiene lugar dentro de las mentes de los individuos que viven en una cultura (entiéndase comunidad, organización o cualquier estructura social), proceso que supone la capacidad de crear historias, de entenderlas y valorarlas por parte de sus seguidores. Por tanto, la eficacia y trascendencia, los líderes la consiguen a través de la historia que relatan y su capacidad de encarnar dichas historias. Esta perspectiva se acerca más a una línea de análisis cognitiva donde es probable que surjan preguntas como ¿cuáles son las ideas o historias del líder?, ¿cómo han evolucionado?, ¿cómo son comunicadas, entendidas o mal entendidas?, ¿cómo interactúan con otras historias, especialmente con

88


historias rivales, que ya han calado en la conciencia de los miembros del auditorio?, ¿cómo afectan las ideas (o historias) clave a los pensamientos, sentimientos y conductas de otros individuos? A partir de esta propuesta, se intenta romper con la perspectiva sobre el liderazgo que se centra en la personalidad del líder, la cual resulta según Gardner (1998) insuficiente para explicar el camino de un liderazgo y el grado de éxito alcanzado en diversos auditorios. Gardner (1994) señala que existe una característica que es común a casi todos los líderes: la elocuencia hablando y también escribiendo. Esto les permitiría no sólo contar una historia prometedora, sino también persuasiva, de forma tal que un alto grado de inteligencia lingüística aparecería como una adecuada contraparte a una inteligencia personal. De este modo, el dominio del sistema simbólico lingüístico es crucial para la mayoría de los líderes directos, puesto que el liderazgo se mantiene en buena parte a través del uso creativo de historias (Gardner, 1998). En esta misma línea resultan ser muy interesantes las investigaciones que subrayan la relación existente entre estilos de comunicación y los resultados de liderazgo, donde la precisión (lenguaje según auditorio) del líder pasa a ser un constructo muy importante, pero que está sorprendentemente ausente en las teorías del liderazgo (De Vries et al, 2010). Gardner (1998) sostiene que es posible determinar cuatro rasgos del ejercicio de un liderazgo eficaz. El primero, es el vínculo con la colectividad. Esto es, subrayar que la relación entre el líder y sus seguidores es continua, activa y dinámica; el segundo rasgo sería el de mantener un cierto ritmo de vida (un líder debe estar en contacto regular y constante con su colectividad, adecuándose a los cambios de pensamiento, valores y estrategias que se dan entre sus seguidores); un tercer rasgo es la verificación de la existencia de una relación evidente entre la historia contada por el líder y la encarnación de la misma, y, un cuarto rasgo, se refiere a la centralidad de la elección, esto es, la estabilidad que debe existir entre el líder y sus seguidores acerca de la misión a desarrollar. Otra referencia importante que Gardner (1998) entrega en sus hallazgos sobre el liderazgo, está referida a lo que él denomina las constantes del liderazgo. La primera, se vincula a la necesaria existencia de una historia o mensaje central, la que debe abordar un sentido de identidad individual y grupal que permita a los distintos miembros del grupo construir opciones de futuro. Así, las posibilidades de éxito del liderazgo serían mayores cuando la


89

historia se convierte en Misión fundamental y adquiere permanencia en el tiempo. La segunda constante se vincula a la relación entre el líder y sus seguidores. Una buena historia sin un buen auditorio puede malograrse. Una tercera constante es la organización, dado que un liderazgo para ser permanente necesita de la existencia de una base institucional u organizativa (un ejemplo de esto serían las propias universidades). La cuarta constante es la encarnación, la cual plantea una cuestión de autenticidad, vale decir, que exista correspondencia entre la historia relatada y si el líder verdaderamente encarna aquello de lo que habla. La quinta constante del liderazgo es el tipo de influencia que el líder ejerce sobre su auditorio, directo e indirecto: el segundo se refiere al influjo que se ejerce a través de una obra creada; en cambio, el primero es más tumultuoso y arriesgado, pero podría ser más eficiente y eficaz. La sexta y última constante es la pericia, es decir, la necesidad de que el líder vaya actualizando sus conocimientos. El cómo alcanzar y mantener la pericia es un agudo problema para cualquiera que aspira al liderazgo directo. Hoy en día, los líderes requieren de equipos de trabajo más complejos con la presencia de expertos, técnicos, consultores y otras autoridades en diversas materias. Un punto relevante en la concepción de liderazgo de Gardner (1994) se centra en su validación del individuo como generador de cambios. Él mismo señala sentir poca simpatía por quienes cuestionan la teoría del liderazgo basada en los grandes personajes, dado que esos mismos detractores después terminan recurriendo a fuerzas indeterminadas para justificar procesos que no comprenden. No podríamos terminar esta revisión sin dejar de mencionar el concepto de liderazgo trascendente, el cual se desprende de los trabajos de Pérez López (1991, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2006), quien, al abordar el estudio de la motivación, concluye la existencia de la motivación trascendente o motivación pro-social o el deseo de invertir esfuerzos para beneficiar a otras personas (Grant, 2008), que sería, como su nombre lo indica, un tipo de motivación que trasciende a las necesidades de los individuos y por tanto está centrada en las necesidades de otros (Rey, 2012). En este sentido la motivación trascendente sería un proceso que consiste en promover la influencia directa del líder en el desarrollo de motivaciones pro-sociales de sus colaboradores. Para ello sería relevante tener un fin

90


externo a las personas, en este caso, el trabajo tendría como objetivo el servicio a la Misión de la organización (léase también, credo, principios corporativos, valores, etc). La propuesta de estos autores de estas ideas ha buscado desarrollar una aproximación sistémica de las motivaciones prosociales en la empresa, buscando un modelo o esquema motivacional completo (e integral) que sea consistente con el desarrollo natural de las motivaciones de las personas. Sin duda, futuras investigaciones deberían analizar la validez empírica y desarrollo práctico del modelo, pero esta vez no solo en las empresas, sino en la institución universitaria. Cardona y Rey (2008), dan un paso más adelante al definir el liderazgo trascendente que se desprende de lo anterior, como una relación de influencia personal, que busca satisfacer las necesidades reales las personas, colectivos o de la sociedad en general, por ello el tipo de influencia sería (necesariamente) más profunda que la del líder transformador. Ello implicaría una forma de compromiso superior del líder con algún objetivo externo a él y que es capaz de impulsar este mismo tipo de compromiso a sus colaboradores. Estaríamos en presencia de un espíritu de servicio, donde el líder no retiene el liderazgo a su nivel, sino que procura que trascienda en sentido vertical. Es un líder generador de líderes, por tanto alguien capaz de captar, desarrollar y retener el talento de liderazgo. En este proceso los autores estarían proponiendo una unión entre misión y liderazgo, lo que permitiría hablar de “liderazgo centrado en la misión” y, por ende, un caso particular de liderazgo trascendente. No dudamos que la aplicación de este modelo y desarrollo sistémico encontraría en la universidad, por su naturaleza y carácter “trascendente”, un correcto alineamiento, donde una eventual aplicación y verificación empírica estaría por desarrollarse en futuras investigaciones. Liderazgo de los Rectores de Universidades Ahora veamos cómo se ha manifestado el ejercicio del liderazgo en la gestión académica. Como ya dijimos, los estudios de referencia corresponden al desempeño de los rectores de universidades norteamericanas. La labor de un rector de una universidad en los Estados Unidos es vista en general como un trabajo reactivo (Cohen y March 1974), dado que como autoridad debe estar preocupado del Consejo Superior, del liderazgo comunitario, de los estudiantes y de los profesores. En los estudios destacan


91

que los rectores se ven a sí mismos tratando de conciliar los conflictos, usando su tiempo en procesos que son controlados por otros. A pesar de que son individuos de considerable energía, frecuentemente se sienten cansados. Sin embargo, tienden a observar su cargo como el punto más alto de su vida académica; lo ven como un premio a su trayectoria. Otra variable a destacar es que se concluye que el trabajo de un rector de una universidad impactaría significativamente la vida de la comunidad académica (Fisher, 1984), dándole vitalidad o inercia. Asimismo, se señalan los requisitos para el éxito de un rector: concluir en una Misión, tener la habilidad para soñar y que ese sueño se haga realidad; actitud para tomar retos, compromiso y estilo personal. La literatura (Fisher, 1984; Birnbaum, 1992; Bass, 1993; Chafee, 1985) indica que los rectores son vistos como líderes educativos claves para su institución, como el experto en buscar los recursos y como experto académico. También son señalados como los responsables cuando el proyecto educativo fracasa y decae la educación que se entrega. Dado lo anterior, el rector también es visto como el líder que es capaz de generar ideas, construir equipos de trabajo, buscar recursos que le permitan alcanzar las metas y la visión de la universidad. Por tanto, sería quien dirige y toma las decisiones centrales de la institución, asumiendo la responsabilidad de su dirección y crecimiento futuro. De este modo el liderazgo que ejerce el rector se debe orientar a la creación de un contexto en el cual los alumnos y profesores y miembros de la comunidad académica crezcan en lo intelectual y personal. En este sentido, el liderazgo se entendería como un proceso de persuasión y ejemplo por el cual una persona induce a otra a tomar una acción de acuerdo a los propósitos de la institución, de acuerdo a su misión, visión y valores. Las características que se mencionan de manera más reiterada para definir al rector son: presencia de una visión, capacidad de persuasión e integración de equipos, habilidad de motivar a otros, persistencia para no perder la esperanza y humildad para compartir el éxito. Dado lo anterior, algunos autores postulan el liderazgo transaccional como modelo de efectividad de los rectores (Birnbaum, 1992; Fisher, 1984; Chafee et al., 1985 y 1988); enfatizan el liderazgo basados en consensos; señalan que los rectores no deberían intentar hacer cambios profundos en sus instituciones y normalmente no lo hacen de cualquier manera. Birnbaum (1989a) señala, que algunos estudios indican que los rectores tienen poca influencia sobre los

92


resultados, cuando se compara con otras fuerzas internas de la propia institución, dado que el proceso de tomar decisiones es algo complejo, en donde el rector posee poco control en el análisis final; por tanto, sería un error sostener que ellos afectan significativamente la vida universitaria (Cohen y March 1974). Por su parte, otros autores señalan que los rectores que insisten en aplicar un liderazgo transformacional en el ejercicio de su gestión (Bennis y Nanus 1985; Gilley, Fulmer y Reithlingshoefer, 1986; Kauffman, 1987, Kerr y Gade 1986 y Vaughan, 1989), han obtenido como resultado que sus instituciones tiendan a no cumplir sus propósitos, y se observaría una ineficiencia en su funcionamiento, que reduciría los estándares y produciría una falla en la correcta utilización de sus recursos, en relación a las necesidades de la sociedad. Estas deficiencias se deberían a la relativa insistencia en modificar la cultura ya existente en la institución. En general, se ha sostenido la idea de que los líderes académicos poseen ciertas características o rasgos diferenciadores, cuestión que se vincularía con las nociones más antiguas y profundamente investigadas sobre el liderazgo (Bensimon, Neumann y Birnbaum, 1989). Aun cuando no siempre se ha logrado demostrar la relación entre rasgos y efectividad, creemos que la insistencia en esta tradición investigativa, sin duda, se ha debido a la dificultad de descubrir otros patrones más significativos. ¿Importa el Liderazgo de los Rectores en las Universidades? Como hemos señalado, a pesar de la numerosa bibliografía dedicada al estudio del liderazgo, todavía sabemos relativamente poco sobre liderazgo académico6, puesto que este no ha sido estudiado con igual envergadura y profundidad en los distintos países. Una parte importante de los trabajos sobre liderazgo en la educación superior revisado y analizado, posee un carácter descriptivo y tiende, ya sea explícita o implícitamente, a aceptar el liderazgo y, especialmente, el de los rectores de las universidades, como un componente crítico del funcionamiento y del mejoramiento institucional. Esta posición, sin embargo, no es sostenida unánimemente. Algunos análisis enfatizan la existencia de un liderazgo directivo y ejecutivo como componente necesario y principal de la conducta del rector (Keller, 1983; Gilley, Fulmer y Reithlingshoefer, 1986; Fisher, 1984; Whetten


93

y Cameron, 1985). Otros autores presentan la existencia de un liderazgo débil del rector, centrando su atención en el clima organizacional que termina limitando la discrecionalidad de su autoridad y haciendo de su poder una ilusión (Birnbaum, 1989a; Walker, 1979). Un estudio empírico de Cameron (1986) sobre la organización académica concluyó que la efectividad institucional estaba estrechamente relacionada con las estrategias de los directivos superiores. La simple aceptación de esta afirmación nos permite concluir que las acciones de los rectores tienen consecuencias importantes. Otro estudio de Birnbaum (1989c), encontró evidencias que algunas importantes estructuras y decisiones de funcionamiento institucional, siguen siendo las mismas, incluso cuando los rectores fueron reemplazados, lo que implicaría que los destinos institucionales universitarios no están necesariamente relacionadas con quienes son sus rectores y lo que ellos hacen bajo su mandato. La primera tentación que surge de estas reflexiones opuestas, es preguntarse: ¿importa el liderazgo de los rectores en las universidades? La respuesta puede ser variada y es presumible que esté relacionada con otros factores, lo que implicaría que nunca la respuesta será afirmativa o negativa de plano. En efecto, los autores que responden afirmativamente estiman que los líderes están frecuentemente impedidos de actuar como ellos desearían (Kerr y Gade, 1986); incluso, aquellos que postulan que el liderazgo es más simbólico que sustancial, reconocen que los líderes harían la diferencia en determinadas condiciones (Cohen y March, 1974; Birnbaum, 1989). Cualquier consideración completa sobre el liderazgo académico debe ser capaz de acomodar las dos visiones, líder fuerte y líder débil, porque la evidencia sugiere que, mientras las dos pueden ser incompletas, ambas son, en alguna medida correctas, según la circunstancia. No podemos dejar de mencionar que ese mismo liderazgo, transaccional o transformacional, ha ido variando hacia un gerencialismo técnico, especialmente ligado al cumplimiento de metas y resultados cuantitativos. Ello ha significado en algunos casos que la figura del rector se ha hecho menos presente, agobiado en reuniones técnicas y de resolución ejecutiva. El tema de recursos ha pasado a ser un componente esencial de su gestión, en algunos casos la mejor medida de su eficacia y eficiencia (Bess y Dee, 2008). Existe una profusa literatura que aborda este último aspecto, donde sin duda desaparece la idea de rector como líder inspirador, para ser reemplazado

94


por la figura del liderazgo como proceso, donde acaban por tener mayor presencia los análisis que nos hablan de las teorías para el logro de la efectividad de las políticas (Antonakis y Atwater, 2002; Dvir, y Shamir, B. 2003; Kezar, 2000; Padilla 2005; Ogawa y Bossert, 1995). El Liderazgo Académico de los Rectores de Universidades: Algunas Reflexiones El análisis propuesto por Birnbaum (1992), constituye un excelente punto de partida para analizar algunos aspectos que normalmente son aceptados para referirse a las características del liderazgo de los rectores, pero que muchas veces carecen de sustento. Diremos, en primer lugar que, en vez de preguntarnos si el liderazgo es importante en una institución universitaria, tal vez sería mejor preguntarse ¿bajo qué condiciones los líderes (rectores) pueden hacer la diferencia? No cabe duda de que un enfoque muy útil para dar respuesta a esta pregunta, sería el estudio acerca de los rectores de una Universidad desde una perspectiva cultural e interpretativa. La literatura demuestra que existe la creciente convicción de que la cultura institucional y el ejercicio del liderazgo están estrechamente relacionados (Schein, 1985); en este sentido, se ha afirmado que el único aspecto de real importancia que los líderes hacen es crear y gestionar la cultura. Pero si la cultura se alterara por la intervención intencional de un líder, sería más probable que ella termine controlando a los líderes que viceversa. Si esto fuera correcto, no significa que la acción de líderes deje de tener impacto, sino más bien, que para ser efectivo deberá alinear sus estrategias con la cultura de sus instituciones, más que competir con ella (Chafee y Tierney, 1988). A partir del hecho que las instituciones difieren en sus culturas, nivel de madurez institucional, y contexto socio-político, las acciones que se adopten y que son efectivas en un escenario pueden no serlas en otro. Esto no obsta que existan normas sustantivas de liderazgo que posean aplicabilidad general, y sería también cierto que si los líderes desean tener alguna influencia en la cultura de sus instituciones, primero deben estudiarla y comprenderla cuidadosamente. Una visión interpretativa del liderazgo enfatiza la importancia de los líderes en el desarrollo y mantenimiento del sistema de creencias (cultura) que regenera cada vez el compromiso de los participantes. Los líderes logran esto


95

a través del uso del lenguaje, símbolos y ritos que permite a la comunidad interpretar las acciones organizacionales de una manera consistente con los valores del líder (Pfeffer, 1981). Sobre este punto, Bolman y Deal (1984) estiman que los líderes nos ayudan a sentir a sus comunidades menos temerosas y más confiadas. En general, ningún autor presenta dudas acerca de la importancia del liderazgo; sin embargo, al momento de explicarlo en su desarrollo, las interpretaciones resultan más vagas y en muchas ocasiones indefinibles. Tal vez por ello el ser humano en la búsqueda del entendimiento en medio de la ambigüedad, desarrolla significados compartidos para resolver la incertidumbre y crear explicaciones satisfactorias acerca de las causas. La repetición constante de esos significados los hace aparecer reales, a pesar de la falta de pruebas de apoyo. Tales creencias las calificamos de mitos (Kuth y Whitt, 1988). Uno de los mitos más reiterados en el mundo académico es la que todo rector posee una visión. Ello impulsado por la idea de que la mayoría de los autores que han estudiado el liderazgo sostienen que los líderes exitosos han tenido una visión y fueron capaces de comunicársela a otros. Cuando se habla de visión o meta, la definición puede ser diferente, pero no importa cómo se le llame –agenda personal, propósito, legado, sueño o meta-, la intención siempre es la misma. Los líderes deben estar orientados hacia el futuro y tener una mirada clara acerca de la dirección que desean que sus organizaciones tomen (Kouzes y Posner, 1987). De este modo, no siendo obligación la presencia de una visión particular y propia del rector, lo que sí es correcto es verificar la existencia de un programa que sea el resultado de su propia agenda personal. Los líderes (rectores) generarían confianza a través de una visión, la cual debe representar el sentido compartido del aporte de sus asesores; sería algo así como “aquí es donde ustedes me dijeron que realmente querían ir”. La visión, en este sentido, sería el símbolo del líder que demuestra haber escuchado y respetado la visión que es legítimamente aceptada. Una visión común debe permitir decir, a los colaboradores, no necesariamente que una institución será diferente, pero sí, mejor. Una visión que crea un sentido común de la realidad, reconoce las fortalezas de la institución a las cuales se les debe dar mayor importancia. El líder que demuestre una comprensión adecuada de la cultura de su institución, es capaz de presentar este énfasis de manera consistente con los valores y tradiciones

96


del núcleo institucional. Una vez articulada la visión se transforma en meta, a través de la cual se entenderían y evaluarían las ideas de fondo que estimulan la institución. Las visiones más efectivas resultan ser aquellas que encarnan la perspectiva de los colaboradores en formas idealizadas (Conger y Kanungo, 1998). El Carisma de los Rectores Universitarios El carisma provee a los líderes de una influencia extra sobre sus seguidores y, por tanto, conducirían a las instituciones hacia niveles más altos de rendimiento (Bass, 1985), pero el carisma también posee un lado oscuro. Los líderes carismáticos, a veces, poseen un narcisismo que puede llevarlos a un grandioso sentido de certeza, a manifestar cierto desdén por los subordinados, una falta de tolerancia para la disidencia y un sentimiento de que las reglas normales no se aplican a ellos. El carisma reduciría la interacción y puede llevar a una aceptación de los actos del líder basados en la fe, más que en la comprensión. Una atribución del carisma depende no sólo de las características del líder, sino también de la teorías implícitas del liderazgo mantenidas por los seguidores (Bass, 1985). Las cualidades del carisma son tan generales que pueden ser representadas por muchos comportamientos diferentes, cada uno de los cuales están sujeto a interpretaciones de seguidores, basado en factores como la situación y las relaciones previas con el líder (Avolio y Yammarino, 1990). Los trabajos de Birnbaum (1989a; 1989b y 1992) indican que el liderazgo carismático puede ser raro en la educación superior, porque el nivel de preparación y especialización del profesorado los predispone a resistir la autoridad jerárquica de cualquier clase, y porque la mayoría de las escuelas son funcionalmente efectivas. El carisma será más efectivo cuando es usado para el desarrollo material de la institución y para incrementar la dispersión del liderazgo a lo largo de la organización. Será más perturbadora cuando conduce a una institución a ser vista solamente como una extensión de la sombra del líder. Finalmente, diremos que algunas investigaciones sobre el liderazgo de los rectores asumen relaciones causales entre estilos de liderazgo y resultados organizacionales. Se creyó que una vez que esas relaciones fueran determinantes, tan sólo era necesario seleccionar líderes exitosos o preparar


97

líderes que no las tenían para establecer un orden para conseguir los objetivos deseados. Desafortunadamente, la idea del estilo del liderazgo ha puesto cada vez más hincapié en aspectos del comportamiento y ha perdido de vista las estructuras profundas del liderazgo. La mayoría de los análisis de liderazgo en marcos académicos o no académicos, no han identificado un estilo único y exitoso de liderazgo. Los rasgos descritos como esenciales por un estudio son encontrados sólo con el carácter de importantes para otros. La idea de que los líderes poseen características o rasgos diferenciadores, es quizás una de las nociones más antiguas y profundamente investigadas sobre el liderazgo (Bensimon, Neumann y Birnbaum, 1989). En general, aun cuando es posible reconocer algunos rasgos y habilidades que frecuentemente aparecen como características de los líderes efectivos, no es posible garantizar en todas las circunstancias su presencia. Es posible que esta tradición investigativa, ante la incapacidad de descubrir patrones significativos o las relaciones entre rasgos y resultados, no sea seguida seriamente ya, para todos los efectos prácticos. Conclusiones Del análisis de la evolución el concepto de liderazgo y el despliegue del mismo observado en los estudios sobre el desempeño de los rectores de universidades norteamericanas, es posible definir algunas conclusiones y formular sugerencias para el inicio de nuevas líneas de investigación: a. Existe un importante consenso en entender el liderazgo como una relación de influencia que se da entre el líder y sus seguidores y que en virtud de esa influencia los seguidores actuarían o sentirían en forma diferente de lo que ocurriría sin la presencia del líder. b. El análisis acerca del verdadero impacto del trabajo de un rector en la vida académica es un tema que debe ser estudiado en forma amplia en otro contexto distinto al norteamericano, de modo de observar si esas conclusiones tienen validez universal. c. La perspectiva sobre liderazgo basado en un análisis más cognitivo sugerida por Howard Gardner debe ser explorada en la alta dirección y gestión de las universidades. d. En esta misma línea surge la necesidad de estudiar de manera empírica el liderazgo trascendente en la universidad propuesto por Pérez López.

98


e. En este mismo sentido sería importante conocer si en las universidades latinoamericanas la figura y trabajo del rector ha sido un componente crítico del funcionamiento y del mejoramiento institucional. f. Las investigaciones que aborden la revisión del impacto del trabajo del rector en las universidades latinoamericanas, deberán considerar cuánto de ese impacto se relaciona con la personalidad y carisma del rector. A modo de pregunta ¿Qué peso ha tenido el ejercicio del liderazgo carismático en las universidades latinoamericanas? g. Otra línea de investigación deberá abordar si ha sido característico la presencia de una Visión del rector, para el desarrollo de los proyectos universitarios, como se ha indicado para los rectores de universidades norteamericanas. Finalmente, pensamos que futuros estudios sobre liderazgo académico podrían orientarse a investigar los efectos del entrenamiento en habilidades de comunicación –orientadas a ayudar a los líderes organizacionales en la práctica generalizada de diferentes modelos de conversación- esto es en la precisión con que los líderes comunican.

Notas 1

El autor de este artículo realizó una investigación acerca de liderazgo de los rectores de cuatro universidades privadas en Chile, fundadas en la década de 1980. En dicha investigación “Rectores líderes: cuatro experiencias de fundadores de universidades privadas en Chile”, se aborda el papel clave que juega el liderazgo del Rector en el éxito del proyecto universitario. Para el desarrollo de la investigación se aplicó como marco teórico de referencia, el Modelo de caracterización del liderazgo y gestión de organizaciones propuesto por Lee Bolman y Terrence Deal (1984). Dicho modelo presenta características adecuadas para el estudio del liderazgo de los rectores, dado que permite redefinir el concepto de liderazgo más allá de los límites establecidos, en virtud que plantean la existencia de un liderazgo integrado para las organizaciones, que se nutre de cuatro perspectivas: Estructural, Recursos Humanos, Simbólica y Política. Esta base teórica propuesta por Bolman y Deal, fue complementada con los trabajos de Birnbaum (1989) y Bensimon (1989 y 1991), los que también reconocen la existencia de cuatro marcos cognoscitivos referenciales, respecto de los cuales se organizan los líderes de una organización. El modelo utilizado podría ser validado en futuras investigaciones (Vega, 2013) 2 El término liderazgo figura en la lengua inglesa hacia el año 1300, y la palabra leadership no aparece sino hasta la primera mitad del siglo XIX en escritos sobre el control y la influencia en el Parlamento Británico. De este modo, el término líder y liderazgo no se manifiestan en otras lenguas modernas hasta tiempos recientes, lo cual invita a algunos autores a hablar de una corta data del término. La exploración del fundamento etimológico de la palabra liderazgo (leadership), se encuentra en su raíz, to lead (Oxford University Press, 1995), que significa indicar el camino, guiar, dirigir, mandar, conducir. Líder sería, entonces, quien manda o conduce. En un sentido más amplio, el vocablo se


99

reduciría al concepto de mando, basado en las cualidades superiores de la persona que es reconocida para estas funciones por sus seguidores (Bass y Stogdill, 1990). 3 En esta misma línea, se sostiene, que el nuevo enfoque no sólo será conductual, sino específicamente funcional, vale decir, se inaugura la concepción del liderazgo como proceso de grupo y, por lo tanto, como un fenómeno social de influencia. Para esto, ver Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). 4 De la teorías situacionales, se han derivado diversos modelos, que en el caso particular de este trabajo sólo mencionaremos su existencia, sin mayor desarrollo: Teoría X y Teoría Y, de Douglas McGregor (1957); Modelo del comportamiento continuo del líder, de Tannenbaum y Schmidt (1958); Teoría del ciclo de vida, de Hersey y Blanchard (1999); y Modelo de participación en la toma de decisiones, de Vroom y Jago (1988). 5 Este concepto se usó inicialmente para describir un don especial que poseían ciertos individuos selectos, el cual les daba la capacidad de realizar cosas extraordinarias. Se estima que el concepto de carisma fue introducido por Max Weber (1952) en las primeras décadas del siglo XX, al sostener que los líderes carismáticos son personas extremadamente estimadas y dotadas de cualidades ejemplares. Weber entiende el carisma como una característica especial de la personalidad, que otorga a la persona poderes especiales, de origen divino, reservados sólo a unos pocos. 6 El trabajo de carácter enciclopédico de Bernard Bass (Bass, 1990), cita alrededor de 7.500 estudios sobre el tema en forma genérica. La literatura enfocada de manera particular a la educación superior fue también abordada en un extenso ensayo bibliográfico por Bensimon, Neumann y Birnbaum (1989b).

References Antonakis, J., Atwater, L. (2002). Leader distance: A review and proposed theory. Leadership Quaterly, 13 (6), 673-704. doi: 10.1016/S10489843(02)00155-8 Avolio, B. J., y Yammarino, F.J. (1990). Operationalizing Charismatic Leadership Using a Level-of-Analysis Framework. The Leadership Quaterly, 1, 193-208. doi: 10.1016/1048-9843(90)90020-I Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance Beyond Expectation. New York: Free Press. Bass, B.M. y Avolio, B.J. (1995). Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire: Technical report. Redwood City, CA: Mindgarden. Bass, B. y Stogdill, R. (1990). Handbook of Leadership, Theory, Research and Managerial Applications. New York, United States: The Free Press. Bennis, W. y Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York, United States: HarperCollins.

100 Vega, R. – El ejercicio del liderazgo académico

Bensimon, E.M. (1991). The social processes through which faculty shape the image of a new president. Journal of Higher Education, 62. 637660. Jstor. doi: 10.2307/1982194 Bensimon, E.M., Neumann A. y Birnbaum, R. (1989). Making sense of administrative leadership: The ‘L’ word in higher education. ASHEERIC Higher Education Report (1). School of Education and human Development, George Washington University. Bess, J., Dee, J. (2008). Understanding College and University Organization. Theories for effective policy and practice. Virginia: Stylus publishing. Birnbaum, R. (1989a). The implicit leadership theories of college and university Presidents. The Review of Higher Education, 12, 125-136. Birnbaum, R. (1989b). Responsibility Without Authority: The Impossible Job of the College President. In Jo Smart /ed), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research. Vol. 5. New York: Agathon Press. Birnbaum, R. (1989c). Presidential Succession and Institutional Functioning in Higher Education. Journal Higher Education, 60, 123-135. doi: 10.2307/1982173 Birnbaum, R. (1992). How academic Leadership works: Understanding success and failure in the College Presidency. San Francisco: JosseyBass Publishers. Bolman, L., Deal, T. (1984). Modern Approaches to Understanding and managing Organizations. San Francisco, EEUU: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Boyett, J. (1999). Hablan los Gurús. Editorial Norma. Burns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harpers Collins. Cameron, K. S. (1986). A Study of Organizational Effectiveness and its Predictors. Management Science, 32, 87-112. doi: 10.1287/mnsc.32.1.87 Cardona, P., Rey, C. (2008). Dirección por misiones. Cómo generar empresas de alto rendimiento. Barcelona: Ediciones Deusto. Chafee, E y Tierney, W.G. (1988). Collegiate Culture and Leadership Strategies. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education/Macmillan. Chaffee, E. (1985). Three Models of Strategy. Academy of Management Review, 10, 89-98.

IJELM– International Journal of Educational Leadership & Management, 3(1) 101

Cohen, M. D y March, J. G. (1974). Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College Presidency. New York: McGraw-Hill. Conger, J & A. Kanungo. (1998). Charismatic Leadership in Organizations, Sage Publications. Covey, S. (1994). El Liderazgo centrado en principios, Ediciones Paidós. Crosby, P (1996). Los Principios absolutos del liderazgo, Prentice Hall. De Vries, R.E, Bakker-Pieper, A., & Oostenveld, W. (2010). Leadership = Communication? The Relations of Leaders’ Communication Styles with Leadership Styles, Knowledge Sharing and Leadership Outcomes. Journal of Business and Psychology, 25, 367-380. doi: 10.1007/s10869-009-9140-2 Dvir, T., & Shamir, B. (2003). Follower developmental characteristics as predicting transformational leadership: A longitudinal field study. The Leadership Quaterly, 14 (3), 327-344. doi: 10.1016/S10489843(03)00018-3 Fisher, J. (1984). Power of the Presidency. New York: Macmillan. Gardner, J.W. (1990). On The leadership. New York, EEUU: Free Press. Gardner, H. (1998). Mentes Líderes. Una Anatomía del liderazgo. Barcelona, España: Ediciones Paidós. Gardner, H. (1994). Estructuras de la mente. La teoría de las inteligencias múltiples. México: Fondo de Cultura Económica. Gilley, J.; Fulmer, K, & Reithlingshoefer, S. (1986). Searching for Academic Excellence: Twenty Colleges on the move and their Leaders. New York: American Council on Education/Macmillan. Ginebra, J. (1997). El Liderazgo y la Acción. McGrawHill. Grant, A. (2008). Does intrinsic motivation fuel the prosocial fire? Motivational synergy in predicting persistence, performance and productivity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 48-58. doi: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.48 Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. (1999). Management of organizational behavior: Utilizing human resources. Englewood Cliffs: PrenticeHall. Kauffman J.F. (1987) The College and university Presidency. Key Resources on higher Education. Governance, management, and leadership.San Francisco, EEUU: Peterson, M.W & Mets, Jossey-Bass. Keller, G. (1983). Academic Strategy: The Management Revolution in Higher Education. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.

102 Vega, R. – El ejercicio del liderazgo académico

Kerr, C y Gade, M (1986). The many lives of Academia Presidents: Time, Place and Character. Washington, D.C: Association of Governing Boards. Kezar, A. (2000). Pluralistic leadership: Incorporating diverse voices. Journal of Higher Education, 71 (6), 722-743. doi: 10.2307/2649160 Kotter, J. (1990). El factor liderazgo. Madrid, España: Ediciones Díaz de Santos. Kouzes, J. M. y Posner, B. Z. (1987). The Leadership Challenge: How to get Extraordinary Things Done in Organizations. San Francisco: JosseyBass. Kuth, G. D., y Whitt, E.J. (1988). The Invisible Tapestry: Culture in American Collage and Universities. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report, N° 1, Washington, D.C.: Association for the Study of Higher Education. Lewin, K; Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created "social climates." Journal of Social Psychology, 10, 271-299. doi: 10.1080/00224545.1939.9713366 Lussier, R & Achua, Ch. (2001) Leadership: theory, application, skill development, South Western College Publishing. Northouse, P. (1997). Leadership, Theory and Practice, Sage Publications. Ogawa, R. & Bossert, S. (1995). Leadership as an organizational quality. Educational Administration Quarterly, 31 (2), 224-243. doi: 10.1177/0013161X95031002004 Dictionary Oxford University Press (1986). Padilla, A. (2005). Portraits in leadership: six extraordinary university presidents. American Council Education, Praeger series on higher education. Páez, I. & Yepes, G. (2004). Liderazgo: Evolución y Conceptualización. Bogotá, Colombia: Universidad Externado de Colombia. Pérez López, J. A. (1991). Teoría de la acción humana en las organizaciones. La acción personal. Madrid: Rialp. Pérez López, J. A. (2006). Fundamentos de la dirección de empresas. 3ª edición. Madrid: Rialp. Pérez López, J.A. (1997). Liderazgo. Barcelona: Folio (edición póstuma preparada por Teresa Gener). Pérez López, J.A. (1998). Liderazgo y ética en la dirección de empresas. Bilbao: Deusto (edición póstuma preparada por Nuria Chinchilla).


Pérez López et al. (2001). Paradigmas del liderazgo. Claves de la dirección de personas. Madrid: McGraw Hill. Pfeffer, J. (1981). Management as Symbolic Action: The creation and Maintenance of Organizational Paradigms. Research in Organizational Behavior. Vol. 3 Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press. Pfeffer, J. (1977). The ambiguity of leadership. Academy of Management Review. (1), 104-112. Rey, C. (2012). Ideas para el desarrollo de la motivación trascendente. Universidad Internacional de Catalunya. Cátedra Dirección por Misiones y Gobierno Corporativo: Working paper. Schein, E. H. (1985). Organizational Culture and Leadership: A Dynamic View. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Smith, P. B y Morgan, G. (1988). Leadership: The Management of Meaning. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Research. Tannenbaum, R., Irving, R., Weschler, R., Massarik, F. (1971). Liderazgo y Organización. Introducción a la ciencia del comportamiento, Buenos Aires, Argentina: Troquel. Vaughan, G. (1989). Leadership in Transition: The Community College Presidency. New York: American Council on Education/Macmillan. Vega, R. (2013). Rectores líderes. Cuatro experiencias de fundadores de universidades privadas en Chile. Ediciones Universidad Finis Terrae. Vroom, V y Jago, A. (1988). The New Leadersship: Managing Participations in Organizations. N. J. Englewood Clifs, Prentice Hall. Walker, D. E. (1979). The Effective Administrator: A Practical Approach to Problem Solving, Decision Making, and Campus Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Weber, M. (1952). On Charisma and institution building: selected papers. S. N. Eisenstact (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Whetten, D. A., y Cameron, K.S. (1985). Administrative Effectiveness in Higher Education. Review of Higher Education, 9, 35-49.

Roberto Vega es Vicerrector Académico de la Universidad de Finis Terrae, Santiago de Chile. Dirección de contacto: [email protected]


Women & Leadership in Higher Education Carmen Carrillo1 1) Universitat Internacional de Catalunya. Spain


To cite this article: Carrillo, C. (2015). Women & Leadership in Higher Education [Review of the Book Women & Leadership in Higher Education]. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 104107. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2015.06 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.06


IJELM – International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management Vol. 3 No. 1 Month Year pp. 104-107

Review Longman, K.A. & Madsen, S.R. (Eds.) (2014). Women & Leadership in Higher Education. Charlotte, North Carolina: Information Age Publishing, Inc.

N

o one doubts that bringing more women into leadership can become critical for the progress of society. However, the number of women in leadership positions in institutions and organizations across all sectors is still limited. While many reasons have been provided in the scientific literature to explain this situation, the disconnection between female values and the male culture that still shape senior leadership positions in some companies have been often pointed out as one of the most determining factors. Aware of the need of contributing to the advance of women in senior-level leadership roles, the International Leadership Association has launched the new book series “Women and Leadership: Research, Theory and Practice”, which seeks to address challenges faced by female leaders in a variety of professional contexts and to provide a comprehensive perspective of leadership. The first volume, entitled “Women & Leadership in Higher Education” and co-edited by Professor Karen A. Longman (Azusa Pacific University) and Professor Susan R. Madsen (Utah Valley University), pays specific attention to the status of women in leadership in the higher education sector in North America. This theme is approached from a perspective that draws together research, theory and practice. The emphasis on leadership in the field of higher education in this volume is of vital importance, as stated by



Professor Warren Bennis (University Professor and Distinguised Professor of Business Administration at the University of Southern California) in the Forward: “Those involved in higher education, and particularly those who lead institutions of higher education, shape the future in ways that directly influence the vitality and well-being of the United States and our world” (p. viii). The book “Women & Leadership in Higher Education” is divided into four sections, each of which consists of several chapters. The opening section contains three chapters that define the status quo of women leadership across different sectors in the United States, with particular attention paid to higher education. The first chapter provides qualitative and quantitative data from the “Benchmarking Women’s Leadership in the United States 2013” report (Colorado Women’s College, 2013) in order to examine and facilitate the understanding of where women are in leadership roles across various sectors including higher education. Chapter two analyses several aspects related to the underrepresentation of women at the top levels of higher education leadership and offers individual and institutional strategies to improve this status. The third chapter draws upon the findings of two studies chaired by the author at both Princeton University and Duke University to provide insights into the ambitions of female undergraduate students and their preferences regarding areas of involvement in leadership positions. Interestingly, the participating female students showed a preference for leadership positions in which they could be committed to a cause they care about, even if this meant leading “behind the scenes”. In response to concerns arising from the underrepresentation of women in higher education leadership, section two consists of three chapters which present a general overview of the approaches undertaken in three of the bestknown women’s leadership development programmes in the United States. These chapters provide useful insights for both higher education institutions willing to implement this kind of training and for those women considering a move into senior leadership roles. The first chapter presents an overview of the work carried out by the American Council on Education (ACE) over the last four decades to promote the incorporation of women in leadership positions in colleges and universities. It also describes the “Moving the Needle” initiative, which seeks to raise awareness of the importance of gender parity in higher education and to present practices through which parity can be achieved. Chapter two outlines a series of best practices carried out by

106 Carmen Carrillo – Women & Leadership in Higher Education

Higher Education Resource Services over 40 years of experience in women’s leadership training. This chapter also provides a research-based approach to curricular issues that can guide women on their journey to senior-level leadership. The third and last chapter describes the approach to leadership development adopted by the Women’s Leadership Academy at the University of San Diego programming in order to raise leadership capacity among women. The author defines the four key principles on which these programs are founded: the clear distinction between leadership and authority, the acknowledgment of a pervasive organizational gender bias, the integration of both masculine and feminine leadership practice and the creation of a curriculum based on group dynamics. In the four chapters included in the third section, experiences and contributions of women who have held leadership positions in colleges and universities are presented. In the first chapter, some areas women have contributed to leadership conceptualization and practice such as participatory decision-making, collaboration, inclusiveness or ethical orientation, among others, are outlined. The author also explains how, in a global economy characterised by competitive practices, women need to adopt a hybrid approach to leadership which blends strategies that have often been associated to both female’s and male’s forms of leadership. Chapter two draws upon data from a research that aimed to explore the personal and professional challenges that 26 women went through during their careers in senior leadership positions in the higher education context. Three factors that contributed to overcome these challenges, associated to reframing, resilience and self-efficacy, are described. The third chapter presents the main findings from a phenomenological research carried out with 10 women leaders holding senior positions in higher education. It also discusses how the interconnection among authenticity, gender and leadership can give useful insights to achieve a more comprehensive approach to leadership. The final chapter provides data from a study that sought to examine the gender’s impact on the ability of eight female presidents of doctoral-granting universities to perform their jobs. Most presidents were aware that gender could at times make their job more difficult; however, they pointed out that they did not allow gender stereotypes to deter them. In the final section five female presidents of higher education institutions provide lessons from their own experiences at the top of their field. The first chapter discusses three themes considered essential for a successful


presidency: the quest for legitimacy, managed authenticity and emotional intelligence. The author also argues that the ability to overcome the challenges of the presidency has more to do with style and personality than with competence. In chapter two some of the challenges that public research universities present for the work of female presidents in colleges or universities are described. These are related to major research achievements, land-grant roles, big-time sports, and academic medicine. The third chapter offers advices for those female leaders willing to become presidents of higher education institutions. The author also addresses several issues in relation to the skills and experiences needed to serve as a successful president. The first American woman of Mexican origin appointed president of an American higher education institution provides a brief biographical account of her personal and professional career in chapter four. She importantly highlights the power of college and university education to bring about change among people. The final chapter of the book describes the multiple transitions undertook by the author throughout her professional journey in higher education leadership and explains how recognizing her own grounding contributed to keep her excited in her successive positions. The different perspectives around women leadership issues provided in this book are a true lesson on how a female approach to leadership in higher education can contribute to expand our understanding of leadership and how the academy, as well as other organizations and institutions across all sectors, can benefit from advancing more women into senior leadership positions. Although it is very focused on the North American context, the experiences and strategies contained in this volume can encourage and support those women willing to undertake leadership positions in higher education institutions worldwide.

Carmen Carrillo Universitat Internacional de Catalunya [email protected]


List of Reviewers


To cite this article: IJELM Editors. (2015). List of Reviewers. International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management, 3(1), 108. doi: 10.4471/ijelm.2014.07 To link this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.4471/ijelm.2015.07


IJELM – International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management Vol. 3 No. 1 January 2015 p. 108

List of Reviewers Thank you to 2014 reviewers. On behalf of the International Journal of Educational Leadership and Management we deeply appreciate reviewers contributions to the quality of this journal. The journal owes this debt with those who have been peer reviewers during this period. Yours sincerely, Mireia Tintoré Editor Arbós, Albert Arasanz, Antoni Carrillo, Carme Del Valle, Ingrid Domingo Coscollola, María García-Carrión, Rocío Martínez Garrido, Cynthia Parés, Isabel Quirós, Carolina Racionero, Sandra Salvans, Astrid Ugarte, Carolina
