Volume 3

Volume 3

Scientific Editors:

Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD Colonel Professor eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD

April 14 - 15, 2016 Bucharest, Romania

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE STRATEGIES XXI National Defense University „CAROL I” Bucharest, Romania, April 14-15, 2016 INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD (National Defense University “Carol I”, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Professor Eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD (National Defense University “Carol I”, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD (NDU) Magistrate Lieutenant General Professor Erich CSITKOVITS, PhD (National Defense Academy, Austria) Brigadier General Professor Eng. Bohuslav PŘIKRYL, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) Brigadier General (ret.) Professor Eng. Rudolf URBAN, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) Professor Zdenek ZEMANEK, CSc, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) General Associate Professor Boguslaw PACEK, PhD (National Defense University, Poland) Navy Captain (ret.) Associate Professor Piotr GAWLICZEK, PhD (National Defense University, Poland) Colonel Professor Tadeusz SZCZUREK, Ph.D. (Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland) Brigadier General Associate Professor Dipl. Eng. Boris ĎURKECH, PhD (Armed Forces Academy of GMRS, Slovakia) Major General Professor Vuruna MLADEN, PhD (Military Academy, Serbia) Brigadier General Professor Slaven ZDILAR, PhD (“Petar Zrinski” Defense Academy, Croatia) Colonel Professor Mojca PEŠEC, PhD (Army Command and Staff College, Slovenia) Brigadier General Professor Meelis KIILI, PhD (Baltic Defense College, Estonia) Professor Augustin MEAHER, PhD (Baltic Defense College, Estonia) Professor András PATYI, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Gabor BOLDIZSAR, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Professor Laszlo KOVACS, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel-general (ret.) Professor Zoltan SZENES, PhD (National University for Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Professor Christophe MIDAN, PhD (France) Professor Larry WATTS, PhD (USA) Professor Radu MIHALCEA, PhD (University of Illinois, Chicago, USA) Professor Adrian CURAJ, PhD (UEFISCDI, Bucharest, Romania) Professor Daniel TORJE, PhD (Police Academy, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Bucharest, Romania) Professor George-Marius ŢICAL, PhD (National College for Home Affairs, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Associate Professor Niculae IANCU, PhD (National Intelligence Academy, “Mihai Viteazu”, Bucharest, Romania) General (ret.) Professor Teodor FRUNZETI, PhD (Titu Maiorescu University, Bucharest, Romania) Lecturer Codrin MUNTEANU, PhD, (NDU) Professor Adrian IVAN, PhD (“Babeş-Bolay” University, Cluj Napoca, Romania)

Desktop publishing: Elena Pleșanu Cover designer: Elena Pleșanu Olimpia Enache

ISSN 2285-8415 ISSN-L 2285-8318

Professor Constanţa Nicoleta BODEA, PhD (Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania) Lieutenant Colonel (ret.) Carol PETERFI, University of Tartu, Estonia Major General (ret.) Professor Gabriel-Florin MOISESCU, PhD (NDU) Brigadier General Professor Eng. Ghiţă BÂRSAN, PhD (Land Forces Academy “Nicolae Bălcescu”, Sibiu, Romania) Brigadier General Professor Vasile BUCINSCHI, PhD (Air Force Academy “Henri Coandă”, Braşov, Romania) Colonel Professor Daniel DUMITRU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Ion ROCEANU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Sorin PÎNZARIU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Constantin POPESCU, PhD (NDU) Lieutenant-Colonel Professor Dorel BUŞE, PhD (NDU) Colonel Associate Professor Gheorghe DEACONU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Dănuţ TURCU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Associate Professor Lucian POPESCU, PhD (NDU) Associate Professor Mirela IONIŢĂ, PhD (NDU) ORGANIZING COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN: Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD Colonel Professor Eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD MEMBERS: Captain Lecturer Ciprian IGNAT, PhD - Conference Administrator Colonel Professor Constantin POPESCU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Gheorghe DEACONU, PhD Captain (nv.) Professor Sorin TOPOR, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Lucian POPESCU, PhD Colonel Professor Ioan DEAC, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Professor Dorel BUŞE, PhD Colonel Professor Dănuţ TURCU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Filofteia REPEZ, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Dorin EPARU, PhD Colonel Professor Constantin IORDACHE, PhD Colonel Professor Gelu ALEXANDRESCU, PhD Colonel Professor Ion CĂLIN, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Mirela PUŞCAŞU, PhD Associate Professor Margareta BOACĂ, PhD Associate Professor Sorina MARDAR, PhD Associate Professor Adriana RÎŞNOVEANU, PhD Colonel Lecturer Cosmin OLARIU, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Lecturer Marius PĂUNESCU, PhD Major Cristian ICHIMESCU, PhD student Lieutenant Colonel Dan PETRESCU, PhD student Lecturer Mihaiela BUŞE, PhD Associate Professor Daniela COMAN, PhD Assistant Professor Polixenia OLAR, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Mădălina-Daniela GHIBA, PhD student Colonel Valerică CRUCERU, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Gheorghe STOIU, PhD

© The responsibility of the papers’ content belongs entirely to their authors

SPONSORS:

SPONSOR: NC "Maritime Ports Administration" SA Constanta

NC „Maritime Ports Administration” SA Constanta NC “Maritime Ports Administration” SA Constanta has the role of port authority for the Romanian Ports - Constanta, Midia and Mangalia (and Tomis Marina). From its position, it aims to provide quality and competitive services to the ports customers, to offer a developed transport infrastructure, as well as security, safety and environmental port conditions, thus encouraging the cargo traffic and transforming the Port of Constanta in to an important transit center - by offering the shortest transport alternative to the center of Europe and becoming a regional distribution center - the leader - for its hinterland The Port of Constanta offers a lot of advantages, among which, the most important are: • multi-purpose port with modern facilities and sufficient depth to accommodate the largest vessels passing through the Suez Canal; • direct access to the Pan-European Corridor VII, through the Danube Black Sea Canal, providing a shorter and cheaper waterway transport towards Central Europe than the routes using the Northern Europe ports; • good connections with all modes of transport: railway, road, river, airway and pipelines; • the New Container Terminal on Pier II South, increasing the container operating capacity; • future expansion planned; • Ro-Ro and Ferry-boat terminals suitable for the development of short sea shipping serving the Black Sea and the Danube countries; • Since 1st January 2007 the Port of Constanta has become a port with customs facilitations. In order to meet the traffic requirements, Constanta port is equipped with shore cranes, bulk discharging facilities, gantry cranes, handling platforms for loading bagged and bulk cargo, pneumatic floating cranes, oil handling facilities, as well as specialized operating within quays and terminals. European and international promotion of Constanta port’s competitive advantages: • favorable geographic position – Constanta port is connected to the Pan European transport network by corridors IV (road and railway), VII (inland navigation) and TRACECA transport corridor; • operation facilities for any kind of cargo and storage capacities; • port services in a competitive environment; • promotion activities in the Central Europe by the representative offices in Budapest, Belgrade and Vienna. Constanta Port efficiently serves cargo flows going to or coming from Central and Eastern European countries including: Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Moldavia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and former Yugoslavia countries.

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Info World is an active participant in the world of cyber security, both by conducting research projects, as well as by taking part in conferences and scientific presentations alongside their partners from the academic and/or corporate environments. The company’s activity in the medical software field also boasts revolutionary products which satisfy the doctor’s need for communication, mobility and most importantly security. Info World’s software applications are installed on laptops as well as other mobile devices, therefore a particular interest is being manifested on implementing standards for secure communication, access and transfer of medical data. The recognition and results received by Info World are proof of its relentless work for partners and customers. The company has attained accolades for their constant capacity to learn and implement innovative technologies in delivered products and services.

Main Domains of Interest Communication and Security Standards: Meaningful Use Stage 2 Certification - specific to e-Health in the American market, based on a set of concepts and standards necessary on a global scale, such as interoperability, CDA and HL7. Cyber Security: HISP (Health Internet Service Provider) accreditation by the EHNAC (Electronic Healthcare Network Accreditation Commission). E-Health and Telemedicine: EHR and PHR systems including telemedicine and emergency telemedicine.

Accolades and Acknowledgments: 

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More than 150 computerized hospitals in the public and private system, over 7,000 workstations and more than 20,000 users. The ONLY company in Romania certified in Empowerment IHE Connectathon interoperability Founding member of the National Association HL7 Romania; Member of HL7 International organization; Founding member of the ESA (European Software Association); Meaningful Use Stage 1 and 2 certified Partner in European Union funded projects (FP7, Eureka, Eurostars eTen);

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HISP (Health Internet Service Provider) certified by the EHNAC (Electronic Healthcare Network Accreditation Commission); Microsoft Gold Partner ISO 9001:2008 certification for quality management systems (SRAC – Romania); OHSAS 18001:2007 certification system for occupational health and safety management (Det Norske Veritas) ISO 27001: 2005 certification for information security management systems (Det Norske Veritas) ISO 14001:2004 environmental management systems (Det Norske Verit)

Headquarters in Bucharest and branches in the main cities in Romania: Iasi, Cluj, Timisoara, Craiova. Partnerships and contracts with multiple U.S. and E.U. companies. “The present is yours; We bring you the future.” www.infoworld.ro

FOREWORD

The papers reunited in the present volume have been submitted to The Twelfth International Scientific Conference “Strategies XXI – Strategic Changes in Security and International Relations”, hosted in Bucharest, Romania, by “Carol I” National Defense University in 14-15 April 2016. Throughout the last decades, the transformations in international relations, the security challenges and crises emerged in almost all areas around the world, have demonstrated us that predictability is still an illusion. The recent events on Eastern and Southern Flank of Europe have proven that detailed analyses are needed in order to reveal the impact of those challenges on strategic relationships. The proliferations of terrorist acts, the migration waves in Europe, the Syrian crises, the tensions in eastern part of Europe as well as in the proximity of Black Sea and Mediterranean Sea area are just a few of the security challenges that the states from the region and also international and regional organizations are dealing with. Those kinds of threats are playing a substantial role in reshaping the European Unions and North Atlantic Treaty Organization policies and that is why there are many questions regarding the way the international community should respond to those kinds of threats. Should credibility of conventional deterrence and collective defense be rebuild in light of Russian new policy, or crisis management operations should be the key to the future type of operations and in that case should EU and NATO efforts improve their capabilities in that direction? In the future it is certain that we will be more interconnected than we are today, continuing to benefit from globalization. The interaction between great powers, the less economically developed states and non-state actors will achieve new dimensions and cyberattacks and sponsoring the terrorism will be new ways of exerting influence. The center of gravity of global economic power is continuing to shift, away from North America and Europe, towards Asia, resulting in a change in the balance of power and an increasingly multi polar world. While the US is likely to remain the world leading military power, its military advantage is likely to be reduced and challenged increasingly by China. Other rising powers, such as Brazil and India, will take a strategic interest beyond their own regions in pursuit of resources. As the security of a nation should be the first duty of the state institutions, we should deeply involve in finding solutions for promoting a sustainable peace and a more secure world, in using national capabilities to build prosperity and to use all the regional and international instruments of power to prevent conflicts in a comprehensive approach. In addition to the above, as the topics are becoming more consistent and gaining ground, more and more academic debates are taking place in the international relations and security areas, emerging both at the theoretical and practical level. The papers gathered in this volume are all meant to facilitate communication between international multidisciplinary teams. This year’s Conference itself provides – as its organizing committee has stated – a forum for discussion on topics related to the security and international relations, military phenomenon and related subject matters. Taking into consideration that only a comprehensive, international scientific effort won’t prevent a conflict but without it we cannot find the proper solutions, the mission of the International Conferences Strategies XXI is to facilitate communication between international multidisciplinary teams. The Conference provides a forum for the discussion of topics related to the security and international relations in the current era. The main areas of interest proposed for the submission of the papers cover the 5

following sections: • Theoretical Aspects of Security and International Relations • Processes and Phenomena of Globalization • European and Euro-Atlantic Integration • Geopolitics, Geostrategy and Defense Studies • Crisis Management and Conflict Prevention • NATO Policies and Strategies • Public International Law • Public and Intercultural Communication and Social Security • Information Systems, Intelligence, and Cyber Security • Defense Resource Management • Education Sciences The conference attracted over 200 papers but, in the end, after a very careful evaluation, 124 papers were accepted. We had 30 evaluators, 40 % papers were rejected, 15 % accepted with amendments and 45% papers were accepted as such. Finally, we would like to thank to all participants who shared their expertise with colleagues during the conference. We also hope that the papers included in this volume will give new ideas to the readers in their quest for solving various problems. The publisher is honored to inform the authors and readers that the previous Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference “Strategies XXI – Strategic Changes in Security and International Relations” are indexed in the ProQuest Central database. The conference would not have been possible without the joint effort of the organizing committee (Security and Defense Faculty / “Carol I” National Defense University, the Doctoral School) and the evaluating board, to whom we are deeply grateful. Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD, Vice-Dean for Scientific Research, Security and Defense Faculty, Lecturer Ciprian IGNAT, PhD, Conference Administrator, Chairs of International Scientific Conference “Strategies XXI”, 2016 “Carol I” National Defense University, Romania

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TABLE OF CONTENT

AN ANALYSIS OF THE WAYS IN WHICH ISIS ACTIONS ARE REFLECTED IN THE ROMANIAN MASS-MEDIA ..................................................................... 13 Ioan DEAC AN ANALYSIS OF ROMANIA’S NATIONAL DEFENSE STRATEGY AS REFLECTED IN THE MEDIA ......................................................................................... 20 Ruxandra BULUC THE RHETORIC OF PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATES ....................................................... 26 Alina ROŞCAN TERRORISM IN MEDIA COVERAGE ................................................................................. 32 Alina-Mihaela STOICA JUVENILE DELINQUENCY FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL POINTS OF VIEW JUVENILE DELINQUENCY FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW ................................................................. 38 Cornelia FARCAȘ ADVERTISING – A FORM OF PUBLIC AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION ............................................................................. 43 Olga BALANESCU ROMANIAN CULTURAL VALUES, BEHAVOURAL PATTERNS AND ATTITUDES .................................................................................................................. 55 Virginia Mihaela DUMITRESCU TENDENCIES OF CULTURAL CHANGE IN THE RANKS OF ROMANIAN EDUCATED YOUTH ................................................................................ 65 Margareta BOACĂ BETWEEN MARGINS AND CENTER – CONSIDERATIONS ON THE SECURITY DIMENSION ....................................................................................... 73 Daniela MACOVEI ACHIEVEMENT OF AN EXPERT IN PUBLIC RELATIONS, PERSUASION AND MANIPULATION – A GATE OPENER FOR AFRICAN COLONISATION ......................................................................................... 80 Valeria MICU THE RIGHT TO REMAIN SILENT – A WESTERN EQUITY BYGONE FORGOTTEN ................................................................. 90 Daniela MACOVEI INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE A POWERFUL TOOL FOR RESOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE 21st CENTURY........................................................................................................... 97 Simona Valentina MALESCU Lăcrămioara Gena PARASCHIV

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LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION IN GLOBAL MARKETING ................................................................................................. 105 Virginia Mihaela DUMITRESCU E-LEARNING IN THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY ............................................................. 113 Monica CONDRUZ-BACESCU THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS ..................................................................... 124 Veronica PĂSTAE THE SMARTBOARD SYSTEM IN EDUCATIONAL DESIGN ........................................ 128 Mirela IONIȚĂ Veronica PĂSTAE THE ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF CONFIDENCE FOR INFORMATION ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR THE PLANNING OF NATO OPERATIONS ..................................................................................................... 135 Stelian TEODORESCU DATA ENCRYPTION AND THE LIMITS OF CYBER SECURITY SYSTEM IN USA TODAY ................................................................................................... 143 Alexandru ION IMPLEMENTING ENISA’S CYBER SECURITY PLAN IN THE EUROPEAN UNION ............................................................................................... 151 Alexandru ION A LOGIC MODEL FOR THE NATIONAL CYBER SECURITY/DEFENCE STRATEGIES? THE CASE OF THE FRENCH CYBER DEFENCE PACT ...................... 156 Tasia GUDU MANAGEMENT OF THE JOINT FORCE COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATIONS SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 162 Petrică-Marinel VOICU Gheorghe BOARU COMPONENT OF THE JOINT FORCE COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATIONS SYSTEM ....................................................................................... 168 Petrică-Marinel VOICU Gheorghe BOARU CONSIDERATIONS ON CYBER SECURITY LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS IN ROMANIA ................................................................................. 173 Dănuţ TURCU CYBER CRIMINAL AND CYBER TERRORIST - TWO CONCEPTS THAT NEED TO BE DIFFERENTLY TREATED ............................................................. 181 Sorin TOPOR ASPECTS IN APLYING CYBERNETICS IN THE MODERN FIGHTING SPACE................................................................................................................ 187 Gelu ALEXANDRESCU

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THE QUALITY OF INFORMATION IN INTEL ANALYSIS ............................................ 191 Ion CĂLIN THEORETICAL ASPECTS REGARDING THE EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ....................................................... 197 Lucian Dragoş POPESCU ANALYSIS METHODS OF THE EXTERNAL MARKETING ENVIRONMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS ........................................ 203 Mirela PUŞCAŞU THE USE OF INFORMATIZED MODELS IN RISK MANAGEMENT ............................ 211 Cătălin BURSUC Toma PLEȘANU Polixenia OLAR ESTIMATE OF THE LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF COMPLEX WEAPON SYSTEMS.................................................................................. 220 Nicolae-Alin PLEŞANU Codrin MUNTEANU Polixenia OLAR MANAGEMENT OF HEALTHCARE FINANCING .......................................................... 229 Gabriel COJOCARU THE PROJECT TEAM MANAGEMENT ............................................................................ 234 Lucian Dragoş POPESCU COST MANAGEMENT – SUPPORT FOR AN EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT ............................................................................. 239 Mirela PUŞCAŞU THE ROLE AND PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE IN THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CAREER OF MILITARY PERSONNEL ............................................................................. 243 Iliuta VLAD PREPARATION TERRITORY FOR DEFENSE, CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE OF NATIONAL ............................................................. 248 Bebe I. DIACONU A TASK-BASED APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING AND ASSESSING ........................................................................................... 259 Diana IONIȚĂ Lorena MIHĂEŞ 70/20/10. A FRAMEWORK FOR MULTILEVEL SKILL DEVELOPMENT TWO CASE STUDIES ............................................................................ 269 Alin BODESCU MODELS EMPLOYED IN THE RISK MANAGEMENT ................................................... 281 Cătălin BURSUC Luiza COSTEA

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EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT – AN ANALYSIS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPT ............. 287 Adriana RÎŞNOVEANU LIBERAL ARTS AND THE MILITARY ............................................................................. 293 Anca GÂŢĂ WORK ERGONOMY............................................................................................................ 299 Sorina-Mihaela MARDAR COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MILITARY FLYING TRAINING SYSTEMS FROM ROMANIA AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ..................................................................... 303 Eduard-Ionuţ MIHAI Oliver CIUICĂ

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Colonel Professor Ioan DEAC, PhD Associate Professor Margareta BOACĂ, PhD

Public and Intercultural Communication and Social Security

AN ANALYSIS OF THE WAYS IN WHICH ISIS ACTIONS ARE REFLECTED IN THE ROMANIAN MASS-MEDIA Ioan DEAC Ph.D Proffesor, „CAROL I” National Defence University, Bucharest [email protected] Abstract: The Romanian mass-media manifests an interest in ISIS actions. Terrorist actions preoccupy public institutions, the public opinion, public actors. The Romanian public in informed about and interested in ISIS actions as well as in possible threats to Romania's security. ISIS threats directed against Romania could be analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively, from the point of view of content and symbols. The public's perception of the threat and its nature are equally reflected in the Romanian mass-media. Keywords: ISIS, threat, qualitative and quantitative analysis, perception

ISIS’ actions are well-known all over the world as a result of the ways in which the mass media presents them. ISIS is known under many names: the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, Islamic State of Iraq and Syria, and also under several acronyms: ISIS, ISIL, IS, SI, DAESH. Due to the technology they use, the mass-media has global reach at present. This characteristic raises ISIS’ interest and present them with opportunities, as they take major advantage of mass media globalization. For ISIS, the fact that their actions are presented and received all over the world is a major advantage, not a drawback. Much more radical in its actions and ideology than Al Qaeda, the organization that is the basis for the ideology of contemporary terrorism, ISIS has managed to develop further the principles of postmodern terrorism, conferring autonomy to the Islamic jihadist movement with respect to their armed actions, territorial and financial administration and mass-media initiatives. These characteristics are intensely presented and supported by ISIS, as they challenge the international mass media by setting the informative agenda and deliberately maintaining an interest in their actions. ISIS activists ensure the fact that ISIS appears in all the news bulletins of the major television channels with global reach, on social media with global reach, but also in national and regional newspapers and audio-video channels. This constant and intense presence contributes to the growth and development of a certain image and representation that matches the one ISIS want and pursue. The group’s ideologists have well understood the role that the media community plays in contemporary society and make use of it unreservedly, clearly exhibiting a good knowledge of the mechanisms at work in shaping public awareness through media contents. The present study is aimed at analyzing the ways in which the Romanian mass-media covers ISIS actions, presence and ideology. The analysis will reflect the ways in which ISIS existence, actions are approached and presented by the Romanian media for the Romanian public, focusing on the specific features of this coverage in relation to the ways other topics are approached overall by the Romanian media. The research will isolate how ISIS actions are reflected in the media by taking over information and materials which were produced and broadcast by global reach networks, as this coverage does not have local specificity to make the approach contextually specific. Moreover, this information that is taken over does not reflect that ways in which the media interest and the security interest interact in the Romanian 13


media and society. The present study highlights the vision and perspective that the Romanian media institutions and public share with respect to ISIS existence, actions and intentions regarding Romania. The research method is based on the investigation of on-line archives of Romanian media institutions, of social media networks, blog authors etc. The search parameters “ISIS Romania”, in Romanian, produced 534,000 on-line references1. Their number may seem large but it is not so because more than 90% of references are repeats, quotations or re-quotations of the same subjects or topics. We will present in what follows the real topics and subjects covering the media’s interest in “ISIS Romania”. The media topic ISIS appears distinctly in the Romanian media only starting in September 2014, when ISIS broadcast the first images of the beheading of two American journalists – Steven Sotloff and James Foley – who had been kidnapped by ISIS members as early as 2012 (according to the on-line data bases of Reporters Sans Frontieres2 and of the Intact Media Trust3). Media coverage was triggered by professional solidarity, more than human solidarity, as the victims were journalists, because ISIS had committed many murders and attacks previously, but the Romanian media had not reported them with the same degree of interest. This time, professional solidarity caused an emotional response within the Romanian media community and managed to maintain the subject in the public’s attention for a longer period of time. Thus, a characteristic of the way the Romanian mass media reflects ISIS actions becomes clear: it is marked by journalistic solidarity, not by public solidarity for ISIS victims. The emergence of this characteristic is dependent on the manifestation of the principle of proximity, which, this time, singles Romanian journalists as the closest audience that can identify themselves fully with the media content of the news regarding the violent death of the two journalists. The information broadcast in Romania related to ISIS continues in September 2014, along the same lines, making reference to ISIS individual murderous actions, namely decapitating several journalists and social activists in ISIS controlled areas: David Haines, Hervé Pierre Gourdel, Alan Henning, Peter Kassig. In January 2015, when the terrorist attack at Charlie Hebdo headquarters took place killing nine journalists, the Romanian media’s interest in ISIS actions became more consistent. If up until this event, the Romanian media focused on broadcasting information taken over from international channels, this time several media debates were organized and several stances were taken with respect to freedom of speech in contemporary society and the ways in which it becomes manifest in the media. It can be said that, once more, public interest in ISIS actions was limited to the journalistic audience and opinion leaders, as we cannot observe direct public involvement in the events. To a large extent, the attack on Charlie Hebdo was perceived more as “a settling of accounts” between Islamic militants and satirical journalism than as an ISIS action against the French public. For this reason, its reflection in the Romanian media relied on the same perception, of a cause that concerns journalists and jihadists, and less the public at large. The media reflection of ISIS actions followed the same trend of presenting them as having little chances of affecting the Romanian audience. A notable difference can be spotted once the Paris attacks occurred in the autumn of 2015. https://www.google.ro/webhp?sourceid=chrome-instant&ion=1&espv=2&es_th=1&ie=UTF8#q=isis+ataca+romania&start=136 2 https://duckduckgo.com/?q=isis+site%3Afr.rsf.org 3 http://observator.a1.ro/articole-despre/isis/?p=3 1

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The attacks in November 2015 in Paris were obviously directed against the public at large, as no victim pattern could be identified to indicate the attackers’ preference for a certain social, professional, religious or other orientation. The series of attacks in November 2015 was meant to institute a state of panic, terror, uncertainty and public anxiety. On this occasion, the Romanian media discovered that it can address its own public from a different perspective, with a different approach that refers to possible threats and dangers to which the Romanian public and society may be exposed. We could say that the Romanian media gave up its professional solidarity stance and switched to the public security one. The change in discursive register is evident in the headlines, the content of the articles and in the fact that opinion leaders and public authority figures from outside the journalistic domain were called upon to evaluate the public security status in case of a possible ISIS attack. A first attitude that must be noticed is that of public and political responsibility with respect to this possible threat from ISIS against Romania and Romanian citizens’ security. A debate organized by the journalists at hotnews.ro4 brings to the public’s attention three professionals in the field – Valentin Naumescu, associate professor at Babeș-Bolyai University, in Cluj; Cristian Diaconescu, former Romanian foreign minister and former presidential adviser on security issues; Dan Dungaciu, director of the Institute for Political Sciences and International Relations of the Romanian Academy. They debate in a complex manner and from various perspectives foreign policies, military policies, international law, Romania’s possible involvement in a military conflict against ISIS. The difficulty and complexity of the problem is made obvious by the tenets of international treaties that Romania is part of, but also by means of the radical change of reality that these treaties cover. The debate is one of the few of this type registered in the Romanian media after the terrorist attacks of November 2015 in Paris. Ovidiu Raetchi, from Adevărul5 newspaper, along the same lines, of raising public awareness and responsibility. He raises the issue of the radicalization and alienation process that young Muslims in Europa as well as in Romania are undergoing (where there is a significant Muslim community, formed of traditional ethnic minorities, but also of immigrant Muslims and mixed families etc.). These young people, under the circumstances of a weaker and weaker religious and moral socialization, more and more lacking in traditional efficiency, become propaganda victims in the on-line environment, of the extremely active media that promise extended and eventful “socialization”. Even if the journalist reaches a skeptical conclusion, the position of the members of Clubul Libertății6, a free civic association, presents the completely opposite point of view, in a well-argued and justified manner, considering that, in essence, we are witnessing a failure of the state and of current political formulas meant to solve certain problems for which both international and national bodies are not prepared. The majority of attitudes and journalistic manifestation in the Romanian media have other directions and pursue other objectives. Most often, the symbolic and emotional mechanisms of the public are activated. The most eloquent example is that of identifying a direct ISIS threat against Romania. It is based on a 21-minute long propaganda video made by http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-20596878-franta-nato-isis-ruta-complicata-soldatilor-romani-catre-siriavalentin-naumescu-cristian-diaconescu-dan-dungaciu.htm 5 http://adevarul.ro/international/europa/adolescentii-isis-romania-antidotul-unui-fenomenpericulos1_5667461f7d919ed50e06b046/index.html 6 http://www.clubullibertatii.ro/terorismul-mondial-si-esecul-statuluimodern/?gclid=CJXQ0ufLhssCFesV0wodT1gJ-A 4

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ISIS, which was broadcast shortly after the Paris terrorist attacks of November 2015. In that recording, two elements refer to Romania in particular and have been interpreted by journalists as evidence of the fact that Romania is a target for ISIS. A first element is a map that illustrates the territories that ISIS considers belong to Islam, and the second element is a group of European flags (but also others) among which Romania’s is placed. These two elements have been interpreted by several Romanian media institutions as concrete proof ISIS intentions to attack Romania. Thus, spynews.ro7 announces “ISIS will attack Romania! They left a grueling message”; cotidianul.ro8 incites less panic: “Romania, on ISIS map”; gândul.info9 and evz.ro10 are more suggestive, with almost identical headlines: “Romania on ISIS map of 60 countries in the «devils’ coalition». «The war flames will burn you in the end»”. The titles of these publications operate on a symbolic level for the Romanian audience and can generate precisely the fear and concern, the uncertainty that ISIS aims for. In the Romanian symbolic unconscious, territorial integrity is an extremely important element, obtained through patriotic education in school and maintained through identity-focused political speeches. The same is true for the idea of representation through a flag, as a symbolic element of unity and undifferentiated identity. And, by presenting certain maps of Romania that were altered and by presenting the Romanian flag in correlation with ISIS’ threatening discourse, even if it is for propaganda purposes, the public’s feeling of identity security is deeply affected, which calls for emotional reassessment and strengthening. Unfortunately, the moment for reassessment and strengthening is ignored by the journalists, as they stopped at presenting ISIS’ intentions, which is basically the equivalent of free press for the terrorist message. Too hurried to broadcast impactful information and too willing to play on the public’s emotions, the Romanian media institutions miss out on important and necessary occasions to contribute to the enhancement of the public state of security and to develop a culture of security. There are even voices in the media that escalate the situation and already foresee Romania at war with ISIS. This is the case for Capital11 magazine whose unrestrained headline reads: “Romania is at war with ISIS. The American ambassador to NATO declares.” The way the statement is phrased seems to leave no room for doubts. However, as we go through the text, we discover that “the US ambassador to NATO declares that Romania plays a plural role in the Syrian crisis” which is much different because he was not talking about ISIS but about Syrian and not about “war” but about “a plural role”. For the journalists at Capital “the participation with military capabilities in the military coalition against the Islamic State” is the equivalent of “a war against ISIS”. If the journalistic discourse could accept such a turnaround, the judicial language, international law, political and military treaties do not permit such an interpretation. But, once more, the journalistic headline go well beyond reality, transforms it and delivers it to the public as the media institution sees fit. And in this case it can be suspected that their intention is to attract the public’s attention, ignoring, once more, any responsibility with respect to public security.

http://jurnalmm.ro/isis-va-ataca-romania-a-lasat-un-mesaj-infiorator/ http://www.cotidianul.ro/romania-pe-harta-isis-271472/ 9 http://www.gandul.info/international/romania-pusa-de-isis-pe-lista-celor-60-de-tari-din-coalitia-diavolilorflacarile-razboiului-va-vor-arde-in-final-14900696 10 http://www.evz.ro/statul-islamic-ameninta-romania-flacarile-razboiului-va-vor-arde-in-final-tara-noastra-afost-inclusa-in-colitia-diavolilor-video.html 11 http://www.capital.ro/romania-se-afla-in-razboi-cu-isis-o-spune-chiar-ambasadorul-american-la-nato.html 7 8

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Finding a connection at any cost between Romania and ISIS in another topic for the media in this field. Such a connection is found by Elena Deacu, from jurnaliștii.ro12. The title of a piece of news seems to foretell of terrifying discoveries: “ISIS fights with weapons made in Romania.” Only, in the content, the news become more mundane: and Amnesty International report is quoted, without any mention of the year it was drafted, and it presents the fact that after 2003 in Iraq were stolen weapons from army warehouses and these weapons had been manufactured in several countries among which Romania. It is very likely of course that some of the weapons stolen more than ten years ago may be currently used by ISIS fighters. But from here to the insinuation that the title makes of a current commercial liaison between ISIS and Romania the leap is giant. The gap is annulled by the simple desire to exploit public interest for a matter of security and thus to obtain an increase in ratings, even if, by doing so, they do not fulfill their mission to inform in a timely and correct manner. Another forced connection, made up of relative similarities and resemblance, is produced by Marian Popovici, from fanatik.ro13. Starting from the idea that at the November attacks in Paris, one of the places that was attacked was Stade de France, where a game was played between France and Germany, the Romanian journalist induces the idea that at the game between Italy and Romania, which was scheduled to take place a few days after the event, a possible terrorist attack could take place: “ALERT before Romania’s match! ISIS: YOU ARE NEXT!” His prediction is based on a declaration made by ISIS, which is undated, that makes reference to some European capitals, among which Rome, and to the fact that stadiums are possible targets and to the fact that a precedent existed in this respect, the Paris attack. For a personal, general speculation, the premises may be accepted (even if the match between Italy and Romania was not played in Rome, but at Bologna, even if ISIS statement does not refer to this event), and even the conclusion could be accepted, but for media information, this public speculation becomes one that does nothing more than generate panic uselessly and unjustifiably. This time, the journalists wish not to miss out on a possible future piece of news about an event with a high degree of improbability, and this may eventually fall into the category of pure misinformation. On 29th December 2015, a month and a half after the terrorist actions in France, Jamal A. Abdel Jabbar Khalil Shalash, a Romanian and Jordanian citizen was deported from Romania, at the Romanian Intelligence Service because he showed support and sympathy for ISIS and contributed to promoting ISIS propaganda in Romania, especially in Constanta, where he resided. He had been surveilled by the Romanian Intelligence Service (RIS) for more than a year. His deportation was accompanied by a 15-year interdiction to reenter Romanian territory. The information, taken as such from the Romanian Intelligence Service press release, is turned into incendiary news in the media. At Nașul TV, the event is presented “RIS, breaking details about ISIS recruitment in Romania. Plans for a future attack”14. Obviously, the breaking news details are missing from the content of the news, and the plans for attack are not detailed at all. Using terms such as breaking news in the title has only one aim, to force the public to pay attention to an informative content which, unfortunately, is not justified by the title that it receives. The crave for ratings makes the media institutions give up their scruples and objectivity, producing informative materials that often undermine the credibility of the institution and present no evidence to support their claims. http://www.jurnalistii.ro/isis-lupta-cu-arme-fabricate-in-romania/ http://www.fanatik.ro/italia-alerta-inainte-de-meciul-romaniei-isis-voi-urmati-590391 14 http://www.nasul.tv/sri-detalii-explozive-despre-recrutari-isis-in-romania-planuri-pentru-un-atac/ 12 13

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In order to increase some opinions’ credibility and to raise motivation and attitude, the Romanian ambassador to Berlin’s opinion is injected into the public discourse, as he is a former and current respected journalist Emil Hurezeanu15. According to the journalists from Impact Buzoian, ambassador Emil Hurezeanu “drops the bomb: there are ISIS supporters in Romania!”. The ambassador seems to be making a radical disclosure, but actually Emil Hurezeanu only repeats what RIS stated in its official press releases: there are ISIS supporters in Romania. However, when this opinion is attributed to an ambassador, to Germany of all countries, also well known as a journalist, the information has a greater impact. The same information, within the same journalistic context (which indicates the fact that an informative material from a news agency), but under a different title, more aggressive and suggestive appears on an Internet site which claims to have more class: paginaeuropeană.ro16. For the journalists of this site, Emil Hurezeanu would have claimed that “Romania lurks with jihadists.” Even if the statement is attributed to the ambassador, it is not in the text of declaration. Once more, the appetite for sensational and mystification of reality by the Romanian journalists can be noticed, even when it comes to topics referring to public security. Some media institutions change the meaning of this announcement and transform the significance of one person’s pro-ISIS inclinations in “a full-fledged recruitment campaign for ISIS in Romania and attack plans” (stiripesurse.ro17). Even if the content of the informative material largely presents RIS’s press release referring to the arrest, trial and deportation of Jamal A. Abdel Jabbar Khalil Shalash, the journalists exaggerate on purpose and present the case as a recruitment process that ISIS undertakes on Romanian territory. The intention that is speculated is more than obvious. The transformation, mystification and eventually the attempt to manipulate the public are more than obvious. It is done, probably with the intention to awaken public vigilance and to involve the Romanian audience in this security issue. The journalists’ attitude is non-deontological in two respects: once because it mystifies reality, probably in order to support a so-called public cause; secondly, because the journalists claim that RIS provided information that have no bearing: “RIS: breaking details…”, but no such details have any connection with ISIS recruitments in Romania, hence there is no breaking news. Another attitude that can be noticed in that ironic-skeptical, reserved with respect to the possibility of a terrorist attack in Romania, attitude held by Lucian Mîndruță, on Twitter18: “ISIS declares that it will not attack Romania because they cannot compete with Romania’s government”, which means, ironically, the government hurts Romania more that ISIS could. Obviously, the irony is not enough to support a realistic but skeptical view with respect to a possible ISIS terrorist attack in Romania. * In conclusion, a result of this study is that the media’s interest in presenting public security issues seriously and responsibly is weak, as is that regarding possible terrorist attacks http://impactbuzoian.ro/articole/ambasadorul-romaniei-in-germania-arunca-bomba-in-romania-sunt-adeptiisis/ 16 România colcăie de jihadiști 17 http://www.stiripesurse.ro/sri-detalii-explozive-recrutari-isis-in-romania-si-planuri-pentru-unatac_977575.html 18 https://twitter.com/lucianmindruta/status/525009270988079104 15

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against Romania and its citizens. Most approaches of this issue are emotional, symbolical in nature, seeking to increase ratings and audiences, not to inform and lead to an understanding of acute and contradictory events. Through this approach in the process of reflecting ISIS actions, Romanian media institutions behave more as propaganda agents for the terrorist group and not as democratic, responsible contributors to the security culture of the public they serve. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

https://www.google.ro/webhp?sourceid=chromeinstant&ion=1&espv=2&es_th=1&ie=UTF-8#q=isis+ataca+romania&start=136 https://duckduckgo.com/?q=isis+site%3Afr.rsf.org http://observator.a1.ro/articole-despre/isis/?p=3 http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-20596878-franta-nato-isis-ruta-complicatasoldatilor-romani-catre-siria-valentin-naumescu-cristian-diaconescu-dan-dungaciu.htm http://adevarul.ro/international/europa/adolescentii-isis-romania-antidotul-unuifenomenpericulos-1_5667461f7d919ed50e06b046/index.html http://www.clubullibertatii.ro/terorismul-mondial-si-esecul-statuluimodern/?gclid=CJXQ0ufLhssCFesV0wodT1gJ-A http://jurnalmm.ro/isis-va-ataca-romania-a-lasat-un-mesaj-infiorator/ http://www.cotidianul.ro/romania-pe-harta-isis-271472/ http://www.gandul.info/international/romania-pusa-de-isis-pe-lista-celor-60-de-taridin-coalitia-diavolilor-flacarile-razboiului-va-vor-arde-in-final-14900696 http://www.evz.ro/statul-islamic-ameninta-romania-flacarile-razboiului-va-vor-ardein-final-tara-noastra-a-fost-inclusa-in-colitia-diavolilor-video.html http://www.capital.ro/romania-se-afla-in-razboi-cu-isis-o-spune-chiar-ambasadorulamerican-la-nato.html http://www.jurnalistii.ro/isis-lupta-cu-arme-fabricate-in-romania/ http://www.fanatik.ro/italia-alerta-inainte-de-meciul-romaniei-isis-voi-urmati-590391 http://www.nasul.tv/sri-detalii-explozive-despre-recrutari-isis-in-romania-planuripentru-un-atac/ http://impactbuzoian.ro/articole/ambasadorul-romaniei-in-germania-arunca-bomba-inromania-sunt-adepti-isis/ România colcăie de jihadiști http://www.stiripesurse.ro/sri-detalii-explozive-recrutari-isis-in-romania-si-planuripentru-un-atac_977575.html https://twitter.com/lucianmindruta/status/525009270988079104

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AN ANALYSIS OF ROMANIA’S NATIONAL DEFENSE STRATEGY AS REFLECTED IN THE MEDIA Ruxandra BULUC Lect.univ.PhD, “CAROL” National Defense University Bucharest, Romania [email protected] Abstract: The aim of the present paper is to propose an analysis of the way in which Romania’s National Defense Strategy has evolved from the 2010 document to the 2015 one. To this end, we will compare the texts of the two strategies in order to discover how the evolutions in global security are reflected in the two documents. Secondly, we will analyze the ways in which the Romanian media have received the 2015 Strategy, what aspects they considered more relevant and in what light they presented the document. Keywords: defense, security, strategy, mass media reflection.

Romania’s National Defense Strategy 2015-2019 introduces some key notions regarding security starting from the premise which is stated in the introduction that security needs to be viewed as an extended concept. In light of this approach, the strategy proposes the term “extended national security”1 which encompasses key areas such as defense, public order, intelligence and counterintelligence, education, healthcare, economy, finance, environment, critical infrastructure, crisis management, security culture, diplomacy. The aim of the present article is two-fold: (1) to analyze the ways in which the concepts of security and defense have evolved from the National Defense Strategy 2010-2015 to the current document in light of the events that have taken place in the world in the meantime; (2) to ascertain which aspects tackled in the current strategy are considered more relevant for the general public, by the media. As far as the first aspect is concerned, several key issues can be noticed from the very beginning. The 2010 Strategy is more explicit with respect to the global security environment and Romania’s place in it. While both strategies address our country’s role in NATO and European Union structures, the 2010 document also mentions the security community that we should be part of and approaches globalization as a factor of influence for security. Both documents refer to Romania’s position in the region and to its role as a protector of stability and regional cooperation in the Extended Black Sea Region and in the Western Balkans. However, the 2010 document, mentions as early as the Introduction 2 the fact that education and healthcare are key areas that ensure the citizens’ well-being and thus the country’s security. These two domains are only briefly mentioned in the 2015 Strategy, under necessary courses of action. In the 2015 Strategy, emphasis is placed from the very beginning on two developments that have changed the global security environment in the last five years: the deterioration of the relations between NATO and the Russian Federation, and the new dimensions of terrorism that have brought this phenomenon closer to our borders. These 1

Strategia Națională de Apărare a Țării pentru perioada 2015-2019. O Românie puternică în Europa și în lume. București 2015 (All further references to this Strategy will be made using the acronym SNAp 2015), p.5. 2 Strategia Națională de Apărare a Țării. Pentru o Românie care garantează securitatea și prosperitatea generațiilor viitoare. București 2010 (All further references to this Strategy will be made using the acronym SNAp 2010), p. 7.

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paradigm shifts3 are indicative of current world events, and they reflect our interpretation of and our position with respect to Russia’s actions in Crimea and Ukraine, as well as the fact that terrorism is now a reality for the whole European continent. In light of these paradigm shifts, changes have appeared in the set of values that define our defense strategy in 2015: civic cohesion and the affirmation of national identity, as well as Romania’s territorial integrity4 are explicitly named in 2015, while in 2010 they were left implicit. This means that international and national developments could be interpreted as perilous for these values and the strategy is meant to protect them against threats. Moreover, Romanians should stand together as a nation and defend their national interests against outside interventions, while maintaining their European and Euro-Atlantic bonds. The reasons why the 2015 Strategy places so much emphasis on social cohesion and territorial integrity become even clearer further on in the document when reference is made several times to the actions of the Russian Federation and to terrorist threats. The degradation of the security environment in Europe was mentioned in the 2010 Strategy but emphasis was mainly placed on compromised gun control, on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and on the breakout of conflicts on European territory, especially the Balkans. At the same time, in 2010, one of the objectives of the Strategy was to combat the effects of the economic crisis that had shaken European economies to their core. In 2015, the degradation of the security environment continues, however, its causes are more complex as emphasis is placed on several aspects:  global: the emergence of terrorist organizations, the radicalization of Islam, population migration from conflict areas or from economically impoverished regions;  regional: the Russian Federation’s attempts to consolidate its power status in the region which may affect the Republic of Moldova’s course towards European integration and the instability in the Western Balkans. These developments are then detailed in the third chapter of the 2015 Strategy “Threats, Risks and Vulnerabilities”5. The threats facing Romania are more precise and they revolve, less explicitly, around the Russian Federation’s actions to the east of our borders and in the Black Sea Region. The instability in the Western Balkans creates interethnic conflicts and regional unbalance which may lead to full blown conflicts. The distortions on the energy markets and cyber threats, both caused by state or non-state actors may affect our national security. Terrorism is seen as possibly the most persistent and the most difficult to anticipate threat for Romanian citizens both in the country and abroad. The proliferation of weapons of mass destruction may also affect national security as may hostile information operations. Under risks, the 2015 Strategy mentions the internal factors that may affect national security, the most important ones being corruption, economic difficulties, precarious infrastructure, social risks (such as demographic decline, emigration, deficiencies in the national healthcare and education systems, the radicalization of extremist entities be they ethnic, religious or otherwise), illegal arms trafficking. In 2010 6, basically the same risks and threats were mentioned with less emphasis on the role played by the Russian Federation and migration, as, at that time, Russia had not manifested its expansionist tendencies and the crisis in the Middle East had not started to generate such an influx of migrants. Under vulnerabilities, the situation is very different. They were much more detailed in 7 2010 and more were mentioned. In the 2015 Strategy8 corruption appears both explicitly and SNAp 2015, pp.5-6. SNAp 2015, p.7. 5 SNAp 2015, p.14. 6 SNAp 2010, p.13. 7 SNAp 2010, p.14. 8 SNAp 2015, p.16. 3 4

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implicitly as the most important vulnerability as it affects European funds absorption, the use of the public budget, the energy sector, agriculture, justice, the healthcare system, education and scientific research. Other vulnerabilities are due to precarious resources, social exclusion, poverty, demographic decline, social and economic disparity among regions. In 2010 many other factors contributing to vulnerabilities were mentioned such as some state institutions’ inability to enforce the law, fiscal evasion, low quality in healthcare and education, low budget control, press campaigns directed against state institutions. As it can be noted, the fight against corruption was a more stringent concern in 2010 than in 2015. However, one peculiarity in the 2010 Strategy was the mention of media campaigns directed against state institutions as a vulnerability for national security. The freedom of the press is a constitutional right that leads to a stronger, not to a weaker state. It is the duty of mass media to draw attention to different aspects in public institutions that may be flawed, as it is the right of those institutions to give press releases through their public relations offices to explain how things really stand if the media are not accurate in their depictions of events. In the fourth chapter “Courses of action and the main means of ensuring Romania’s national security”, the two strategies exhibit both similarities and differences. Some dimensions show continuity, while others are either absent from the 2015 Strategy or newly introduced in the document. The ones that have no longer been included in the 2015 strategy are: the cyber defense dimension, the protection of critical infrastructure, the national security industry, the anti-missile defense system. The ones that exhibit continuation are: the defense dimension, public order, intelligence, counterintelligence and security, the economic and energy dimension, crisis management, the education, healthcare, social and demographic dimension. Of these, we will dedicate more attention to the defense dimension, which is less detailed in the 2015 Strategy9. At present, it mainly focuses on two aspects: (1) the modernization and endowment of the military and the development of capabilities meant to protect against asymmetric and hybrid threats; (2) the development of the Strategic Partnership with NATO and the EU member states. In 201010, more aspects were mentioned such as involving domestic partners in the development of defense capabilities, improving technological research, harmonizing military education with NATO and EU standards. Military education is no longer approached separately in 2015. One new dimension is added in 2015, namely the diplomatic dimension which comes as a response to Romania’s strategic position as a factor of stability, predictability and continuity in the area11. In light of these principles that Romania wants to promote in its immediate vicinity, the diplomatic dimension focuses on the strategic dialogue within NATO and the EU, on the development of bilateral and trilateral strategic partnerships on the eastern front of NATO, the promotion of strategic values and cooperation in the Black Sea Region. One other dimension that is of interest to us is related to education, healthcare, social and demographic aspects. The term of “security culture”12 was introduced in the 2010 Strategy and it was defined as “values, norms and attitudes which lead to the understanding and assimilation of the concept of security and of other derived concepts such as: national security, international security, collective security, cooperative security, security policies.” The development of the social studies university programs means that security is no longer an issue that is solely in the hands of the military, but the civilian society and the military can cooperate to ensure an effective security environment and better governance. The same approach is continued in the 2015 Strategy13 that also presents “security culture” as a means SNAp 2015, p.18. SNAp 2010, pp.17-8. 11 SNAp 2015, pp.7-8. 12 SNAp 2010, p. 29. 13 SNAp 2015, pp.21-2. 9

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of promoting values, norms, attitudes and actions that foster the assimilation of national security into the collective mindset. The continuation of this idea is an important step, as in the current global security environment we need informed citizens who are aware of potential risks and threats and can reduce their own individual vulnerabilities. Both strategies mention the need for an ample educational project to guarantee performance and the stimulation of scientific research aimed at understanding current threats and challenges. Moving to the second issue to be discussed in this paper, namely the way the 2015 Strategy was presented in the media, several aspects can be noticed from the very beginning. Journalists focused on several aspect of the strategy and completely ignored others, moreover, their views on the aspects they chose to present are quite contradictory. Most articles reviewed for this research agree that the Russian Federation has become the main threat to Romania’s security14. As the site hotnews mentions, the Russian Federation’s Strategy from 2014 makes a few references that directly concern Romania: NATO expansion and the movement of troops within NATO member states are viewed as threats to Russian security. As the press notices, Russia is mentioned directly or indirectly in the 2015 Strategy at least ten times, and these references revolve around the shift in the security paradigm that its actions have caused, its attempts to become again a great power in the area, its transgressions of international agreements that occurred when it annexed Crimea, the danger of asymmetric or hybrid conflicts that it poses. The same sites observe that the best way to protect ourselves against possible Russian threats presented in the strategy is to strengthen our cooperation with NATO and the EU. However, as Armand Gosu notices, 15 the strategy lacks one important component. It does not propose a “structural variable” that could counterbalance the power that the Kremlin now has in the area. The anti-access and area denial systems that Russia now has in place limit NATO’s abilities to deploy forces in the Black Sea and Baltic Sea regions. These limitations could have been addressed in the defense strategies of the countries that lie at NATO’s eastern border. Another aspect presented in the 2015 Strategy that raised the mass media’s attention concerns corruption and its effects on the security of the state. Some websites16 consider that it was not given a prominent enough space or placing in the strategy, as it is mentioned only a few times. The journalists stress the fact that corruption and the inability to meet our national development objectives may cause serious concern and may affect our national security in the long run. In the discourse that the President delivered in front of the two chambers of the Parliament on 22nd June 2015, he stated that several aspects that he had promised to address in his election campaign have not been fulfilled yet as he had not found common ground within the political arena. Among these he mentions the right to vote for Romanians who live abroad and some judicial issues. He stated that “A strong Romania is one in which nobody is above the law, and corruption within the highest ranks is no longer a vulnerability for governance.”17 Consequently, the problem of corruption can be seen as one which gravely concerns the President and one that may have serious consequences for the country’s security. http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-20226986-strategia-nationala-aparare-romaniei-federatia-rusa-principalaamenintare-cum-este-tratata-problema-coruptiei.htm, accesat 01.02.2016; http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/stirileprotvspecial/presedintia-a-anuntat-strategia-nationala-de-aparare-pentru-urmatorii-5-ani-amenintarea-rusiei-a-luatlocul-celei-teroriste.html; accesat 01.02.2016, http://revista22.ro/56950/umbra-rusiei-asupra-strategiei-desecuritate.html, accesat 15.02.2016. 15 http://revista22.ro/56950/umbra-rusiei-asupra-strategiei-de-securitate.html, accesat 15.02.2016 16 http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-20226986-strategia-nationala-aparare-romaniei-federatia-rusa-principalaamenintare-cum-este-tratata-problema-coruptiei.htm, accesat 01.02.2016; http://www.gandul.info/politica/coruptia-una-din-vulnerabilitatile-romaniei-in-strategia-nationala-de-aparare-atarii-14445853, accesat 10.02.2016. 17 http://www.digi24.ro/Stiri/Digi24/Actualitate/Stiri/Klaus+Iohannis+prezinta+in+Parlament+Strategia+National a+de+Apar , accesat 15.02.2016. 14

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An aspect that the mass media drew the public’s attention to is the fact that education has been included in the 2015 Strategy (as our previous analysis has shown, it was also present in the 2010 Strategy). Marian Staș, an expert in education, commented for capital.ro that the fact that education, namely an ample project for the educational system, has been included in the strategy is a “remarkable response to the requests made by the civil society” and “a happy example of strategic leadership”18. However, another expert in education, Tincuta Apateanu, countered by stating that mention of an educational project was made previously in the other strategies but “such declarations remained purely demagogical.” 19 She expressed confidence that president Johannis will initiate a structured and consistent dialogue among politicians, educational authorities, parents, students, the business sector and society in general so that the intention will materialize. The problem of terrorism and the threats it poses to our national security did not raise the attention of the media20 to such a large extent. They are mentioned, but in passing, the Russian Federation taking up most of the discussion when it comes to outside threats to Romania’s security. It is true that terrorism itself is not covered extensively in the strategy, and neither is migration, but the fact that the media did not address these issues either is quite concerning. Migration had already become, at the time when the strategy was presented to the public, a major concern for most countries in the European Union, however, the media failed to analyze those aspects of the strategy that referred to it. The media focused its attention on one issue, one vulnerability that had been present in the 2010 Strategy but that has been excluded from the current one, namely that media campaigns directed against state institutions are vulnerabilities to national security. It is true, as we have previously explained, that this is not the case, and the mass media rejoiced as it regained its rightful place as a promotor of the freedom of speech. In conclusion, we could argue that the National Defense Strategy of 2015 is indeed what the President wanted it to be: a less dense document, one that will not be forgotten in a drawer and never consulted. The hope is that the next steps that the President mentioned, the development of other fundamental documents based on inter-institutional cooperation and a unitary national perspective on security will follow. Mass media views on the Strategy are conflicting, however, they mostly look forward to what other documents will be issued that will help Romania stay on course and become a vector of continuity and stability in the area. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

Strategia Națională de Apărare a Țării pentru perioada 2015-2019. O Românie puternică în Europa și în lume. București 2015. Strategia Națională de Apărare a Țării. Pentru o Românie care garantează securitatea și prosperitatea generațiilor viitoare. București 2010. http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-20226986-strategia-nationala-aparare-romanieifederatia-rusa-principala-amenintare-cum-este-tratata-problema-coruptiei.htm, accesat 01.02.2016;

http://www.capital.ro/iohannis-a-decis-baga-educatia-in-strategia-nationala-de-aparare.html, accesat 25.02.2016. 19 http://www.capital.ro/iohannis-a-decis-baga-educatia-in-strategia-nationala-de-aparare.html, accesat 25.02.2016. 20 http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/stirileprotv-special/presedintia-a-anuntat-strategia-nationala-de-aparare-pentruurmatorii-5-ani-amenintarea-rusiei-a-luat-locul-celei-teroriste.html; accesat 01.02.2016; http://www.gandul.info/politica/coruptia-una-din-vulnerabilitatile-romaniei-in-strategia-nationala-de-aparare-atarii-14445853, accesat 10.02.2016 18

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4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

http://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/stirileprotv-special/presedintia-a-anuntat-strategia-nationalade-aparare-pentru-urmatorii-5-ani-amenintarea-rusiei-a-luat-locul-celei-teroriste.html; accesat 01.02.2016, http://revista22.ro/56950/umbra-rusiei-asupra-strategiei-de-securitate.html, accesat 15.02.2016. http://www.gandul.info/politica/coruptia-una-din-vulnerabilitatile-romaniei-instrategia-nationala-de-aparare-a-tarii-14445853, accesat 10.02.2016 http://www.capital.ro/iohannis-a-decis-baga-educatia-in-strategia-nationala-deaparare.html, accesat 25.02.2016 http://www.digi24.ro/Stiri/Digi24/Actualitate/Stiri/Klaus+Iohannis+prezinta+in+Parla ment+Strategia+Nationala+de+Apar , accesat 15.02.2016

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THE RHETORIC OF PRESIDENTIAL CANDIDATES Alina ROŞCAN Junior Lecturer PhD, “CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected]

Abstract: In trying to determine how people influence one another, researchers have given center stage to the so-called power of words and their beneficial or damaging effects. The first section of this paper outlines the main features of political discourse and touches upon euphemisms, those words or phrases meant to reshape reality by masking unpleasantness or undesirability. In fact, the attempt to avoid causing offense by means of words has eventually led to the advent of political correctness which occasionally harbors words and phrases which border on the hilarious or the imprecise: “public diplomacy” instead of “propaganda”; “sanitation engineer” instead of “garbage man”; “incomplete success” instead of “failure”; uniquely coordinated instead of clumsy etc. The second part of this paper looks at the 2014 presidential campaigns in Romania and the rhetoric which the candidates used, and tries to identify the persuasive strategies meant to influence the electors. Keywords: influence, persuasive strategies, political discourse

WORDING IN POLITICAL DISCOURSE The discourse of politicians does not have a clearly-cut individuality from a functional stylistic perspective, i.e. it overlaps the standard language; has much in common with the journalistic lingo, in fact the two are in a mutually-influencing relationship; makes use of law terms, especially in the activity of the two Houses of Representatives; and borrows from the administrative domain, especially in the ruling of the country and in administration. Thus, it is difficult to define the language of politicians through a list a purely linguistic features – syntactic, morphologic or lexical; however, this particular type of discourse is easily identifiable via reference to its domain of use and the communication situation, as both entail the usage of a specific vocabulary and a set of discursive strategies. The political discourse includes public speeches, debates in the Parliament, the discourses delivered during the election campaigns or the language of political sciences. Depending on the part played by the speaker and the communication situation, the political discourse can be presidential, parliamentary, governmental, party, electoral, international or local communication (Beciu 2002). The differences between these types of communication spring from the array of topics approached and the specific strategies employed, with or without discrepancies in the language used. An important factor concerning the efficiency of the political discourse derives from the personal style of the politicians: concise or prolix, rational or emotional, precise or vague, simple or pompous, archaic or modern etc. From a lexical and semantic standpoint, the political discourse uses mainly standard vocabulary, occasionally with colloquial insertions meant to generate accessibility. It does have its own terminology, e.g. democracy, globalization, welfare; however, sometimes in the public discourse, it is used inaccurately. The overwhelming majority of terms are ideologically laden, exhibiting an evaluative or even emotional component, and in time, these terms become symbols or motifs: democracy/communism, social unrest/well-being. As each political group places its own value grid on certain political terms, the discourses start to incorporate myths (Geis 1987) such as the enemy is conspiring, the brave leader, or united 26


we shall triumph. At the same time, the political discourse addressed to the masses makes use of highly-affective general human values such as life, family, security. Other features of the political discourse include the use of linguistic clichés and euphemisms. The Encarta World Dictionary attributes Greek origins to the word “euphemism” which comes from euphemismos, from euphemizein, “to speak with pleasing words,” from, ultimately, pheme, “speech.” Some of the euphemisms often used in political speech are: public diplomacy instead of propaganda; collateral damage instead of death of civilians, reduction of surplus personnel instead of firing people from their jobs, economical with the truth instead of lying. Novelist and essayist George Orwell criticized political language when used vaguely or truthfully-sounding yet lie-hiding. For him, insincerity begets the unsavory combination of oppressive ideology and bad prose: In our time, political speech and writing are largely the defence of the indefensible. Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atom bombs on Japan, can indeed be defended, but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face, and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties. Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism, questionbegging and sheer cloudy vagueness. Defenceless villages are bombarded from the air, the inhabitants driven out into the countryside, the cattle machine-gunned, the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets: this is called pacification. Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry: this is called transfer of population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps: this is called elimination of unreliable elements. Such phraseology is needed if one wants to name things without calling up mental pictures of them (Orwell 1974, 111).

He, therefore, draws attention to the fact that even though innocuous sounding, political speech may in fact hide the unthinkable, the shameful or the outrageous. Close scrutiny of the discourse of politicians may reveal attempts at hiding the ugly truth by means of safe words or phrases. PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES

Although the presidential elections held in 2014 recorded a whooping number of candidates (14), the following analysis focuses on the speeches of only two candidates for obvious reasons of volume that such an endeavor would take, but also because the scores registered after the first round of elections clearly distanced the first two candidates from the rest. Therefore, I shall take into consideration the speeches used when the two candidates launched their campaigns for presidential election, i.e. Victor Ponta’s speech delivered on the 20th of September 2014 and, respectively, Klaus Iohannis’s speech delivered on the 27th of September 2014. In order to closely analyze the two speeches, a few guidelines are needed with regard to some of the techniques employed by public speakers. When trying to influence others, one resorts to various persuasive strategies, such as: intensification/minimization, deliberate ambiguity or humor. I shall explain them in turn and exemplify their use in the 2014 campaign for presidential elections. Intensification/minimization means bringing to the fore one’s personal qualities and/or the flaws of others (either by repetition, association or composition) or it can involve minimizing one’s own flaws and the qualities of the adversaries (by means of omission, diversion or confusion). While repetition is often used in advertising, it is also characteristic of the political discourse where it outlines the qualities of a person and often appears as slogans, recurrent examples or topics. An explicit example of the ‘90s is represented by

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hoardings reading “Here is your money” which were strategically and regularly placed along the newly rehabilitated highways of Romania, instilling via repetition the belief that the State collects taxes from the people for the people. As far as the speeches of the two candidates are concerned, here one can find an abundance of instances of intensification via repetition. Due to the very nature of the speeches meant to address an entire nation, national identity features in the discourses of both candidates so that Romania and Romanians are mentioned 67 times in Ponta’s case and 20 times by Iohannis. At the same time, the campaign slogans and their derivatives appear in the speeches six times for Iohannis – “Romania of things well done”, and respectively, “Proud to be Romanians” 12 times in Ponta’s speech. Other words which are purposefully repeated include together, unification/united, pride, people, hope, want, do and change in Ponta’s speech and people, country, freedom, things, want, do and change in Iohannis’s speech. In terms of intensifying their own attributes, the candidates touch upon their achievements. Ponta outlines his professionalism and thoughtfulness in dealing with running a country from the office of Prime Minister and mentions the income increases he has been able to provide for retirees and state employees, the schools and hospitals which he has reopened, or the accessing of European funds. At the same time, he sets himself against the negative background provided by Traian Băsescu’s presidency. He lists a whole series of notto-do things if elected: he has learnt from the president still in office how not to treat Romanians, how not to make a fool out of a whole country, how not to despise the people who got him the office, or how to be understanding and open to dialogue. Iohannis as well makes sure that people are reminded of his successful professional career, his teaching experience and mayorship of Sibiu. He actually briefly mentions how the Prime Minister, Victor Ponta, has seriously let down the middle-aged generation and sets himself in antithesis with the type of presidency which characterized the previous five years – scandal, attachment to bad practices of the past, disappointment or hollow promises. He closes with values and commitments to his electors: democracy and freedom, serious politics and respect for people, the law and correctness. As mentioned earlier, the discourse of politicians tends to include myths. When constructing the personal story, both candidates resort to the classical narrative of the hero, i.e. the simple man who, when confronted with an extraordinary situation, prevails due to his personal attributes (Ciobanu 2014). Iohannis says: “Never have I imagined that I, a highschool teacher, with my German name, from a town in the middle of the country, would today be standing in front of tens of thousands of enthusiastic people, speaking on behalf of millions of supporters, with a vision for Romania.” As far as Ponta is concerned, he emphasizes that he is “a Romanian just like any other Romanian, a man who loves his country”, traces his ancestry which connects him to the Great Union and Orthodoxy and mentions his parents, “just like yours [the audience]”, who invested everything in him and his sisters. In addition to pointing out their connection to the average Joe, the two candidates stress out the fact that they are engaged in a battle, which completes the image of the hero fighting for the good of the country and its people. Association exploits people’s tendency to approve products, services or ideas endorsed by persons who are well-known, liked or respected. This has understandably led to the politicians’ practice of acquiring entertainers, sportspersons or scientists as members of their campaign staff or as outstanding supporters. The image of the “star” is thus associated to the image of the party or candidate. Both candidates in the presidential elections campaign associated their own image with the ones provided by the leaders of the political parties which supported them. Ponta joined forces with Călin Popescu Tăriceanu, Teodor Meleşcanu, Sorin Oprescu, Radu Beligan, Gabi Szabo, Tudor Gheorghe, Nicu Alifantis, Raed Arafat and others. While politicians like Vasile Blaga, Mircea Ionescu Quintus, Ludovic Orban or Mihai 28


Răzvan Ungureanu clearly stated their support for Iohannis, artists and sportspersons showed indirect support for him by pledging to vote against Ponta: Tudor Chirilă, 1-Q Sapro, Aeroport or Andrei Pleşu, Victor Rebengiuc or Simona Halep. Composition refers to modifying the material form of the message, as in USA spelled U$A or tailoring former successful slogans to suit the current situation and the political platform of the new candidate, as in “May you live well!” so effectively used by Traian Băsescu in 2004, a slogan which was later turned by Adrian Năstase and his staff into “May you survive well!” Other compositions may include retouching photos or choosing only certain shooting angles to avoid less-flattering features of the candidates, such as a badly receding hairline or a bulging belly. Perhaps here the campaign posters of the two candidates best exhibit this strategy as they display Ponta against the background of colorful Romanian folk motives and campaign slogans while Iohannis, alongside his campaign slogans, is set against a plain background –as a reinforcement of the simple-man origins mentioned in his speech. Perhaps it is worth mentioning here that in 2002, when US president George W. Bush addressed the Romanian nation in the Revolution Square, it was a typical November day with relentless rain. Yet the moment he approached the microphone, the sun came up, which prompted Bush to capitalize on it starting his speech with “God is smiling on us today!” Ponta had an outline of his speech, occasionally glancing at it and speaking freely for the most part. Yet, when the sun pierced the clouds, he could not resist it: “look the sun is shining on our street too, look the sun is shining on our country too!” which represents a tailoring of Bush’s electrifying opening statement. Ironically, when the newly-elected President Iohannis went to Cotroceni to release Băsescu from office, it was again a charcoal sky which cleared to make room for the sun once Iohannis arrived there. Omission means obscuring information which could be damaging to someone’s own image and it usually features in the use of half-truths, truncated evidence or biases. One such instance can be considered the live TV debate in which Băsescu mentioned a similarity between himself and his opponent Adrian Năstase, namely their former membership of the Communist party. When admitting to such an evil reality of his past, he received a credibility boost whereas Năstase did not deny his membership, nor did he mention it in any way, trying to dissociate himself from a negative issue. Both candidates for the presidential election in 2014 were facing allegations of various types of corruption, i.e. plagiarism or suspicious acquisitions. Certainly, no one expected them to address such issues in a speech meant to launch a campaign; nevertheless, both candidates acknowledge in their discourses that there have been attempts at discrediting them – “you know many of the good things that I have done, others have made sure that you know the bad things as well, you know everything, I have nothing to hide” briefly mentions Ponta, and “there are TV stations desperate to concoct stories about me, to create diversions” says Iohannis. Still it is remarkable that some important issues do not find their way into the speeches, such as national security – a top responsibility of the presidential office, as the candidates choose instead to focus on more “digestible topics,” as Costin Ciobanu suggests. Diversion aims at steering the public’s attention away from the opponent’s qualities or the speaker’s own flaws by artificially complicating things, by focusing his talk on secondary topics or by humor. This type of discursive strategies can be found in the debates that took place after the initial speeches. Perhaps some form of diversion can be considered the fact that Iohannis implies that Ponta’s youth actually spells inexperience and bad choices – “People whom the young Prime Minister, the repository of their hopes, has profoundly let down.” His statement is a reaction to what his opponent had said only a few days earlier, when outlining his personal qualities and achievements: “I want to thank all Romanians who

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were confident that at 39 I could be the youngest Prime Minister in Europe, governing a country socially and economically compromised.” Confusion is deliberately created by means of jargon, highly specialized terminology, ambiguous answers, sophisticated logic, convoluted arguments to the point of baffling the audience. Perhaps the spokesperson for the National Bank of Romania constitutes the best example of confusing the audience on a topic which interests us all, as he uses phrases such as “the nervousness of the Romanian leu”, “the settling down of the stock exchange” or “denomination” instead of just saying that the national currency values less than it used to. In the case of these particular two speeches, the objective was definitely to not confuse the audience, but rather to get across a clear unambiguous message; consequently, the speakers do not resort to such a strategy. Deliberate ambiguity acts in two directions: on the one hand, it creates the largest audience possible and on the other, it offers a “way out” in case that the speaker’s statements, promises or recommendations do not come true. “May you live well!” constitutes a good example since to live well has different meanings depending on the needs and wishes of each of the electors: increased incomes, personal security, freedom of speech, social comfort etc. At the same time, the slogan does not commit the candidate to a definite moment when his constituents will definitely live well. Specific promises which might address the doubling of the monthly wage within one year or the obtaining of visa waivers from a certain country within six months would have been risky because when the time came, the president would have been held accountable. It is therefore understandable why Ponta and Iohannis did not set deadlines for their projects for Romania and its people. Repeated statements such as “I want change” do not commit the speaker to a certain strategy for change or to a timeframe. On the other hand, the slogans used by the two candidates are somewhat ambiguous – by itself “Proud to be Romanians” does not say much. However, if correlated with the emphasis placed on ethnicity and religion emanating from the speech and the whole political campaign, it could be interpreted as an appeal to the electors to resent his opponent’s origins, as Adriana Iordache remarks, so that his other slogan “The President who unites” might seem somewhat hypocrite. As far as Iohannis’s slogans are concerned, “Romania of things well done” and “Law not thieving. Deeds not talking,” they might refer to the myth that Germans do things well and at the same time, could in fact point to the benefits which electors might reap in terms of law abiding, abolishment of thievery, and steps taken. However, some analysts, such as Liviu Dadacus, argue that the second slogan is too general, not customized and it therefore, deliberately leaves room for interpreting. Resorting to humor in diplomacy eases the tensions, increases the appeal of the speech and the efficiency of negotiations, and opens the door for mutual trust. Various studies have shown that people who resort to humor have more influence upon others, communicate more efficiently, and are generally more attractive. In general, Iohannis displays an impenetrable seriousness which did not leave any room for humor in his speech. On the other hand, Ponta managed to slip in “I’ll drink a lot of water because I am so excited.” It can be said in conclusion that in their attempt to sway the electors, both candidates use similar persuasive strategies which include – the repetition of keywords and phrases, of their slogans and their wishes for the county and its people; the antithesis between themselves and the values and principles of previous regimes; the intensification of their own attributes and achievements and the minimization of their opponent’s worth; association with wellknown appealing public figures from various domains such as politics, sports, arts and entertainment; composition in their campaign posters and speeches either semantic or pictorial; omission of damaging information; and one of them, even a little bit of humor.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. 7. 8.

9. 10. 11.

12.

***. World English Dictionary. USA: Microsoft Corporation, 2016. Aristotel. Retorica. Translated by A.-C. Andrieş. Bucureşti: Editura IRI, 2004. Beciu, Camelia. Comunicare politică. Bucureşti: Comunicare.ro, 2002. Chelcea, Septimiu. Opinia publică. Strategii de persuasiune şi manipulare, Bucureşti: Editura economică, 2006. Ciobanu, Costin. “Ponta vs Iohannis. Discursurile faţă în faţă (I). Ce cuvinte folosesc frecvent cei doi candidaţi.” Smart Politics. Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.smartpolitics.ro/2014/09/30/ponta-vs-iohannis-discursurile-fata-in-fata-ice-cuvinte-folosesc-frecvent-cei-doi-candidati/. Dadacus, Liviu. “Sloganul, singura ‘strategie’ de campanie a prezidenţiabililor.” Mediafax.ro. Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.mediafax.ro/politic/ sloganulsingura-strategie-de-campanie-a-prezidentiabililor-13482682 Geis, Michael L. The Language of Politics. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1987. Iohannis, Klaus. “Discursul susţinut în cadrul mitingului ACL pentru lansarea candidaturii la Preşedenţia României.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.iohannispresedinte.ro/ro/noutati/discursuri-si-interviuri/discursul-sustinutin-cadrul-mitingului-acl-pentru-lansarea-candidaturii-la-presedintia-romaniei. Iordache, Adriana. “O campanie electorală care n-a unit. Discursul intoleranţei şi al urii.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.romaniacurata.ro/o-campanieelectorala-care-n-a-unit-discursul-intolerantei-si-al-urii/. Orwell, George. “Politics and the English language.” In The language experience edited by J. Somer and J. F. Hoy. New York: Dell, 1974. Ponta, Victor. “Discursul sustinut de Victor Ponta, Premierul Romaniei si presedintele PSD, la lansarea candidaturi pentru alegerile prezidentiale din anul 2014, Arena Nationala, Bucuresti.” Accessed February 10, 2016. http://www.psd.ro/media/transcrieri/discurs-sustinut-de-victor-ponta-premierulromaniei-si-presedintele-psd-la-lansarea-candidaturii-pentru-alegerile-prezidentialedin-anul-2014-arena-nationala-bucuresti/. Zafiu, Rodica. Limbaj şi politică. Bucureşti: Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2007.

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TERRORISM IN MEDIA COVERAGE Alina-Mihaela STOICA PhD, Junior Lecturer, “CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected] Abstract: Media discourse has recently focused on several terrorist attacks around the world which have shown that terrorism has become a significant actor in the news media. Terrorist acts performed by certain extremist religious groups have also highlighted the importance of ideological differences and principles that the media have become to acknowledge for fear of severe consequences. The article will look into how terrorism has been presented in recent media coverage and the place it has “earned.” Keywords: media, terrorism, actor, headline

WHAT IS TERRORISM AND HOW IS IT PORTRAYED BY THE MEDIA? We have all heard of terrorist acts taking part all around the world, some of which have clearly changed our perception of what a secure environment really is. Terrorism existed before September 11, 2001 when Western civilisation was caught under surprise by the attacks against US icons. This type of terrorism, referred to as “the new terrorism” by Bruce Hoffman and Walter Laqueur1, who consider that current terrorism as being put into practice by al-Qaeda should be analysed from a three-fold perspective: the use of state-of-the-art technologies – which enable such a group to disseminate its ideology around the world through its cells, using religion as ideology in order to create a durable link among its members, and the unnecessary presence of that group’s leader since the cell can act as a group on its own. Of course, being part of a radical group, the cell itself can be considered a smaller copy of the group, which can continue its radicalisation by itself. Then, what is the role of mass media in conveying information regarding terrorism and terrorist attacks? Among the functions the mass media have, they inform and educate us. It is mass media’s function of informing the audience that terrorists make use of when they deliver their messages. David Wright-Neville argues that mass media should not be considered terrorists’ collaborator for “terrorist violence should be perceived as a means to reach a purpose, a manner of intimidation, punishment, humiliation or destruction of those that terrorists consider to be the cause of their inability or the obstacle in reaching their political ambitions.” Their aim is to produce a type of “violence that can [or should] be regarded as a form of political theatre where the act of violence that it produces represents an accurately directed scenario performed in order to transmit a certain message.” Consequently, mass media “represent a key tool … as they use them to communicate with two different types of public: the ‘out-group’ that they intend to intimidate and terrorise through their actions and the ‘in-group’ that they try to be inspiring to.” Therefore, an important feature of terrorist acts is the extremists’ literacy in, if not mastery of communicating through and with the mass media and their knowledge of technological devices.2 As a result, terrorists have shortened the gap between the once highly developed Westerners and the merely computer literate Middle East people. 1 2

Wright-Neville, David. Dicționar de terorism, CA Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2010, p. 231 Wright-Neville, David. Dicționar de terorism, CA Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2010, p. 219

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Current terrorism is regarded by Ioan Deac as the product of the main means of communication, namely television and print media. Therefore, Deac defines terrorism as “a global, insidious, anti-Christian, and fundamentalist phenomenon”3. He considers that the stereotypical images of the contemporary terrorist and terrorism has been disseminated by the media means along with the pictures of the September 11 terrorists: they are dark-haired, they have olive skin and they usually wear a beard or a moustache. An important element of their actions is their willingness to sacrifice their lives for their fundamentalist beliefs, i.e. they are prepared to commit suicide. Cultural stereotypes and assumptions are important in creating a “credible story” as Jenkins argues. In analysing the coverage of the attack on Charlie Hebdo we can notice that the discourse reverberates around the idea of freedom of speech and of the press, in general. This indicates the stereotypical opposition between the Western civilisation and the growing influence of Muslim culture in Europe, the latter being present and currently updated by immigrants. The French newspapers’ front pages underline more the human interest in the story, i.e. event, rather than the straight news story in their issues following the assassinations. Le Figaro’s issue on 8 January 2015 changed its flag from blue to black thus showing their respect to their fellow journalists and cartoonists. The front page headline “La liberté assassinée” / “Freedom attacked” (translation mine) indicated the attack on freedom of speech and that of the press, while the deck provided the main details of the event. Following a photo taken during the attack the front page article entitled “La guerre” / “The war” (translation mine) which expanded on the attack and its victims. As we have mentioned above, the media has become an important tool in the strategy of communication of terrorist groups. Therefore, I consider David Wright-Neville’s statement inapplicable to Le Figaro’s front page headline which transmitted a message of defeat. Thus the French newspaper simply instils on the French people the idea that they cannot enjoy their freedom anymore. Le Parisien followed the same line of the attack on freedom. The front page headline sends a message of undisputable faith in freedom with the headline “Ils ne tueront pas la liberté” / “They will not destroy freedom” (translation mine). There is also a subheading which introduces readers into the matter: “Hier soir, des dizaines de milliers de Français se sont spontanément rassemblés après l’odieux attentat contre le siège de « Charlie Hebdo », qui a entraîné la mort d’au moins douze personnes. 24 pages spéciales” / “Last night, thousands of French gathered in the aftermath of the horrible attack on the premises of « Charlie Hebdo », which caused at least twelve dead. 24 dedicated pages” (translation mine). In between the headline and the subheading lies a photograph of some dozens of people who are holding a piece of paper on which it writes on a black background with white upper cases “JE SUIS CHARLIE”. In this case we can apply David Wright-Neville’s theory as Le Parisien not only informs the French people, but also induces the idea that its readers do not have to fear for their lives. Another French newspaper that does this is Libération that chose a black background for their front page while reading in the center “NOUS SOMMES TOUS CHARLIE” / “We are all Charlie” (translation mine), with the first three words written in white ink while “CHARLIE” is written in black ink on a small white background. The media coverage of the Charlie Hebdo attacks turned into a half informative and half emotional reporting as the events on the 7 January 2015 were followed by other events such as the search and killing of the fleeing perpetrators. The emotional statements are announced on the first page as was the case of the issue of 9 January 2015 of Le Parisien which writes in white ink on a black mourning ink: “Le terrible récit des survivants” / “The terrible stories of survivors” (translation mine). Ioan Deac, “Imaginea terorismului și teroristului contemporan în mass-media”, Sesiunea de comunicări științifice, pp. 236-37, translation mine

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Given the strong emotional impact on readers, listeners and viewers, social changes began to surface. The 15 January 2015 issue of Le Parisien reveals the difficult moments the French society was experiencing those days. The kicker announces “Á l’école, les incidents se multiplient” / “At school, violent incidents are rising,” while the headline reads “Le risque de fracture” / “There is a risk of social disruption, ” with the subheading “Minute de silence empêchée, propos haineux ou provocateurs et parfois aggressions physiques entre élèves… Depuis les attentats de la semaine dernière, la tension est palpable dans de nombreux établissments scolaires” / “After being impeded from taking a minute of silence, hate speech and even physical aggressions among students have occurred. Since last week’s attacks, the tension has risen in numerous schools” (translation mine). Thus we can conclude that terrorism affects our lives at various levels, i.e. social, cultural, educational and the security level. Terrorism has become an important event in our nowadays society due to or because of the overwhelming exposure of the audience and readership to the events and their actors. The media discourse has become incredibly simplified by the media’s sheer interest in the audience-gathering issue. Terrorism and terrorist acts are presented in connection either with current and / or past events. Current events are those that are linked to the present news which focuses on the news development process. There have been three such prolonged events in 2015 so far, i.e. the terrorist attacks in Paris (on 07 January 2015 and 13 November 2015) and Copenhagen. We are reminded of past terrorist events on the occasion of their anniversaries, as happens in each September following the tragic one in 2001. Irrespective of the kind of event, the contact with this issue is mediated between the government and the audience by the media. This relationship is described by Philip Jenkins as an “interaction of bureaucratic agencies, academics and private experts, and the mass media: the images and stereotypes that we are offered do not necessarily reflect objective reality”4. Jenkins instils in us a sense of insecurity regarding the information we can receive from governmental institutions via mass media. However, I think we should take in any amount of information communicated by mass media with care unless we would like to become mere consumers of media products. Nevertheless, the issue I am tackling here is not a common one and should not be treated as such. “BUREAUCRACY ALWAYS SEEKS THE PATH OF LEAST DISCLOSURE” (DARREL EVANS)5 Isabelle Garcin-Marrou indicates a significant difference in reporting about terrorism in a democratic country, on the one hand, and in a dictatorship, on the other. There are several issues at hand in a democracy when referring to the citizens, their security and their right to be informed, whereas in a dictatorship a terrorist threat can be abolished without informing the public opinion because of the existing censorship. I consider that the role of mass media has been modified by the French authorities which regarded the apprehension of the attackers more important than their citizens’ right to be informed. We can agree that this action seemed logical and also helped the authorities to control the media outlet on the action of the police, which, eventually, was successful. However, in that particular situation mass media were asked to renounce their role of mediators and informers.

Jenkins, Philip. Images of Terror: What We Can and Can’t Know about Terrorism, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, p. ix 5 Jenkins, Philip. Images of Terror: What We Can and Can’t Know about Terrorism, Aldine de Gruyter, New York, p. 138 4

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It is the creation of artificial boundaries that Jenkins draws our attention to when he claims that while “read[ing] or watch[ing] media coverage of terrorism, we have to understand the limits of what the media know, what they can say, and how completely even the most critical journalists depend on the good will of … law enforcement and intelligence agencies”6. Therefore, censorship can work in a democratic system on condition that its aim is the people’s well-being. What effect does it have on the media? The complex relationship between the media and authorities in a national security threat (as terrorism is) can work according to the method “carrot-and-stick” in which authorities supply enough information to the press so that the public is informed and appeased. As a result, the police forces can apprehend the attackers, while at the same time they do not divulge any serious data that could compromise the mission. This technique was used in the aftermath of 13 November 2015 Paris attacks and during the search of terrorist suspects in Belgium at the end of 2015 and beginning of 2016. As regards the Paris attacks on 13 November 2015, I chose two French newspapers in order to analyse the manner in which the terrorist acts have been covered. I only chose French newspapers because both the journalists and their readership were the first ones that were affected by those horrible events. Le Figaro - “Attentats à Paris: Daech revendique les attaques” Le Figaro’s news “Attentats à Paris: Daech revendique les attaques” / ISIS claims responsibility for the Paris attacks (translation mine). The news was published late at night on 13 November 2015 at 23:46 and updated the next day at 14:31. Its introductory paragraph presents summarises the newest information regarding the casualties, the perpetrators, the security measures. Along the news, we can notice the key moments, i.e. the facts and updates in a chronological order that are represented with a strong visual support as they are bolded. Thus the information is transmitted in an intelligible and logical manner with the clear purpose of supplying the reader with all the necessary information at a fast rate. The visual support that the online edition of Le Figaro consists in making the reader aware of the importance of synchronisation on the part of the terrorists; a fact that may distress the already-shaken readers. The readership is presented with the current situation at 10 o’clock in the morning. The terms used by journalists are clearly connected with the use of guns and destruction: “fusillades”, “balayées”, “rafales de balles”, “explosions”, “prise d’otages”, “morts”, “blessés”. Unlike the case of the terrorist attacks on Charlie Hebdo, the 13 November assaults were covered fully so as to offer all the information the audiences needed and looked for by including the more emotional testimonials later after the number of casualties was made public. The news that ISIS has claimed responsibility for the attacks is supported by the translation of that particular announcement. I believe here lies the question we should all try to answer: is it beneficial for the readership to read, listen to or hear this announcement? On the one hand, our first answer should be a definite “yes”, because the media should inform their readers irrespective of the medium they use. On the other hand, related to our article, we may think it would probably be better to reduce the amount of information broadcast by the terrorist groups as it can only create more extremist followers. This could happen to people for whom the introductory quote from the Quran may matter and create vivid images in their minds.

6

Ibidem. p. 138

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Another query that should be looked into is whether the mission of the media has changed voluntarily or not? We know that the media’s first and foremost mission is to inform and this is what Le Figaro does by issuing the Islamic State’s message. However, we live in an era where extremist groups and terrorist groups as well gather new followers much too easily. I believe it should concern us whether the media’s role and mission have changed as very few newspapers and magazines published the cover of Charlie Hebdo that enraged extremists to perform the terrorist attacks against the French magazine’s creators. That decision was supported with the argument that editors feared the consequences of publishing the caricature of the Islamic Prophet, Mohammed. I think that journalists should stand up for their right to expose any information that is valuable to the public and that represents the ideology of that media institution. I consider that decision to be biased as not everybody was disturbed by that cover. Returning to the online edition of Le Figaro, I regard their decision to make ISIS’ message public as being biased. Therefore, for some part of the media, the mission has changed unfortunately. In my research I have found that there is a shift in the coverage of the terrorist attacks after several months have passed. The modification of the newspaper’s outlook resides in the introduction of the victims’ own stories, which is clearly used so as to fill in the gap caused by the lack of information regarding the victims’ way of coping with the tragic events. Such updates are uploaded on the online edition almost daily. Of course, the more important news exceeds this line of emotional testimonials as happens every time the French authorities or other foreign authorities are on mission to find any terrorists or any of their supporters. Le Monde - “Attaques à Paris: le point sur l’enquête et le déroulé des attaques” As regards the second French newspaper I chose to include in my research, i.e. Le Monde, I selected a story which presents more detailed information as we would expect (as it is a story and not news). “Attaques à Paris: le point sur l’enquête et le déroulé des attaques” / Paris attacks: details on the enquiry and how the attacks were conducted (translation mine) (Le Monde, 15 November 2015) begins with some details on the number of casualties and their general condition. The French newspaper informs its readership regarding the act of claiming responsibility for the attacks by the Islamic State. The story develops in six parts: the criminal investigation that is performed by the senior national prosecutor, the French Prime Minister’s stand, a short summary of the terrorist attacks and their victims, security measures imposed by the French authorities in the aftermath of the assaults, the most serious attack, i.e. the one that took place in Bataclan concert hall, while the most notorious was the one that occurred in the vicinity of Stade de France stadium where a friendly football game between France and Germany was underway that the French President François Hollande was a spectator of. As we can see, there are several public actors that take a stand as the public waits for official information. Each of the story’s six parts includes an introductory paragraph which helps the reader keep up to date with the most recent material. There are several hyperlinks inserted in the texts, which are related to key information on the attacks, i.e. “ justice” (justice, translation mine), “Belgique” (Belgium, translation mine), “Syrie” (Syria, translation mine), “compter” (count, translation mine), “Ile-de-France”, “exploser” (explode, translation mine), “voiture” (car, translation mine), “tirer” (shoot, translation mine). Following the story, Le Monde’s online edition includes several hyperlinks with news connected to the attacks, beginning with the perpetrators’ identities and continuing with the witnesses’ declarations and those of the doctors who took care of the victims. Thus Le Monde as Le Figaro tackles the emotional side of the events in order to create a link with their

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readership that they can feed with the necessary details in order to transform them into their devoted readers. The two newspapers that I have chosen for the analysis of the media coverage on the 13 November terrorist attacks clearly have two different perspectives of informing their publics even though there are slight similarities. Irrespective of the form of the text, I consider that these differences are important to our analysis as Le Monde’s decision of not publishing the Islamic State’s message underlines their consistent and unbiased stand, which differs from Le Figaro’s decision to transmit the terrorists’ message to the French public. Media coverage of terrorist attacks remains a debatable issue as the public needs to be informed and be able to select the information they need, on the one hand, and the media institutions have to inform the former in order to continue to exist and to perform their role of mass communicator, on the other hand. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Wright-Neville, David. Dicționar de terorism, CA Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2010 Jenkins, Philip. Images of Terror: What We Can and Can’t Know about Terrorism, Aldine de Gruyter, New York Garcin-Marrou, Isabelle. Media vs. terrorism, București: Tritonic, 2005 http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite-france/2015/11/13/01016-20151113ARTFIG00421fusillades-a-paris-le-point-sur-la-situation.php, accessed on 25 February 2016 http://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2015/11/13/fusillade-meurtriere-aparis_4809485_3224.html, accessed on 25 February 2016 atelier.leparisien.fr.sites/Je-Suis-Charlie/

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JUVENILE DELINQUENCY FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL POINTS OF VIEW JUVENILE DELINQUENCY FROM THE SOCIOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW Cornelia FARCAȘ Comisar șef, Șef Serviciu Asistență Psihosocială, Penitenciarul Tg Mureș [email protected] Abstract: In recent years, in Romania, criminality experienced a mainly upward trend, and the feeling of insecurity was amplified. The criminality status indicators show that in order to hold back the tide of threats to public order - great violence offenses, organized crime, requires a more complex approach, an integrated system involving the responsible factors. Any external cause (influence) reflects through internal conditions (psychological, personality) of the individual; the knowledge and explanation of the causes of crime should be carried out taking into account the relationship between the subjective circumstances accompanying the reasons for committing the criminal act and the objective context in which it is produced. Keywords: criminality, juvenile delinquency, criminality, young people, minors.

Sociology considers delinquency as a particular case of social deviance, the reason why most often the distinction between deviance in general and delinquency in particular is not made. Addressing it from the sociological1 point of view is aimed at social unrest as a condition of inadequacy of the statuses and roles network creating a discrepancy for the collective and individual goals, which manifest by a powerful extension of the scope of individual needs and aspirations (group) who do not find full satisfaction. Social disorganization, or the state of anomie as called Emile Durkheim, besides increasing the number of crimes (alcoholism, drug addiction, social deviance) also causes the gradual extension of the state of marginality to a growing number of individuals and social groups. Marginalization causes deep feelings of marginality and social frustration, highlighting the phenomenon of social non-integration, with lack of adherence to social and moral norms as the defining note. Incipiently surprising the phenomenon, delinquency sociology contributes to deciphering the criminal act at the level of social phenomenon, with the analysis of actually committed antisocial acts in relation to the many aspects of maladjustment, disorganization, anomie and marginality existing within society. The phenomenon of teenage criminal deviance, known as juvenile delinquency, currently exist in our country with increased intensity. The criminal statistics compiled by specialized institutions of social control, which started to be released for public scrutiny, are revealing in this respect, highlighting an increased incidence of crimes committed by minors and young people, and especially an increased seriousness of the severity of these offenses specific to a growing category of teenagers. This phenomenon is a social problem of great actuality even more as the destructive policy directed against families, educational institutions, courts with socializing role undertaken during the years of the "Golden Age" today proves negative effects abundantly, some of them having repercussions at the level of

Maria Dorina Pașca, Infractorul minor şi reintegrarea lui în comunitate, Ardealul Publishing House, TârguMureș, 2005, pp. 11-17.

1

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these delinquent acts committed by minors and young people from families characterized by poor material conditions and educational deficiencies2. As emphasized by sociologists, on the basis of moral behavior of adolescents, are multiple normative conditionings and value determinations influenced by the success or failure of the socialization process. Representing a as whole that process started at the earliest age in which young people learn the norms, values and rules of conduct consistent with the ethical-normative model of society they belong to, socialization actually refers to young people acquiring a capacity for exercise by: a) the ability to properly exercise social roles guiding by specific rules and norms; b) their knowingly participation to the aims and ideals of society; c) the acquisition of proper discernment capacities to distinguish between permissive and prohibited behaviors, between illegitimate and legitimate means, between socially desirable and undesirable purposes. Due to the acquisitions of this process (acquisition of certain rules of behavior and human action, positively assessed by the other members of society), each individual acquires a determined cultural identity and at the same time responds to various social situations under that identity. Socialization is the process by which "a biological being turns into a subject of a specific culture" within which it can correctly exercise, positive actions in accordance with the standards of normality and rationality of the social group into which it is integrated. Teaching the young how to "learn" the repertoire of roles to be fulfilled in social life, to decipher the meanings of single processes and situations that involve social interaction, and to act to fulfill only the goals desirable for community and only by means permitted by moral and legal codes, the socialization process involves progressive adaptation and compliance to the cultural and normative patterns of society3. JUVENILE DELINQUENCY FROM THE PSICHOLOGICAL POINT OF VIEW From a psychological perspective, delinquency appears as a necessity to complete the approach of legal norms and the social dimension of the offense, involving profound individuality of the non-delinquent and delinquent individual. The theory of criminal conditioning fits much better with reality. For the sake of brevity, H.J. Eysenck and M. Eysenck showed excessively dogmatic in defining this theory, therefore they directed readers to its presentation in the volume entitled Crime and Personality. The behavior morality is not the result of rational decisions, it can be said that all rational considerations influence it to a very little extent. In fact, very few criminals are caught and punished – this is well known. If someone would organize his life in a purely rational way, he may decide to choose a career as a delinquent since in this way the opportunities for enrichment are much higher than those offered by an honest living. So the real question would be: why are there so few people to commit crimes, since they are so profitable, their reward is immediate, and that the possibility of punishment remains so vague and distant4? The reason5 lies in the concept of "consciousness", conceived not as a mechanism implanted into man by his Creator, but rather as a conditioned reaction gained from a long training of "Pavlovian" type. Let's think about what happens when the child grows. Of course, he manifests cheekiness, selfishness, dishonesty and antisocial behavior. Whenever he behaves in this way, the parents punish him – as do the teachers, the elders, and whoever happens to be around. Whatever the punishment – ear pulling, standing at the corner Sorin M. Rădulescu, Dan Banciu, Introducere în sociologia delicvenţei juvenile, Medical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1990, p. 109. 3 Ibidem, p. 18. 4 Hans Eysenck, Michael Eysenck, Descifrarea comportamentului uman, Teora Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995, p. 216. 5 Ibidem, p. 217. 2

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of the room, suppression of the evening meal – it's painful and unpleasant. And here is the chaining of the events: first, the conditional stimulus – the sound of the bell in the Pavlovian experiment, in our case the child's intent to commit an antisocial act and the actual commission of that antisocial act; then, the occurrence of the unconditional stimulus – corresponding to feeding in Pavlov's experiment, here, the punishment administered by parents, teachers or other persons; finally, the unconditional reaction – corresponding to the dogs' saliva, in the child of our example are the pain, anxiety, and fear of the punishment. According to the principles of Pavlov, the conditional stimulus, after a number of repetitions of the similar situation, is associated with an unconditional reaction, so that in a short time the intent to commit or the commission of an antisocial act will be related to the anxiety characteristic to administering a punishment. This anxiety coupled with the intent to commit an antisocial act is what usually called "consciousness", and its censorship is indeed effective, as it stops most people from indulging in antisocial activities even if they could prove very beneficial and the risk of being caught would be small. The risk factors in committing crimes may be due to biological causes, such as a disorder of the limbic system, believed to be the source of sensations of pleasure and pain and controlling part of the vital functions as heart rate, breathing and sleeping, and it is possible to moderate the expression of violence and emotions such as anger and fear (Bohm, Voegel, 2010). Other possible biological explanations of this factor could come from the linkage made in the research of abnormal levels of certain neurotransmitters and antisocial behavior: low serotonin level has been linked to impulsive antisocial behavior, substance abuse, impulses and acts of suicide (Goldman, Fishbein, 2000); the high level of dopamine was associated with violence, bullying and substance abuse; and high levels of norepinephrine have also been linked to aggressive behavior. We believe however that this factor may also be influenced by family dysfunctions such as problem solving, communication, roles, emotional involvement, emotional responsiveness and self-adjustment, dysfunctions causing more than three times the physical aggressiveness in boys, but also the stress levels to which the child is subjected as a result of negative life events related to family, school and peers, a level increased especially in those who do not receive parental support. S.G. Tibbetts in The Development of Persistent Criminality reports identifying the following significant interactions in the etiology of early onset crime: a) Low birth weight and socially disadvantaged backgrounds; b) Adversity in the family environment and a low level of verbal intelligence; c) The sex of the individual and low birth weight; d) Socioeconomic status and low birth weight; e) Unstable family environment and minor physical anomalies; f) Obstetric complications and adversity in the family; g) Hyperactivity and deviant fellows. The study of indirect effects could help detect those "supreme" factors leading to the occurrence of certain risk factors (psychopathy, impulsiveness, empathy deficits, etc.), strong predictors of crime persistence. J. Savage in The Development of Persistent Criminality states that the following factors could have a significant importance in determining the persistent criminal behavior: a) The issues of attachment may have powerful, indirect effects on antisocial behavior; b) The childhood abuse effects on delinquency are partly direct, by violent socialization, but it is very likely to have certain indirect effects such as delays in the development processes associated with the regulation of emotions, cognitive abilities, social information processing, etc.

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Several authors who have reported certain indirect effects are:  Feldmand and S.S. Weiberger in Child Development conclude that family functioning influences the self-control ability of boys, which subsequently affects delinquency.  G.R. Patterson in Development and Psychopathology suggests that hyperactivity leads to discipline problems that may develop over time in antisocial behaviors.  Blomberg in Development of Persistent Criminality has identified that educational achievements in detention increase the likelihood of continuing education after release, a factor associated with an increased probability of employment and cessation of delinquent activities. The risk factors for juvenile offenders are: 1) Psychological problems during childhood; 2) Hyperactivity, focusing difficulties and restlessness; 3) Deliberate self-aggressiveness, suicidal ideation, suicide/parasuicide; 4) Violent history; 5) Disorganized family of origin; 6) Physical abuse in the family of origin; 7) High levels of behavioral inhibition and poor behavioral activation; 8) Visible intellectual/cognitive disabilities; 9) Early initiation of delinquent or violent behavior (under 14 years old); 10) Engaging in other forms of antisocial behavior; 11) Beliefs and attitudes favorable to deviant or violent behavior; 12) Delinquent or antisocial behavior of parents/guardians; 13) Divorce of the parents while living together with them; 14) Parent-child separation; 15) School failure; 16) Low educational aspirations; 17) The low level of integration at school; 18) Dropping out of school or absenteeism; 19) A school with students with higher rates of delinquency; 20) Social rejection; 21) Belonging to a criminal group; 22) Connections with delinquent persons (neighbors or acquaintances); 23) An increased level of physical aggression; 24) The total period of custodial sentences/educational measures enforced; 25) The belief that the loved ones are absent when the person needs them, they will not be able to provide the emotional support and protection required because, in turn, they are emotionally unstable, or that they will abandon that person for someone else, or by an imminent death; 26) A high level of feeling lack of self-worth, of their own wickedness, of not being wanted and being inferior or incapable regarding important aspects of life, but also the perception of lack of love from others; 27) Vulnerability to bad (evil) and an exaggerated-to-disease fear of various diseases, serious emotional problems or external disasters and imminent negative situations that could occur anytime and can not be prevented; 28) A relationship of closeness and an exaggerated emotional involvement with one of the close persons, a relationship that prevents the development of their own identity and social networking; 29) Insufficient self-control/self-discipline – the difficulty of being self-controlled and self-disciplined in achieving goals;

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30) Excessively accepting the control of others, generally to avoid their anger and abandonment or other reprisals from them, a fact proved by the subjugation of needs and emotions (especially anger); 31) Exaggerating the negative aspects of life and concomitantly minimizing the positive events; 32) The tendency to be angry, intolerant, punitive and impatient with people who do not meet expectations or standards of the individual, the belief that others should be severely criticized for their mistakes, mistakes that are forgotten with difficulty; 33) The presence of irrational ideas, behaviors guided by impulses and difficulties to cope with stressful situations at different times during life; 34) Maladaptive overprotective parenting of the father; 35) Maladaptive rejective parenting of the father6. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Dan, Banciu, Sociologie Juridică, Editura Hyperion, București, 1995. Eysenck Hans, Eysenck Michael, Descifrarea comportamentului uman, Teora Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995. Emilian, Stănișor,Delicvența juvenilă, Editura Oscar Print, București, 2003. Muranyi Daniel, Ghid de bune practice în domeniul asistării minorilor private de libertate, Eurobit Publishing House, Timișoara, 2012. Pașca Maria Dorina, Infractorul minor şi reintegrarea lui în comunitate, Ardealul Publishing House, Târgu-Mureș, 2005. Rădulescu M. Sorin, Banciu Dan, Introducere în sociologia delicvenţei juvenile, Medical Publishing House, Bucharest, 1990. Gheorghe, Florian, Prevenirea Criminalității Teorie și Practică, Editura Oscar Print, București, 2005. Emilian, Stănișor,Delicvența juvenilă, Editura Oscar Print, București, 2003.

Daniel Muranyi, Ghid de bune practice în domeniul asistării minorilor private de libertate, Eurobit Publishing House, Timișoara, 2012, pp. 16-17, 34-35.

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ADVERTISING – A FORM OF PUBLIC AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION Olga BALANESCU University of Bucharest Faculty of Communication and Public Relations INTRODUCTION Advertising is a part of our everyday life, and, in spite of the critics against it1, we have to admit that it informs us about everything new in the market, bringing forward ways of improving life (suppose the consumer will distinguish what is necessary from the pseudoneeds). The way it works has to be always in connection with the evolution of time, with the development of the human personality, fact for which specialists2 have decided that innovation should be one of its major qualities. The concept of „innovation” regarding advertising may have at least two meanings: an innovative compositional structure, and new sources of inspiration when creating both the iconic and the textual message. Here is the main aim of the article: to demonstrate that advertising is a form of public and intercultural communication, as it crosses the borders and successfully enters foreign markets, taking into consideration the cultural features of every single geographical area it penetrates. It is the brand which makes advertising be viewed as a form of intercultural communication, owing to the transnational companies which link the consumers all around the world. Thus, I have focused my attention on emphasizing the features of a brand and, on illustrating them with a suggestive case study. According to many advertising specialists 3 a brand is a product that is well-known in the market due to its special qualities which satisfy the needs of the consumer better and faster and more convenient than any other similar products. A brand creates a certain image of the respective product, so that when the customer buys the product, he buys it not only for its inherent qualities, but for the image it brings about, too. We all know that nowadays almost all the products are not simply promoted for what they actually bring (example: a shampoo will wash your hair, a motor-car will bring comfort and speed for you to face your life and business better, etc.); but they are promoted together with an extra-advantage you will get, suppose you purchase the respective product. Most often, that extra-advantage implies an improvement of the personal look. Let us exemplify: A shampoo will not only wash your hair, but it will also make you look sexier; • • A mobile phone will not only help you to communicate with people, but it will also create you a particular prestige. We should also remember the experiment David Ogilvy made years ago: he asked his students to taste a glass of water telling them: `Here you have still water. How does it taste?` all of them agreed it tasted normally, namely good, the usual taste we all know: still water. Then he gave them a second glass with water in it, telling them it was tape-water and asked Sutherland, Max, Sylvester, K. Alice, From Advertising To Consumer, Routledge, London, 2008 David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising, 3 Max Sutherland, Alice Sylvester, From Advertising To Consumer, Routledge, London, 2008; Miriam Sorrentino, Creative Advertising, Ed. Lawrence King Publishing, Sage, London, 2014; Walter Taplin, Asvertising, Eds. Taylor&Francis Ltd., 2013. 1 2

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them to taste it. They all felt something unpleasant in its taste. Moreover, there were students who declared that the water smelled badly, too. In fact, they had tasted the same still water, and the strange taste was due to a psychological factor: they had been told that they would be given to drink something worse. That is, the students had not actually tasted the water for the second time, they had tasted the image4. This is what a brand brings about: the image of a superior, stylish, special way of life, envied by everyone. The advertiser activates the psychological mechanism of persuading the target, inducing (the target) the impression of getting a better life by means of using (if purchasing) the promoted product. What brands sell, is not only a specific category of products, but a style of life. Consumers usually buy in order to fulfil their needs and to impress the people around them too5. They are induced needs which do not actually correspond to their life – we have just mentioned one of the weak aspects of advertising, aspect for which it has been often criticized. For instance: there are, let us say, ten types of sports shoes on the market. Ten different trademarks. The consumer is free to choose whatever he wants. So the balance of his choice will bend towards one of the ten trade-marks. But towards which of them? Specialists have spoken about a purely subjective reason which will be taken into consideration and bent the balance. They named it a `feather`6. Brands have such `feathers`. They resist on the market because they will be automatically associated with a positive state of mind, a positive mood, an optimistic attitude towards life. Here is the so-called `psychological advertising` which creates the impression that only by making use of the promoted product the consumer may get a better look and a better position in life. What makes a brand that important for everyday life is the fact that it adapts itself to the specific needs of each and every foreign market, taking into account the real needs of the host-market. Otherwise, the producing company is supposed to pay very much on expensive campaigns meant to present the needs of the consumer in the original market. An example is offered by Nestle Company which modified the strategies of persuading people according to the host-market. Thus, an advertising agency, when introducing a new brand, should keep in mind details referring to: geographical and climatic conditions of the host-country, socioeconomic conditions (income, economic development, currency, unemployment, etc); cultural conditions (level of education, religion, the structure of the family, cultural conditions and needs); political conditions (the legal status of competitors, norms of protecting the consumer, norms referring to commercial companies, the copyright) They should also have details about the other similar products in the market: since when they were in the market, what kind of target did they address, strong points and weak points of the respective products. A real brand should take into consideration the specific features of the social community it enters (cultural values, traditions, mentalities, ensuring thus a good intercultural communication.) A brand reflects the degree of development of advertising media which is different from country to country, and it is also in close connection with the economic level of each country. The best equipped country from this point of view is the USA where there are 815 TV sets and 2123 radio sets for 1000 inhabitants7.

David Ogilvy, Ogilvy on Advertising, Imperial Works, Perren Street, London, 1999 Max Sutherland, Alice K.Sylvester, From Advertising to Consimer, Routledge, London, 2008. 6 Max Sutherland, Alice K.Sylvester, qouted work. 7 Walter Taplin, quoted work, p.117-201. 4 5

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METHODOLOGY The present paper uses the qualitative research methods as it presents my personal point of view regarding the issue under consideration. More exactly, I have used the case study, as the most relevant method of research. I have selected a number of print advertisements belonging to the Romanian cultural space, and I have analyzed them taking into consideration the pragmatic resources of the advertising message. I have considered pragmatics suitable for the case study of the paper because the advertising discourse is one of the most relevant samples of usual and every-day talk, and pragmatics deals with common speech. I have been mostly interested in depicting the typology of the verbal acts, as well as the communication dynamics of the deictic elements. But a keen investigation of the advertising discourse (which is constituted of both iconic and textual message at the same time) has to take into consideration the pragmatic acts, the context, the situational context and the type of verbal interaction. LITERATURE REVIEW Advertising may be viewed as the mirror of our contemporary society. The way one may read a person after he knows his/her friends and family is the same way one may characterize a society after taking an attentive look at the adverts in the street. Just take a walk in the streets of an unknown country which you have not seen before, look through its newspapers and magazines, and consider the adverts you see. You may draw a keen conclusion referring to the system of values of the respective society and to its medium income, too. There are countries, for instance, where Bentley brand has not entered, yet, as well as Longines. Actually, these aspects (traditions, mentalities, material or spiritual culture) could be considered the very items an advertiser should keep in his mind when trying to enter a new market. Here is one of the secrets of the transnational companies (like Coca-Cola, Ford, McDonalds`, Tuborg, Cacharel, Marlboro and so on). They entered lots of foreign countries and each and every time they adapted themselves to the new circumstances offered by the respective market: specific cultural aspects, religion, traditions, social values appreciated by the respective community, income, degree of education of the individual, and so on. This is why every single target would like to be in the center of interest of the advertiser.8 The consumer will thus feel that the advert is created for him only when it speaks his own language and mirrors exactly what he himself would like to see and find about (his needs). In spite of its being new, advertising should be rooted in the history of civilization of the respective social community. Advertising should borrow patterns coming from the cultural universe of the community under consideration in order to be able to mirror the society which created it. Here is the very link between advertising and mythology. Specialists9 spoke even about a connection between advertising and fairy tales world. Let us exemplify how every single cultural space develops its specific mythology, in close connection with its own culture and civilization, in order to perform an efficient intercultural communication. Cosmetics are generally promoted everywhere in Europe and America by means of a beautiful female guarantee: she always appears to be attractive, young, happy and content with herself, available. She is the advertising `fairy` who promises the consumer to be as 8 9

Max Sutherland, Alice Sylvester, From Advertiser To Consumer, Routledge, London, 2008. Costin Popescu, Bazele publicitatii, Editura Universitatii Bucuresti, Bucuresti, 2005.

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beautiful as she is suppose the consumer uses the promoted product. Young girls are invited to buy this or that shampoo if they want a Hollywood look. Men are promised to be more successful in life (private or professional, it simply does not matter) if they achieve this type of mobile phone, or this type of computer, or drink this trade mark of beer. The advert `speaks` much, it is always funny or it contains an amusing story so that the consumer should remember the promoted product easier. The new tendency in our Romanian advertising is making use of feminine nudity in order to sell absolutely everything, not only cosmetics, but also motor-cars, household appliances or gardening tools. A modern Sleeping Beauty we might say, ready to conquer every target. But let us take a look into the Oriental advertising10. The advert is short and clear because, according to the Japanese system of values, being serious and quiet is a sign of deep trust. This is why the TV spots within this area are no longer than 15 seconds, while in Europe, America, Australia and large areas in Asia, it is generally about 30 seconds. Within these areas the advertiser cannot communicate a credible message in 15 seconds unless the campaign started with an advert lasting for 30 seconds. The so-called `short` one has the function of reminding what the `long` advert announced.11 The female guarantee will be always fully dressed as it will be simply outrageous to exhibit her body in public. It will be an offence to the morality of their society, a mistake which will put a clear and definite end to the existence of the respective product in their market. No one will purchase it for fear he/she might be rejected afterwards by the people around. Within the European or the American advertising, when promoting feminine cosmetics, the woman guarantee is often accompanied by man, as he is regarded as the final beneficiary of the product (he is the one to appreciate how soft her skin is, or how delicate her scent is). The procedure may be achieved the other way round, too. Masculine cosmetics are generally promoted by a male guarantee, accompanied by a woman, regarded as the final beneficiary of the promoted product. We might draw the conclusion that there is a sort of co-operation between man and woman when promoting cosmetics addressed to one of them. The `co-operation` is out of question within the Oriental advertising. Man cannot be present in the same advertisement together with a woman in order to promote feminine cosmetics. He is forbidden to interfere the feminine universe, he cannot have opinions regarding her option for a certain perfume or shampoo, although he is the final beneficiary of the fine look his partner will have after making use of the promoted product. This `co-operation` turns out to be shameful by all means. CASE STUDY. ACCOMPLISHMENTS I have chosen The Coca-Cola Company and Ford in order to prove my thesis: their products are spread all over the world, communicating their values to a huge target, extremely diversified from the cultural point of view. I have picked advertising campaigns developed in Romania, Italy, Poland, Brazil, Puerto-Rico, India. I have viewed them in point of the theory of advertising applied and in point of their textual and iconic messages.

D`Arcy, Masius, Benton and Bowles, Advertising in Japan: Keeping the message shot and sweet, in The Business Brief, Melbourne, November/December 1991. 11 Lee Weinblatt, People meters for print in Print Media Magazine, March 2008, page 35-38. 10

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Romanian Campaigns The advertising campaigns developed in Romania for promoting Coca-Cola present certain distinct features, for the simple reason that the promoted juice (Coca-Cola) has recently entered the Romanian market, more exactly, in 1989. One cannot speak about any tradition regarding the sales or the consumption of Coca-Cola in Romania as in the Western European countries. In 2011, Ogilvy Advertising Agency has developed an interesting campaign entitled ”Catch the move”. The iconic message is dominant: warm colours are used (red, yellow, orange). Many iconic elements appear which all underline the idea of dynamism and entertaining activities: young people practicing sports like cycling, football, dancing or simply walking in parks. The iconic message is more explicit than the correspondent one in the European advertising because our public is less educated in decoding advertisements than their European brothers. Let us remember that in France, the first advertisement was dated in 1411 (it was announcing a religious procession in Paris), in Germany the first advertisement was a pamphlet announcing the miraculous effects of some medicine (1495), while in England, in 1611, King James the 1st had already decided to found the first forms of what we call today „an advertising agency”: pieces of necessary information concerning goods, prices, delivery places and discounts were sold and bought for a price12. The textual message is created with the help of the theory of learning. The public does not know the promoted product yet. It is necessary for the advertiser to access the cognitive psychological level at first and to offer his customer all the pieces of information he needs (although the information is given in icons, and not in words). The advertiser also uses the expressive and the conative functions of the language: ”Catch the move”. This is the slogan of the campaign and it installs a good mood and a friendly and funny verbal interaction between the advertiser and his consumer. In 2012, McCann-Erickson Advertising Agency has developed another interesting campaign entitled ”The Eye”. The campaign exploits the concept of innovation both in the iconic message, and in the textual one. The iconic message creates an interesting story meant to draw the attention of the consumers who are youngsters: someone (maybe the consumer himself) confesses having seen many strange things among which ”sugar free Coca-Cola”. The story is structured on the pattern of the cartoons, because ”an eye” (the main character of the advertisement) answers him back sceptically: ” Once in a blue moon” (namely, ”you could never find a sugar free juice, as all types on the market contain sugar”). The textual message contains the body text (represented by the answer of the suspicious eye which stands for the sceptical client) and the slogan (which is the very first textual segment of the advertisement: ”The same Coca-Cola taste. Sugar free”). The CocaCola Company took into consideration the cultural universe specific to the Romanian consumers because practice has proved it to be one of the most efficient strategies of entering a foreign market and of attracting the new public. People will respond positively suppose they are addressed to in their own system of values. Our public has grown up listening to the stories written by Ion Creangă, and has made much fun of the jokes told by Păcală, another very well-known popular character. The body text of this campaign reminds the target of the Romanian folk lore universe. The discourse register is affective, the ”speaking voices” are funny and the advertiser creates a friendly verbal interaction with his target. Three main linguistic functions are activated in this advertisement: the affective function (as the whole advertising creation impresses the public), the conative function (as there is a direct contact Rodica Mihaela Cârnu, Publicitatea sau arta de a convinge, Editura Didactică și Pedagogică RA, București, 2004, p.44-70.

12

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established with the target by means of the dialogue or the two ”voices”) and the referential function (as more clear pieces of information are offered by mentioning the site www.cocacola.ro. The advertiser wrote this site on purpose: he knew that his young target would be interested in finding out more information about the product, but at the same time, he knew that the same young target would not waste his spare time reading a long and boring advertising body text. The advertiser created a short and concise body text, offering the possibility of obtaining more information when accessing a site). All the advertisements belonging to this campaign could be seen on this site. In 2013, the same advertising agency has initiated another promoting campaign, entitled ”Taste happiness”. Although this campaign promotes the concept of innovation (both at the textual, and at the iconic level), it is traditionally built, keeping the pieces of advice given by Ogilvy13: 2/3 for the iconic message, 1/3 for the textual one, the two forms of communication being distinct from one another. The slogan ”Open up and taste happiness” is supported by the headline ”Happiness means a smiling life”. They both promote the values of the Company, which are: happiness, freedom, good mood. The Campaign in Singapore In 2013, Ogilvy and Mother Advertising Agency created the campaign entitled ”The Surfer” in Singapore. This campaign is based both on tradition and innovation. Presenting an activity which has become characteristic for the youngsters in Singapore belongs to tradition. This sport is part of their life. They identify with it (the same way as our Romanian youngsters were identifying themselves in the above mentioned campaigns, by cycling and football). The advertiser was able to detect those specific elements which belong to the newly penetrated cultural universe. The whole iconic construction belongs to innovation. The message contains a hidden pragmatic act, based on a presupposition: young and ever active people will always Coca-Cola. The advertiser has used the strategy of association: he has associated the promoted product (Coca-Cola) with the atmosphere of dynamism, youth, even adolescence and happiness. By means of the theory of childish impulse he has created a nice little story meant to suggest a kind of entertainment for youngsters. The advertisement has no headline because it belongs to the maturity period of the product (consecration advertising) which is already known and appreciated by the consumers on the market. This is the reason why its trade-mark is immediately recognized. The slogan ”Energy” can be identified after an attentive look, in the right side, written on the white colour. It suggests one of the main attributes of youth and the value on which the whole campaign is built: Coca –Cola gives you energy. The expressive function of the language is activated (the product belongs to the category of products which does not imply the consumer too much when purchasing it). The campaign in India In 2011, the advertising agency ”Leo Burnett- India” initiated the campaign entitled ”Barcode”14. This is a very interesting campaign: the product belongs to its maturity period of life (being already known by the consumers on the market). Therefore, the advertiser did not need the presence of a guarantee in order to attract the attention of the public. The concept of tradition is used: the background is red, the traditional colour of Coca-Cola. A brand colour. We also find elements belonging to the concept of innovation. In 2012, the advertising agency Saatchi and Saatchi India initiated the campaign entitled ”Thanda Matlab Coca-Cola”. The advertiser adapted himself to the newly penetrated cultural space and used Indian words. ”Thanda” in Indian language means ”coolness”, but also ”cold soft-drink”. So its slogan may 13 14

David Ogilvy, quoted work, page 29-32. http://www.advertisingcoca-cola.blogspot.com.india_2009

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be translated ”coolness is Coca-Cola”. This campaign has won more international prizes, among which ”The Golden Lion” because it has associated the Coca-Cola brand with a concept expressing a comfortable feeling (coolness), and a very appreciated soft drink. In consequence, the famous American soft drink got to stand for everything able to offer the pleasant exterior and interior feeling of coolness, fact which is the most important feature for a soft drink promoted within a geographic area characterized by a wet, stifling heat. The textual message is represented only by the slogan of the campaign: ”Thanda Matlab Coca-Cola”. The iconic message impresses even more: there are two children presented. One of them is sleeping in the shadow of some boxes of Coca-Cola while a dog is resting at his feet. The other one is looking at him. Thus Coca-Cola stands not only for a brand, but also for general concept of ”coolness and comfort”, as the second child is looking at his fellow as if envying him for the comfort he has. Even for this target (the poor people), Coca-Cola is considered to be the image of pleasure and wellbeing, a reality of life. The affective verbal act is activated in order to impress the target. The campaign in Italy In 2012, the advertising agency ”Leo Burnett Milan” (creative director: Fabrizio Russo, Copywriter: Maria Paola di Stefano, art director: Sandro Olivieri, photographer: Studio Neon) initiated the campaign entitled ”The Blind Bottle”.15 As all the other recent advertising campaigns, it nicely combines the concept of tradition with the concept of innovation. The Coca-Cola brand was on the market in Italy for more than 150 years when this campaign has appeared, so that we can say that the product was situated within its period of maturity. Although it promotes a brand of tradition, the campaign is a modern and innovative one. This is the manner adopted by the Company CocaCola in order to reflect the tendencies of the modern world. The iconic message is stronger than the textual one. It represent a bottle with the wellknown reddish juice inside. The public will easily recognize the bottle of Coca-Cola. The brand implies tradition, but the target is young and dynamic. The textual message is innovative, too. The body text is missing. The product is cheap and it does not involve the consumer too much in the process of purchase. The advertiser did not write any story, or information about the promoted product. The slogan is represented by a puzzle: ”eight-letter-word” and it is not associated with the trade mark. The explanation is obvious: everybody knows that the single soft drink whose bottle has the shape described in the iconic message, and whose trade mark is ”an eight-letter-word” is Coca-Cola. It is known that the slogan is generally accompanied by the trade-mark16 . This case is an exception. The pragmatic act is again activated: all the people know what is the trade-mark hidden behind the hint, it is Coca-Cola, whose name should not be uttered any longer, as the shape of the bottle is well known by everybody. The iconic message creates a contextual polysemy. The red bottle (although there is no trade mark written on it) stands for The Coca-Cola Company (it is a synonym of Coca-Cola). This synonymy is possible only because the product belongs to the maturity period of life, it is brand well-known all over the world. Thus the consumers will be glad to answer the puzzle and to prove their consumer knowledge: they easily recognize the bottle of Coca-Cola even if there is Coca-Cola written on the bottle. This promotion strategy could have never been accomplished referring to new product (belonging to its promotion period of life) or to a not enough known product.The advertiser has used the theory of childish impulse, as the message is more metaphoric than informative. http://www.adbranch.com/coca-cola-magazine-ads-from1950s-coca-cola-now Dimitrie Todoran, Psihologia reclamei. Studiu de psihologie economică, Editura Tritonic, București, 2004, p.102-136; David Ogilvy, quoted work, pp. 59-67.

15 16

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The receiver of the message (the consumer) will see the advertisement, will like it, will be impressed by it and will buy the promoted product. Even if he does not know the promoted product yet, he will buy it because he wants to enter that category of privileged consumers who have enjoyed that juice for years. We also notice the presence of the following functions of language: the expressive function and the artistic one. There is not necessary for the advertiser to use the referential function because the product has entered the Italian market for more than 100 years. The campaign in Poland In 2013 the advertising agency McCann Erickson Polska (creative director: Damir Brajdic, copywriter: Katarzyna Orseszek-Korobleuska, art director: Arkadiusz Pawlik, photographer: Jacek Wotowski) initiated the campaign entitled ”Thirst for Knowledge”. The campaign belongs to the modern and non-conformiste category of the kind. The iconic message stretches on more than 80% of the surface of the print. The logo of Coca-Cola lays at the bottom of the page. The image represents a bookcase full of books which are arranged on purpose in order to remain enough space meant to form the shape of a Coca-Cola bottle. The textual message is even more interesting: it is so short that it may stand for the label of the promoted product (taking also into consideration that it is placed on the middle of the bottle, label-like). Here is the text: ”Thirst for knowledge”. Making a comparison between the old Coca-Cola campaign and the new ones, we can notice the following aspect: the old ones were developing more the textual message (the text was longer, even a story, sometimes); the new ones give more credit to the iconic message which has a stronger impact upon the consumer. This tendency proves that The Company wants to have the same mentality with the modern times it lives in: people are in a hurry and busy with their business and daily troubles. Our modern society moves fast and making someone to waste his time could be penalized. The two types of messages (the iconic and the textual one) constitute a unitary whole due to the contextual synonymy created by the meanings of the word ”thirst”: books and reading can calm down your thirst for knowledge as well as the ice-cold Coca-Cola can. At the same time, we notice that the brand identifies itself with one of the most precious human values: knowledge. Therefore we can say that The Coca-Cola Company may become a permanent presence in the life of the contemporary consumer who has proved a great ”thirst for knowledge”. Thus, the commercial campaign is ingeniously accompanied (joined) by an interesting social one (which is meant to promote important human values). Actually this is the tendency in advertising nowadays: great commercial producers decide to involve themselves in solving some of the troubles of the society they live and work in ( to fight against the consumption of drugs or against domestic violence, to educate people in the spirit of protecting the environment, and so on). It has been proven that such commercial companies can approach easier to the consumers and can make the public buy their products faster that their competitors (who do not develop such social campaigns). The consumers, in their turn, will prefer a commercial company involved in solving their daily social problems because they will fell that the respective company has acted like a member of the social community they all live in. Here are some of the social issues promoted by the commercial companies which have developed such social campaigns: - Protecting health by promoting the necessity of the medical examination (Avon); - Environmental protection and fight against pollution (Rompetrol); - Fight against the consumption of drugs (Benetton).

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When facing a social campaign promoted by a commercial company, the consumer will appreciate the efforts of the respective company and will be tempted to buy its products (and not the similar products offered by the competitors) because of the following reasons17 : a. He appreciates the attitude of the company which is not interested only by its own profit, but of the society, too (because its profit, after all, is created by the society); b. He himself wants to contribute to the improvement of the negative social issue under discussion by his action of purchase. c. The advertising campaign above mentioned proves to promote knowledge and learning which can be obtained by reading. As Coca-Cola soft drink generally addresses to youngsters and teen-agers, the Company has designed to develop an efficient educative campaign of this target (characterized by a rebel attitude). The piece of advice comes from ”a friend”, namely from the Company which joins them in all their entertainment activities (having parties with friends, going to discos and clubs, having fun on trips). This is the reason why the target will be more receptive to ”reading”. The Coca-Cola Company has proved that ”a picture can be more suggestive and impressive than one thousand words”, as wise Confucius said. The product is also present in the advertisement: a. By means of the logo which is placed at the bottom of the page; b. Be means of the bottle shape which is ”built” with the help of a clever positioning of the books in the bookcase. The promoted product is a brand, so that the implicit iconic message turns into a wonderful advertising and marketing creation. The theory of childish impulse is used because the promotion of the product is based on the sensorial perception of the target (taste). According to the second rule of Watzlawick, the ideas can be transmitted with the help of the expressive function of the language. According to the same scientist, a relationship of symmetry is developed between the producer and the consumer a friendly and positive interaction18 . Suppose we take an attentive look, the iconic message also expresses the continuity of the brand. There are very many books on the shelves of the bookcase, fact which suggests that much knowledge has been accumulated (and in a long time) in order to create the bottle of Coca-Cola. So, the this ice-cold soft drink is a simple juice, but a creation based on a long history of research and evolution, meant to satisfy the consumer up to nowadays. The advertisement is based on an ingenious contextual iconic synonymy (The Coca-Cola soft drink becomes synonym with knowledge through reading). It is also known that knowledge makes someone stronger. This is why the bottle of Coca-Cola dominates the print, as CocaCola stands for knowledge: the advertiser highlights the prestige of the brand. The Campaign in Puerto Rico This advertisement has been created by Draft FCB Puerto Rico Advertising Agency for The Coca-Cola Company in 2011. The iconic message is the following: three bottles of Coca-Cola are placed side by side on a white background. But the bottles are different from one another chromatically: the first one is painted only in black and white, the second one is coloured; the third one reminds us of 3D images. The fact that the bottles are placed one after the other makes us think of an evolution. 17 18

Max Sutherland, Alice K.Sylvester, From Advertising to Consumer, Routledge, London, 2008. Claude Bonnange, Chantal Thomas, Don Juan sau Pavlov, Editura Trei, București, 2010, p.86-117.

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A similitude between the history of Coca-Cola and the history of cinematography is achieved. Speaking about cinema, its history can be expressed in terms of : black and white movies, colour movies, and 3D movies. Turning back to the image of bottles, we can understand the following implicit message: the bottle is the same, the soft drink is the same, but the way people see it (perceive it) differs in time. This is an expression of the deep modernity of The Coca-Cola Company which has created this interesting analogy: Coca-Cola and movies. We may ask ourselves: why Coca-Cola and movies? Because the advertiser exploited a widely spread practice: everywhere all over the world, when entering a cinema hall, people are sold pop-corn and a glass of Coca-Cola. The strategy of association has been used. The textual message is short, meant to complete the iconic one. The information ”125 years at the movies” highlights the age of the brand and induces an affective component: the consumers will be impressed to find that The Coca-Cola Company has been offering comfort and pleasure during their watching movies for such a long time. The advertiser underlined the long lasting tradition in producing the promoted soft drink, fact which stands for a sign of high quality and prestige for The Coca-Cola Company. The advertisement achieves the discourse cohesion established between the textual message and the iconic one, taking into consideration the last rule stated by Watzlawick. A bilateral transfer of authority takes place (between the Coca-Cola soft drink and cinematography. The short text also contains an open Coca-Cola bottle, ready to explode like a champagne one. ”125 years of happiness” implies celebration and party spirit: The CocaCola Company has created a global culture assimilated by millions of persons. The advertisement does not keep the classic compositional structure mentioned by Ogilvy: 2/3 for the iconic message, 1/3 for the textual one 19. This fact does not disturb the general meaning of the advert or its impact upon the consumers because the advertiser has used instead symbols and cultural references associated with the history of cinematography, well-known all over the world. The Campaign in Brazil JVT Advertising Agency (James Walter Thompson) created in 2013, in Brazil the advertising campaign entitled ”Live the Coke Side of Music”, starting from the campaign launched in 2006 in The US ”The Coke Side of Life”. The American campaign has used a simple idea: a bottle of Coca-Cola can make people happy. It is tasty and it represents the invitation to live the positive side of life. The American campaign has invited people to be spontaneous and to listen to their heart, to enjoy life. This campaign has been the spring of inspiration for many others which have represented and presented different styles of life, personalities and cultures. All of them had a clear common point: energy, optimism and happiness. Here we mention some of the most outstanding slogans: ”Unity on the Coke Side of Life”, ”Open Happiness”. The campaign in Brazil offers the following iconic message: a person is singing at the microphone (the advertiser has exploited the native musical quality and inclination of the Brazilian people). There are many musical instruments around his head, each of them used for playing different musical genres: pop, jazz, punk, hip-hop, funk, samba. The painting is meant to draw the attention of the public. It expresses good mood, optimism and a special style of life. The promoted product is situated within its maturity period. The campaign has been meant to keep the product in the attention of the public. The advertiser has used the theory of minimal implying of the target, because he has promoted a cheap product which does not 19

David Ogilvy, quoted work, p.26

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make the consumer imply himself too much when buying it. The advertiser has also used the theory of attributed learning because he has intended to make his consumer faithful to the promoted trade-mark. Advertising is thus the mirror of society from all points of view. Let us focus our attention upon promoting motor-cars. Ford brand within our Romanian advertising is promoted both by means of feminine or masculine guarantees who are presented against a typical background: office-mates speaking about what type of car they would like to have. Some other times, the guarantee has already bought the car and is happily driving it, fully satisfied with its technical performances. The scenery matches with our surroundings: crowded streets, people in a hurry. The situational context is made up of subjective deictic elements of space. And we consider them to be subjective as the space presented is always an ideal one: the office (which is generally associated with the idea of work) turns into a comfortable place (which is not the real perception of it, actually), the mountain landscape is wonderful, the street, even crowded, is perfect for a ride. The same brand is differently promoted within the American advertising (the advertiser has taken into consideration the cultural values of the respective area, the mentalities, etc). Here is the advert: a young surfer faces high waves and bravely handles them. The surfer guarantee matches perfectly well with the American space, as this sport is part of their life (the surfer would not have had the same impact upon our Romanian target, because our people is not familiar with this activity). It means that we have succeeded in finding out the link between the two apparently different concepts: myth and advertising. Advertising is able to reflect all the representative features which may identify a society. CONCLUSIONS At the end of this snapshot view on the contemporary Romanian and foreign advertising, we could conclude that: a. One can speak about a mythology of advertising in the meaning that advertising creation is deeply rooted in the cultural universe of our community, successfully binding together ancient cultural roots and modern aspects of life of our community; b. The most popular activities for a specific community have been chosen as a backgroungd for promoting the products; c. Specific idioms have been used in order to target the consumer of different geographical areas; d. Specific social aspects have been depicted, when involving in social campaigns; e. The textual message develop pragmatic acts generally based on personal verbal interaction; f. The deictic elements of time and space are always of subjective structure; g. The interrogative discourse, when it appears, is never a proper question, but a pretext for persuading the consumer to purchase the promoted product/service. The creation of a link between advertising and mythology turns out to be a very efficient persuasive strategy because people have been always impressed by stories rooted in immemorial times. It seems that advertisers have understood this fact and have changed it into a profitable tool in their work. For the benefit of everybody: consumers, producers and advertisers.

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Limitations and recommendations The present paper offers only one possible perspective upon the issue under consideration, namely the pragmatic one, as an innovative way of approaching advertising. Yet irony, as a specific type of the advertising discourse, was not taken into account, for reasons of space. The rhetoric interpretation would be another path of investigation of this advertising reality. Anyway, this paper could be considered to be a starting point for further analysis. Further investigations could also reveal interesting aspects connected with the innovative compositional structure, different from the so-called „traditional„ one, in terms of David Ogilvy. All the selected advertisements in the case study present features of a modern structure which might bring into strong relief the originality of their copywriters, and thus explain, in my point of view, the impact of the above mentioned ads upon the consumers, and the success of the sales. There is always something about the advertising creation, otherwise it could not have been survived and attracted people for centuries. This very strategy of ever keeping adverts new, fresh and interesting in front of the consumers is worth being understood and fully appreciated. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

Bonnange, Claude, Thomas, Chantal, Don Juan sau Pavlov, Editura Trei, București, 2010. Cârnu, Rodica, Mihaela, Publicitatea sau arta de a convinge, Editura Didactică și Pedagogică RA, București, 2004. Cronin, Anne, M., Advertising and Consumer: Citizenship, Gender, Images and Rights, London and New York, Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group, 2000 .D`Arcy, Masius, Benton and Bowles, Advertising in Japan: Keeping the message shot and sweet, in The Business Brief, Melbourne, November/December 1991. Ogilvy, David, Ogilvy on Advertising, Prion, Imperial Works, Perren Street, London, 1999. O`Shaughnessy, John, O`Shaughnessy, Nicholas, Jackson, Nicholas Persuasion in Advertising, London, Routledge, 2004. Sorrentino, Miriam, Creative Advertising, Ed.Lawrence King Publishing, Sage, London, 2014. Sutherland, Max, Sylvester, K. Alice, From Advertising To Consumer, Routledge, London, 2008 Costin Popescu, Bazele publicitatii, Editura Universitatii Bucuresti, Bucuresti, 2009. Pirsir, Robert, An Inquiry into Morals. Contemporary Case Study, Bantam Press, London, 2010. Marian Petcu, Contributii la istoria publicitatii in Romania,, article presented during the scientific conference organized by ANI, `Contemporary Social Processes and National Security`, held on the 23rd of March, 2001. Surherland, Max, Sylvester, Alice, K., De la publicitate la consummator, Polirom Publishing House, Collegium Collection, Bucharest, 2008, translated by Aurelia Anca Vasile. Taplin, Walter, Advertising, Eds. Taylor&Francis Ltd., 2013 Todoran, D., Psihologia reclamei. Studiu de psihologie economică, Editura Tritonic, București, 2004. Weinblatt, Lee, People Meters for Print, in ”Print Media Magazine”, March, 2008. http://www.adbranch.com/coca-cola-magazine-ads-from1950s-coca-cola-now http://www.advertisingcoca-cola.blogspot.com.india_2009 54


ROMANIAN CULTURAL VALUES, BEHAVOURAL PATTERNS AND ATTITUDES Virginia Mihaela DUMITRESCU Lecturer, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, [email protected] Abstract: This paper analyzes various ways of interpreting Romania’s placement along the Hofstede-Minkov cultural dimensions compared to other nations, with a focus on our co-nationals’ culture-specific biases and attitudes, without underestimating the role of multiple other factors (e.g. individual, non-cultural) in shaping people’s behaviour. The theoretical framework is provided, apart from the Hofstede-Minkov statistics-based model of intercultural analysis, by the contributions of a few Romanian authors who are, to a greater or lesser extent, indebted to Hofstede’s work, or have integrated elements of it in their analyses. For a more nuanced examination of scores and cultural values, references (based on recent Romanian research work) are also made to regional and generational differences, and to a number of discrepancies (e.g. stated /desired vs. actual values, actual vs. potential psychocultural profile, self-projected vs. actual image). Keywords: ethos, values, behavioural/ attitudinal patterns, generational differences, psychocultural profile

PERSPECTIVES ON ROMANIAN CULTURAL VALUES AND BEHAVIOUR: FROM FOLK PSYCHOLOGY TO INTERCULTURALISM As a reaction to current ideas about the “flattening” of our globalized world, there is growing interest in the question of cultural identity and the way it is still reflected in people’s thinking and behavioural patterns, despite the general tendency towards integration and levelling. Within the context of this paper, culture is understood in the anthropological sense of the word, either as “patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievements of human groups, including their embodiments in artifacts”, with its “essential core” consisting of “traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected) ideas and especially their attached values”1, or as Hofstede’s more “modern” concept of “the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people from another.”2 The latter definition is as comprehensive as the former, since it is the content of those invisible, innermost layers of culture (whether we call them “values”3, or “basic assumptions about existence”4) that generates an entire system of societal rules and norms, which in its turn largely determines all visible cultural manifestations, behavioural patterns included, among members of a specific culture. Over the past century, Romania’s core cultural values have been the object of research undertaken from various perspectives, from scientific to loosely cultural and essayistic. Much A.L. Kroeber and C. Kluckhohn, Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions, in Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47, no. 1, Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1952, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.archive.org/stream/papersofpeabodymvol47no1peab/papersofpeabodymvol47no1peab_djvu.txt, p. 182 2 Geert Hofstede, “National cultures and corporate cultures”, in L.A. Samovar and R.E. Porter (Eds.), Communication between Cultures, Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984, p. 51 3 Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov., Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012, p. 19 4 Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture – Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited, 1993 1

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of the research work of Romanian authors focusing on our cultural values has been done with the help of instruments offered by psychology (mainly ethno-psychology/ Völkerpsychologie, social psychology, cultural psychology, and, more recently, cross-cultural psychology), whereas other more or less direct contributions to the subject (made by personalities of the Romanian cultural environment such as Nicolae Iorga, Vasile Pârvan, A. D. Xenopol, Lucian Blaga, Emil Cioran, Mircea Eliade, Constantin Noica, Dumitru Stăniloae, George Călinescu, Eugen Lovinescu, Tudor Vianu, to name just a few) have emerged against the backdrop of broader historical, philosophical, theological, literary, anthropological, or cultural concerns. One major tradition is the one represented by Völkerpsychologie, or “people psychology”/ ‘folk psychology”. Among the landmarks of “people psychology” applied to Romanians are the works of Constantin Rădulescu-Motru’s (The Psychology of the Romanian People,1937), Dumitru Drăghicescu (From the Psychology of the Romanian People, 1907), Mihai Ralea (The Romanian Phenomenon, 1927), Mircea Vulcănescu (The Romanian Dimension of Being, 1943), and Ion F. Buricescu (The Romanian Soul, 1944), all of which are indebted, to a greater or lesser extent, to classical Western psychology, and are therefore, according to present-day research5, marked by the “limitation” inherent in Völkerpsychologie: instead of using the “ethos” or “Volksgeist” concept (i.e. the spirit of a nation) merely as a “descriptive construct”, they treat it as an “explanatory” one; the main objective pursued by Völkerpsychologie is to derive the “ethos” of a nation from some of its primary (i.e. linguistic and cultural) manifestations. As Daniel David explains in his recently published book, The Psychology of the Romanian People, whose title was inspired by Constantin RădulescuMotru’s above-mentioned study, this obsolete type of psychological approach, based on studying linguistic structures, proverbs, idiomatic expressions, etc., and cultural (e.g., religious, legal, etc.) practices within a certain “geographic, biological, genetic and cultural framework, within a historical context” in order to understand the ethos, its formation, and the way it works, has been criticized for mistaking a mere linguistic construct ( “ethos”) for “an identifiable reality”6; a nation’s “cultural responses/ products”, he further argues, cannot be explained by its “ethos”, and are not “generated” by it, but by “the interactions” 7 between its members, which are studied by modern psychology from social, cultural and intercultural perspectives. Another shortcoming of such previous approaches is the rationale behind analyzing the Romanian linguistic structures and practices, i.e. using them to provide a post factum justification for already existing cultural stereotypes, instead of inferring Romanian psychological traits from them8 - which inevitably leads to a distorted view of the “ethos”). The alleged error of this type of approach seems to have been, at least in part, avoided by present-day scholarship, mostly characterized by a statistics-based intercultural and interdisciplinary approach based on examining human behaviour and interaction with the methods and instruments specific to one scientific domain, but with numberless references to other fields and methods. One good example in this respect is the work of the Dutch sociologist, social psychologist, and expert in organizational anthropology and international management Geert Hofstede, which brings together concepts and information from several areas of knowledge (psychology, sociology, philosophy, political science), and whose aim is to explain the complex relationship between national/ corporate cultures and people’s behavioural/ thinking patterns, attitudes and performance in the workplace. Hofstede’s research work, started in the late 1960s and continued up to the present date, is based on data collected from over 100,000 employees of IBM's national subsidiaries in over 70 countries. His main contribution as an interculturalist is his model of cross-cultural analysis including Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 44 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 28 7 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 29 8 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 43 5 6

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initially 4 descriptors, called “dimensions” (measured on a scale of 1 to 100) - Power Distance (PD), Individualism (IDV), Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), and Masculinity (MAS) supplemented by a 5th variable, Long-Term Orientation (LTO), suggested by the dimension (“Confucian Dynamism”) previously identified by Canadian author Michael Bond in the mid 1980s9, and with a 6th cultural dimension added later on, due to the contribution of Bulgarian researcher Michael Minkov10, co-author of the 3rd edition of Hofstede’s book, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind.11 THE HOFSTEDE TRADITION : A ROMANIAN CULTURAL PROFILE Within this 6-dimensional model, Power Distance (PD), defined by Hofstede as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally”12, is used to measure people’s attitude towards inequality, authority and power; IDV and its opposite pole, Collectivism, point to the culture-specific way people view themselves either as individuals bent on achieving things through their own effort, assuming responsibility for their own actions, and taking credit for their success individually, or as group members who consider it their duty to place their community’s needs and interests before their own, in exchange for the security ensured by the group; MAS vs. Femininity, described in terms of a culture’s preference for values traditionally associated with the male gender (e.g., material success, competitiveness, aggressiveness, ambition, drive) vs. so-called “feminine” features (caring, nurturing, peaceful cooperation, and a preoccupation with the quality of life, i.e., keeping the right balance between one’s private and professional life, or between work and leisure); UAI, an indicator of “the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations,”13 which translates, on the one hand, as people’s culturally-determined bold attitude to uncertainty, insecurity, unpredictability, risk-taking, ambiguity, originality, and novelty, and on the other hand, as reliance on strict rules and clear structures meant to minimize risks; LTO and its opposite, Short Term Orientation, indicate a culture’s time orientation through two contrary sets of attitudes: either an inclination towards long-term commitments and the underlying values (e.g. thrift, persistence, perseverance, patience, a sense of shame and a loss of “face”/“reputation”/“social standing” caused by the failure to attain one’s goals), or a bias towards consumption, immediate gratification of one’s needs, lack of patience/ the need to reach quick results, a general reluctance to long-term investment, and the underlying STO values (e.g. personal stability/ steadfastness, reciprocity, respect for tradition, a preoccupation with “face-saving”); and IVR, introduced by Minkov to gauge various societies’ degree of freedom and happiness, as well as the varying strength of social constraints (injunctions, laws, rules, regulations) meant to limit that freedom across cultures. Applied to Romanian culture, the Hofstede-Minkov model yields a cultural profile characterized by low IDV (30) and IVR (20), moderate MAS (42) and LTO (52), and very high PD (90) and UAI (90)14, which would point to a very hierarchical culture with a large See also Hofstede, G. and Bond, M. H., “The Confucius connection: from cultural roots to economic growth”, in Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), 1988, pp. 4-21 10 Minkov, Michael, What Makes Us Different and Similar: A New Interpretation of the World Values Survey and Other Cross-Cultural Data, Sofia: Klasika I Stil, 2007 11 Geert H. Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd edition), New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010 12 Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991, p. 27; Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Humanitas, 2012, p. 68 13 Geert Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991, p. 113 14 Geert H. Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the mind, McGraw-Hill, 2010; Hofstede et al., Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012 9

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psychological distance to authority (correlated by Hofstede with violence in domestic politics and income inequality), collectivism (group-orientation) coupled with a reluctance to take the initiative and act on one’s own (correlated with a lower GDP), moderate orientation towards “feminine” values (compatible with a moderate percentage of women in positions of authority), a strong inner need for rules and regulations to avoid the risk of making mistakes, a slight future orientation (as opposed to very LTO correlated by Hofstede with national economic growth based on such typically Far Eastern values as thrift and perseverance), and a low degree of gratification of natural human drives (or low hedonism) due to numerous (in Romania’s case, social, economic, religious) constraints. Hofstede’s findings have been largely confirmed by several Romanian researchers who used the dimensions and the same statistical method to analyze Romanian cultural characteristics. Adina Luca, for instance, together with Gallup Organization, conducted a survey on a population sample of over 1,000 people from all Romanian regions in January 2005. In March 2005, Gallup embarked on a second survey to verify the results of the previous one. Finally, the very similar scores arrived at by both surveys, as well as Adina Luca’s comments and conclusions, were published in the article entitled Where Do We Stand? A study on the Position of Romania on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, “the first nationwide study of the kind”15 using the “value survey module questionnaire” developed by Hofstede’s Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation (IRIC) in 1994, and taking into account only the five dimensions available at the time. The premise of Luca’s approach is Hofstede’s idea that people in the corporate world generally behave in accordance with the “practices” imposed by the organizational culture while at the same time staying loyal to the “values” of their own national culture16. It is because of this double allegiance that some contradictions may emerge, as noted by Adina Luca with reference to the Romanian work environment. What distinguishes the results of both surveys from Hofstede’s previous estimates for Romania along the first five dimensions is the huge difference in PD scores: 29 (Luca) and 33 (Gallup) as opposed to 90 (Hofstede), as well as the difference in UA scores: 61 (Luca and Gallup), compared to 90 (Hofstede). The surprisingly low PD scores recorded by the 2005 surveys are described by Luca as unrealistic and explained in terms of a “Power distance complex” specific to our culture, which consists in a duplicitous relation to power and authority resulting in a contradiction between stated “desire” and “reality”17, between declared (desired) and actual values : on the one hand, Romanians express their preference for an Anglo-American (relaxed, egalitarian, cooperative and participatory) work environment, on the other hand they actually feel comfortable with hierarchy and obeying their superiors’ orders, and manifest a “need for an authoritarian leader”18. The kind of duplicity or contradiction exposed by Luca may take, as she notes, a variety of conflicting forms, ranging from an extremely positive and emotionally charged attitude (close to worshipping) towards superiors to downright hostility (“counterdependence”)19, or from a fervent call for more regulations to a reluctance to comply with existing rules. Other paradoxical aspects of Romanians’ relation to authority that become apparent in the work environment are, on the one hand, employees’ dislike of double subordination, their fear to disagree with or contradict their superiors, along with their tendency to interact as little as possible with their superiors, and on the other hand, their wish Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand? A Study on the Position of Romania on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions, 2005, accessed February 2, 2016, on .http://mentalite.ro/content_docs/exploring_mentality/research_papers/Adina%20Luca%20%20WHERE%20DO %20WE%20STAND-%20A%20STUDY%20ON%20THE%20POSITION%20OF%20R.pdf, p. 2 16 Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 3 17 Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 6 18 Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 7 19 Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 7 15

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to be involved in, and consulted by, their superiors in the decision-making process. Luca’s conclusion is that Romania’s actual PD score must be “over 70, if not higher”20 , in line with Hofstede’s, which means that the overall cultural profile drawn up by the Romanian interculturalist is compatible with the one resulting from Hofstede’s scores, as shown in Table 1 below: Table 1 Comparative scores for Romania according to Hofstede et al. (2010), Adina Luca (2005) and Gallup (2005) SOURCE Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov (2010) Adina Luca + Gallup (January 2005) Gallup (March 2005)

PD 90

IDV 30

MAS 42

UAI 90

LTO 52

29 33

49 49

39 39

61 61

42 42

The above situation places our culture close to other Balkan countries, but far away, culturally, from Germanic nations, and far enough from other Latin countries in Europe (as indicated by the selection of country scores given in Table 2): Table 2 Selected country scores according to Hofstede et al., 2010 COUNTRY Romania Bulgaria Serbia Greece UK Netherlands Austria Sweden Norway France Italy Spain

PD 90 70 86 60 35 38 11 31 31 68 50 57

IDV 30 30 25 35 89 80 55 71 69 71 76 51

MAS 42 40 43 57 66 14 79 5 8 43 70 42

UAI 90 85 92 112 35 53 70 29 50 86 75 86

LTO 52 69 52 45 51 67 60 53 35 63 61 48

IVR 20 16 28 50 69 68 63 78 55 48 30 44

Following Hofstede’s example, Luca establishes correlations between our country’s scores for the first five dimensions and their actual cultural manifestations, provides interesting explanations for them, and comments on the implications of our cultural characteristics in various work-related areas. One correlation is between the high PD (which Luca explains by tracing it down to its historical origins, i.e. the management style which was imposed by the Roman Empire in its occupied territories, Dacia included, and which was based on a very great distance to authority) and our society’s high level of corruption. Romanian Collectivism is also explained with the help of historical arguments: the tendency of tight-knit agricultural societies (where close human relationships and cooperation are indispensable conditions for survival) to foster collectivistic values, and of hunter societies to lean towards more individualism21. However, due to pressures of the present-day economic environment, new resources pouring in from abroad, and an increasingly competitive society, there is a growing need for individual action to administer resources and make decisions, which makes the younger generation become more and more individualistic. To Luca’s 20 21

Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 7 Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 9

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arguments in favour of rising individualism and generational differences, we should also add the considerable impact of Western models of corporate culture upon Romanians’ thinking and behavioural patterns, and, to a certain extent, even upon their core values (e.g. competitiveness, and self-affirmation). As for the relatively high UAI (61), the historical cause of our resistance to change, of our difficulty in dealing with ambiguity and difference of opinion, of our need for structure and security in the workplace, lies, in Luca’s opinion, in our nation’s long tradition of encounters and cohabitation with other nationalities and the consequent, anxiety-generating, effort to preserve its national identity. As Luca points out, uncertainty avoidance, accompanied by high collectivism that “favours the in–group identification and rejection of outsiders… may have developed as a defence mechanism against the multitude of ‘others’”22. A Romanian contribution to analyzing Romanian cultural characteristics with an emphasis on regional differences, using Hofstede’s model and methodology, was made by Angelica Neculăesei and Maria Tătăruşanu23. The country scores they arrived at for each dimension are not very different from the ones presented above, with the exception of the surprisingly higher IVR score (52.3), compared to the Hofstede-Minkov estimate (20), which can be accounted for by the fact that it represents a country average calculated on the basis of unequal regional scores: Wallachia’s and Transylvania’s scores are much higher than Moldavia’s score, which is however close to the country score estimated by HofstedeMinkov, as shown in Table 3: Table 3 Romania’s average and regional scores according to Neculăesei and Tătăruşanu, 2008

PD IDV

Country (Average) Score 82.41 32.3

85.45 30.7

83.8 31.75

78 34.55

MAS UAI LTO IVR

45.35 69.38 35.93 52.76

47 80.35 29 28.75

43.25 80.2 35.15 68.25

45.8 47.6 43.65 61.3

Dimension

Moldavia

Regional Scores Wallachia

Transylvania

The explanation for Wallachia’s and Transylvania’s significantly higher than average IVR scores is strictly economic: the two regions’ higher per capita income and, consequently, the higher living standard, which means that people are more able to satisfy their needs and enjoy their spare time than their Moldavian co-nationals – a conclusion supported by the data provided by the National Institute of Statistics for 2007 (the year of publication of their book), which show Moldavia as the Romanian region with the lowest per capita income. Notable regional differences also seem to exist between Transylvania’s much lower UAI compared to both the ones calculated for Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as to the Hofstede-Minkov estimate. According to Neculăesei and Tătăruşanu, Transylvania’s UA score is an accurate expression of values such as risk-taking, tolerance, initiative, and

Adina Luca, Where Do We Stand?, 2005, p. 11 Angelica Neculăesei, Maria Tătăruşanu, “Romania - Cultural and Regional Differences”, in Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iaşi, Tomul LV, Ştiinţe conomice, 2008, pp. 198-204. accessed February 2nd, 2016 on https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23645997_Romania__cultural_and_regional_differences

22 23

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achievement-based motivation, traditionally associated with this multicultural environment, characterized by ethnic and cultural/ religious diversity, and openness to the West24. A multitude of social, historical, ethnic, religious, geo-political, etc., factors appear to be responsible for Transylvania’s a smaller distance to authority (PD score) compared to the other two regions, which in the business world may have far-reaching consequences. For instance, “participatory management practices”25 are more commonly used in Transylvania than elsewhere in Romania. Another difference, identified between Wallachia’s and Transylvania’s average LTO scores (closer to the Hofstede-Minkov estimates), on the one hand, and Moldavia’s lower score, on the other, may be less spectacular than the ones mentioned above, but could be significant due to its possible effects on economic development and business performance. According to Hofstede and Minkov26, with a few notable exceptions (e.g. Australia, the US, Norway, Denmark, Canada, Ireland and Finland, with low LTO scores ranging between 21 and 38), many developed countries are medium- to long-term oriented, with a growing tendency for their scores to rise over time, as proved by a simple comparison between LTO country scores presented in the last two editions of Cultures and Organizations, e.g. Germany: 31 (2005) vs. 83 (2012); Netherlands: 44 (2005) vs. 67 (2012); Sweden: 25 (2005) vs. 51 (2012). Neculăesei and Tătăruşanu explain27 that the Romanian regional scores are perfectly understandable if we look at Transylvanian cultural values (such as perseverance, moderation, thrift, or the tendency to save for the future) and compare them to key Moldavian cultural biases (respect for tradition, personal stability, reciprocation of gifts and favours, all of which are characteristic of short-term orientation as defined by Hofstede). A PSYCHOCULTURAL PROFILE: THE WAY WE ARE VS. THE WAY WE THINK WE ARE More recently, Romanian psychologist Daniel David has drawn up “Romanians’ psychological profile in a cognitive-experimental monograph”, with the instruments specific to his area of expertise, supported by elements provided by cross-cultural psychology, with inevitable references to Hofstede’s work (as well as to the contribution of other interculturalists). The Psychology of the Romanian People, as the author explains, offers a “cognitive perspective” with an “experimental/ empirical component” close to RădulescuMotru’s approach, but based on a new methodology. Using advanced psychological tests and a total population sample (used for his own and other scholars’ research studies) of “50,000 participants aged between 18 months and over 90”28, David sets out to analyze not only Romanians’ alleged psychological traits (as classic research studies such as Rădulescu Motru’s 1937 work The Psychology of the Romanian People, which suggested the title of his own book) but also “the discrepancy between ‘the way [Romanians] are’ and ‘the way they think they are’”29 viewed from the vantage point of someone who is familiar enough with Western/ American culture to take the necessary reflective distance from the object of his analysis, but at the same time a member of the Romanian nation who can look at cultural characteristics from within the cultural environment under consideration, and assume the more or less flattering conclusions of the study. According to Daniel David, Romanians think (and declare) they are “hospitable”, “friendly”, “tolerant”, “warm”, “emotional”/ “choleric”, “intelligent”, “religious”, Angelica Neculăesei, Maria Tătăruşanu, Romania - Cultural and Regional Differences, 2008., p. 202 Angelica Neculăesei, Maria Tătăruşanu, Romania - Cultural and Regional Differences, 2008., p. 202 26 Hofstede et al, Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012, pp. 247-248 27 Angelica Neculăesei, Maria Tătăruşanu, Romania - Cultural and Regional Differences, 2008., p. 203 28 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 37 29 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 37 24 25

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“gregarious”, but also “indifferent”, “careless”, “cynical”, displaying a rather “negative” behaviour lacking in discipline which they explain by referring to contextual causes, and which is counterbalanced by a “positive personality” and a “a potential for good and competitive behaviour in the adequate context (for instance, at work)”30. Romanians’ selfimage is therefore made up of positive and negative traits, with a preponderance of “admirative”, flattering self-stereotyping, whose role is to satisfy the need for “self-esteem”, “identity”, “predictability”, and “justification” of the present state of facts. Within this biased self-assessment, even the less flattering aspects of our psychocultural profile are “contextualized” and viewed as merely “situational” rather than “general, stable and global”31 characteristics; moreover, Romanians show a strong tendency towards defensive exaggeration by emphasizing either their positive or their negative traits, but such distortions are inevitable and common, in varying degrees, all across cultures, as acknowledged by David 32 and other authors33. David’s study distinguishes between the way Romanians think they are and the way they are, indentifies the reasons why they are that way, and points out the differences between Romanians’ self-image and their actual psychocultural profile resulted from elaborate research work (in a way partly reminiscent of Adina Luca’s distinction between “desire” and “reality”). According to him, “the psychological profile of Romanians is dominated by distrust in people, which makes us less tolerant and cooperative towards others for a mutual benefit (our cooperativeness is one for survival rather than success). The lack of cooperation keeps us from using our intellectual and creative potential, which leads to performances below the level of that potential”34. This explains Romanians’ tendency to exaggerate both their positive and their negative characteristics, as an expression, in the former case, of self reassurance that “the potential is there”35, or, in the latter case, out of frustration caused by their incapacity to make full use of that potential as long as they do not correct their negative traits (skepticism, cynicism, lack of discipline) that stand in the way of competitiveness and success-oriented cooperativeness. An interesting explanation for our failure to improve our performance especially in the work environment is provided by David by analyzing two cultural dimensions traditionally associated with our culture, high collectivism and a low distribution of power, indicated by Hofstede’s extreme IDV and PD scores for Romania (30 and 90, respectively). In David’s opinion, Romanian culture is characterized by collectivism and gregariousness, but its collectivism is a “vertical” one, coupled with a low distribution of power. In the work environment, he argues, “everyone is trying to obtain power, which leads to apparent selfishness and autonomy; but both selfishness and autonomy are subordinated to collectivism, and manifest themselves within its framework”36. While accepting Hofstede’s general definitions of Individualism vs. Collectivism37, David also adheres to Triandis’s38 more elaborate description of the types of individualism and collectivism, concluding that Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 317-318 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 318 32 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 319 33 A. Terracciano, Abdel-Khalek et al., “National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures”, Science, 310 (5745), pp. 96-100, 2005, accessed February 21, 2016, on DOI: 10.1126/SCIENCE.1117199 34 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 319 35 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti,2015, p. 319 36 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 315 37 Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov., Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012, pp. 95-132 38 H.C. Triandis, “Individualism-Collectivism and Personality”, Journal of Personality, 69 (6), 2001, pp. 907924, accessed February 15, 2016, on DOI 10.1111/1467-6494.696169 30 31

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Romanian culture is a combination of “vertical” and “horizontal collectivism” (the former involving the sense of belonging to a group, coupled with the existence of inequality and hierarchy within the group, leading to individuals seeking social status, and the latter consisting of group-orientation coupled with equality among group members); it is that mixed collectivism that is responsible for Romanians’ distorted self-image (they think they are defined by both “(selfish) individualism” and “collectivism”).39 The co-existence of the two types of collectivism (with a predominance of “vertical” collectivism, correlated with high PD/ hierarchy) does not exclude various forms of individualism, especially among young people, due to the influence of Western culture.40 In most cases, however, Romanian individualism, according to David (and previous authors such as Constantin RădulescuMotru), takes the form of selfishness, unlike Western individualism, which is “generous” and cooperative, associated with civic commitment (leading to interpersonal trust, cooperation, solidarity, and wealth) and with the ideas of competition, innovation, responsibility underlying “modern social institutions”41. The dominant Romanian collectivism is also atypical, being mostly family-oriented, not larger group-/ community-oriented. As for regional characteristics, David’s research leads to conclusions similar to Neculăesei and Tătăruşanu’s findings mentioned above, in the sense that there are no major differences along this dimension among the three historical regions of Romania, even though there may be slight discrepancies among counties belonging to the same region. As far as competitiveness is concerned, Romanians like to get involved in various activities, but in the absence of “cooperation for success” and “persistence through discipline/ self-discipline”, this tendency “rarely leads to efficiency and success”; however, Romanians tend to show more persistence in “areas of great interest” and in situations that may affect their “self-esteem”.42 Romanians look at work as a means to an end (i.e. “social emancipation”, climbing the social ladder), so a higher salary can be a good motivator leading to increased perseverance – which is demonstrated by the experience of Romanians working abroad for high salaries. In spite of the negative aspects of our psychocultural profile mentioned above, Daniel David’s conclusion is encouraging: even though Romanians are not exactly the way they think they are, they can, under certain circumstances (e.g. through increased self-discipline and trust in people, which would result in more tolerance and cooperation for mutual benefit and success) be the way they think they are – in other words, Romanians have the potential to actualize the positive traits of their self-image: as Daniel David puts it, “… there is a great chance of development and evolution in the direction of an ideal psychocultural model”.43 A FINAL ASSESSMENT In the previous sections of this article, using Hofstede’s stastistics-based model of intercultural analysis as a starting point, we have presented a few perspectives on Romanian psychocultural characteristics and their behavioural and attitudinal manifestations, with a focus on both the overall traits that bring our country culturally close to other Balkan nations, and the more specific traits that set it apart from other cultural environments. Our aim was to draw a brief yet comprehensive Romanian cultural profile based on different points of view that might contribute to increased cultural competence, a condition for effective performance in our cultural environment. Finally, with the help of information provided by Daniel David’s Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 314 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 101 41 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 316 42 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 315 43 Daniel David, Psihologia poporului român, Editura Polirom, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 323 39 40

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psychological research, we have pointed to possible future lines of evolution, and the conditions that have to be met in order to turn our nation’s psychocultural potential for development and success into reality. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

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9. 10.

11. 12. 13.

David, Daniel, Psihologia poporului român, Bucureşti: Editura Polirom, 2015 Hofstede, Geert, “National cultures and corporate cultures”, in L.A. Samovar and R.E. Porter (Eds.), Communication between Cultures. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1984 Hofstede, G. and Bond, M. H., “The Confucius connection: from cultural roots to economic growth”, in Organizational Dynamics, 16(4), pp. 4-21, 1988 Hofstede, Geert, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991 Hofstede, Geert H., Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov, Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (3rd edition), New York: McGraw-Hill, 2010 Hofstede, Geert, Gert Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov, Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2012 Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn, “Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions”, in Papers of the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47, no. 1, Cambridge, Mass.:Harvard University Press, 1952, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.archive.org/stream/papersofpeabodymvol47no1peab/papersofpeabodymvo l47no1peab_djvu.txt Luca, Adina, “Where Do We Stand? A Study on the Position of Romania on Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions”, 2005, accessed February 2, 2016, on .http://mentalite.ro/content_docs/exploring_mentality/research_papers/Adina%20Luca %20%20WHERE%20DO%20WE%20STAND%20A%20STUDY%20ON%20THE% 20POSITION%20OF%20R.pdf Minkov, Michael, What Makes Us Different and Similar: A New Interpretation of the World Values Survey and Other Cross-Cultural Data, Sofia: Klasika I Stil, 2007 Neculăesei, Angelica and Maria Tătăruşanu, “Romania - Cultural and Regional Differences”, in Analele Ştiinţifice ale Universităţii Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iaşi, Tomul LV, Ştiinţe conomice, 2008., pp.198-204, accessed February 2, 2016, on https://www.researchgate.net/publication/23645997_Romania_cultural_and_regional_ differences Terracciano, A. Abdel-Khalek et al., “National character does not reflect mean personality trait levels in 49 cultures”, Science, 310 (5745), pp.96-100, 2005, accessed February 21, 2016, on DOI: 10.1126/SCIENCE.1117199 Triandis, H.C., “Individualism-Collectivism and Personality”, Journal of Personality, 69 (6), 2001, pp. 907-924, accessed February 15, 2016, on DOI 10.1111/14676494.696169 Trompenaars, Fons and Charles Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture – Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited, 1993

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TENDENCIES OF CULTURAL CHANGE IN THE RANKS OF ROMANIAN EDUCATED YOUTH Margareta BOACĂ Associate-Professor, Ph.D, National Defense University [email protected] Abstract: The article sets out from the presention of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and the respective indexes for Romania, according to the initial cultural assessment of Romanian culture. It then presents the values of the same dimensions and their significance some 35 years later, when two Gallup polls were conducted in Romania, to ascertain whether managerial practices were in agreement with the characteristics of Romanian culture. This is the background against which we have analysed the data provided by the participants in the vocational and carreer orientation meetings during the PROSCOP Project and contrasted them with the previous values of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, to see the tendencies of cultural change in the ranks of the Romanian educated youth. Keywords: cultural dimensions, cultural change

INTRODUCTION The PROSCOP Project „Professsion: School, Conselling, Orientatation, Practice – ProSCOP” – POSDRU/189/2.1/G/156043, a program co-financed from the European Social Fund through the Sectorial Operational Program for the development of human resources, 2007 – 2013, provided individual and group vocational counselling and career orientation activities to a number of 180 students. These activities have provided an auspicious opportunity to better know the students enrolled in the bachelor and master’s programs in the National Defence University , to talk about their ideals and plans, the way in which they see their professional and personal development, to see how they analyse themselves and to offer professional counselling and career orientation in keeping with their qualities and talents. After the intense activity that was carried out over July – December 2015 came to an end, the information provided by the participants hasturned into food for thought, as it revealed the way some cultural characteristics manifest themselves in the ranks of the educated young generation in Romania, the differences to mentalities, cultural presuppositions and tentencies that had been identified and quantified in various moments in the past in the Romanian society, on the basis of Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. So I compared and contrasted my observations as regards the tendencies of cultural change I identified in the answers of the participants to the professional counselling and career orientation with Romanian cultural values quantified in two previous moments, the 1970, when the first evaluation was conducted, during the IBM project, and 2005, when two Gallup polls were made in Romania, on the basis of Hofstede’s dimensions. The comparisons and contrasts have provided information about the tendencies of cultural change in the ranks of the educated young generation in Romania, and by extension, in the future Romanian society. GEERT HOFSTEDE’S CULTURAL DIMENSIONS Geert Hofstede’s cultural dimensions make up one of the relevant models of cultural analysis. He devised initially four, then five and presently has extended his model to six cultural dimensions that allow for the description and analysis of cultures. He started his 65


research in the late 1960s with the project that identified the cultural perceptions of the IBM personnel on the basis of questionaires. The analysis of answers represented the starting point for Hofstede’s first reputed work in the field, namely Culture's Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values, published in1980. Ever since, he has extensively documented, augmented, validated his model, due to his vast research conducted with a great number of collaborators, and has included new data about culturesin his subsequent publications, including Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations, which came out of print in 2001. Despite criticism, that is inherent to any theoretical model, his cultural dimensions have proven to be viable and extremely useful in the analysis of cultures. In Hofstede’s initial evaluation, Romania has the following cultural dimension indexes: power distance - 90, individualism – 30, masculine-feminine – 42, uncertainty avoidance -90, long term orientation – 52. The power distance index expresses the way in which at society level people perceive inequality, in other words, according to Hofstede „the measure in which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations expect and accept the power to be distributed unequally ”1. The roots of the attitude towards equality and inequality come from the family, from the relations between parents and children, the environment where individuals assimilate the values of their culture. A power distance index of 90 indicates, according to Hofstede’s interpretation, respect towards authority, the fact that individuals accept a hierarchic order in which everyone has an established place that does not require justification, because the hierarchy in an organization is considered to be a reflection of inherent inequality between people.2. The dimension individualism – collectivism refers to the way identity is defined, whether it is in terms of ”I ”or „we”. In individualistic societies the interests of the individual have priority to the interests of the group and the individual is expected to pursue his own interests and needs. Merits, but also responsibility, rest with the individuals. Here are some characteristics of individualistic societies. Mention should be made, first and foremost, of the fact that individualism is the result of capitalist development, so it is mostly characteristic of affluent societies. In these societies the people are educated to look after themselves and the nuclear family, the possession of resources is individual, even in the case of children. Young people leave their parents’ home quite early in life, and there is high professional mobility. In school, this cultural characteristic manifests itself in the importance given to the student in the teaching and learning activities. As a result, the student himself is the one who sets his learning goals, he manages his educational growth, he has initiative, seeks information and finds answers. As a matter of fact, the entire educational process is aimed at enabling the student to adjust to the ever more frequent and ample changes that occur in society. In this process, the teacher/ professor is a facilitator and councillor. In collectivist societies affiliation to the group is the main source of defining identity. The people are integrated in closely knit cohesive groups that protect them throughout their lives, in exchange for unconditional loyalty. To preserve the harmony of the group and appearances is very important. Both merits and responsibility belong to the group. Collectivism is a cultural trait that prevails in poor societies, therefore most of the world is collectivist, lives in extensive familieis in which resources are shared with the relatives as a means of coping with everyday survival issues.

Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede şi Michael Minkov, Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental. Cooperarea interculturală şi importanţa ei pentru supravieţuire, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012, p.68. 2 http://geert-hofstede.com/romania.html 1

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The initial individualism index of 30 places Romania in the rank of collectivist societies in which group loyalty is essential 3. The cultural dimension masculine vs. feminine describes the outlook at the level of society on the distribution of gender roles. In masculine societies there are clear cut differences along traditional lines: „men are expected to be authoritative, tough and focused on material gains, while women are supposed to be modest, meek and concerned about the quality of life ”4. In a masculine culture competition, wealth and success are important. In a feminine society the care for the others and the quality of life are paramount. In the initial ranking Romania scored 42, which places Romania in the ranks of relatively feminine societies, in which the gender roles shifts from the traditional outlook. “People work in order to live”, there is a tendency to avoid conflicts in general, and, if they occur, they are usually solved by compromise5. Uncertainty avoidance is the cultural dimension that refers to the attitude towards change, the degree in which change is considered to be a source of anxiety, and by extension, the degree in which the members of a culture feel threatened by unknown or ambiguous situations, because they have a marked preference for familiar and predictable things6. The uncertainty avoidace index of 90 in the initial assessment shows resistance to change, aversion to taking risks and aggressivity in the face of change and uncertainty in general, accompanied by lack of tolerance to unusual ideas and behaviours. The need for security is important in motivating people. In the group of uncertain and unfamiliar situation we can also include intercultural encounters7. As regards the attitude towards time, Hofstede distinguishes, on the one hand, between long-term orientation, the tendency to look towards the future, the need for long-term planning and the encouragement of thrift and education as ways to prepare for the future, and short-term orientation on the other, the preponderance of the past and tradition, concurrently with the importance attached to the present8. As regards this dimension, Romania has an intermediate score of 52. The sixth dimension – indulgence vs. restraint has been recently introduced in Hofstede’s model as a result of his collaboration with Michael Minkov and it refers to the degree in which people are supposed to control their desires and impulses or in which they enjoy the pleasures and joys of life. According to Hofstede, the indulgence index of 20 for Romania is quite low, which means that in the Romanian society people perceive social norms as having a restrictive effect. The the general tendency is to favour negative attitudes, cynicism and pessimism9. INTERACT STUDY The instrument devised by Hofstede for the analysis and description of cultures was used in 2005 10, in two Gallup polls carreid out in January and March, respectively, to ascertain the cultural values in Romania at the respective moment (since the Romanian society had 3

Ibidem Geert Hofstede, Gert Jan Hofstede şi Michael Minkov, Culturişiorganizaţii. Softul mental. Cooperarea interculturală şi importanţa ei pentru supravieţuire, Humanitas, Bucureşti, 2012, p. 141 5 http://geert-hofstede.com/romania.html, accesat la 15.02 ora 12.00 6 Ibidem. 7 Ibidem. 8 Ibidem. 9 Ibidem. 10 INTERACT, Adina Luca, Studiu despre valorile si comportamentul romanesc din perspectiva dimensiunilor culturale dupa metoda lui Geert Hofstede, Aprilie 2005 http://customer.kinecto.ro/2005/Interact/Overview%20Cross%20Cultural.pdf, accesat la 12.02, 0ra 14.00 4

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changed a great deal as compared to the 1960s – 1970s interval) and to assess the relationship between cultural characteristics and managerial practices used in Romania. The poll in January was applied to a number of 1076 interviewees, representative for the adult population. In comparison to the indexes of the period 1960 – 1970, the research showed that the from the cultural point of view Romania had changed quite a lot, and the new indexes were PDI -33 (although the authors of the poll consider that in reality this value is somewhat closer to 70 , and but the value obtained was due to the fact that the respondents did not answer honestly), IND – 49 ( the previous value was 33), MAS -39( the previous value was 42), UAI -61 (the previous value was 90), LTO – 42( the previous value was 52) . The individualism index increased from 33 to 49 which shows that although collectivist values and presuppositions are stil very strong, the Romanians are more and more concerned about their goals and needs as individuals and have become more independent and more determined to pursue them. The author of the study links this development to the greater number of opportunities that the Romanians have to become independent financially from their families and improove their financial condition11. The study underscores the significance of index 39 for the dimension masculine vs. feminine, namely the fact that the roles of the two sexes are nor pre-determined and men find it easy to take over domestic chores. People in Romania are more inclined towards the complementarity of the sexes rather than the subordination of the woman to the man. In this less competitive society people do not pursue advancement in career and material gains by all means. The members of the society are generally looking for a collaborative environment, and women have possibilities to advance to leadership positions or in political structures, if this is what they desire 12. Hofstede found connections between masculine cultures and big families in poor countries and masculine cultures and small families in rich countries13 and and also linked masculinity and poverty. On the other hand, Hofstede thinks that the entire world is moving towards the development of feminine values, as a result of economic development, in which services and technology have come to prevail. In services, feminine values such as cooperation, care for the others, kindness, politeness are important. Technology and education will also increase the tendency towards feminine values14. The uncertainty avoidance index, although falling from 90 to61, still shows a high degree of anxiety in the face of change. The Interact study explains the existence of this cultural feature as a consequence of the century-old struggle of the Romanians to preserve their national identity, in the circumstances of pressures from the neighbouring empires 15. As regards the long term orientation, the index has fallen from 52 to 42, which shows a strengthening in the appreciation of the present and past and the incapacity to plan for the future. Capitalist consumption practices have increased the importance attached to the present and have diminished the availability to save for the future. The Romanians tend to refer to past experiences in order to solve present problems and avoid investing into an uncertain future16. In 2005 the sixth dimension – indulgence vs. restraint - had not been included yet in Hofstede’s model, so there are no data for that moment to illustrate it. 11

Ibidem. INTERACT, Adina Luca, Studiu despre valorile si comportamentul romanesc din perspectiva dimensiunilor culturale dupa metoda lui Geert Hofstede, Aprilie 2005 http://customer.kinecto.ro/2005/Interact/Overview%20Cross%20Cultural.pdf 13 Hofstede, Geert, Hofstede, Gert Ian, Minkov, Michael, Culturi și organizații. Softul mental. Cooperarea interculturală și importanța ei pentru supraviețuire, Humanitas, 2012, p. 97. 14 Ibidem, p. 182 15 Ibidem, p. 183. 16 Ibidem. 12

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The INTERACT cultural dimension polls indicate that, over an interval of 35 years the Romanian society had changed considerably from the cultural point of view. Under the impact of democratic political development there had been a growing tendency for the people to perceive themselves as equals. Likewise, capitalist development had made people define themselves more as individuals with specific needs and goals rather than members of groups, and they had become more aware of their own desires and goals. Concurrently, the number of groups that people affiliated to increased in number, while the importance attached to the affiliation to one group decreased. The Romanian society had become less traditional as regards gender roles, but in terms of attitude towards time it was still oriented towards the present and the past and still anxious in the face of the future, which was considered uncertain, but less so than in the 1970s. THE ANALYSIS OF DATA PROVIDED BY THE VOCATIONAL COUSELLING AND CAREER ORIENTATION INTERVIEWS DURING THE PROSCOP PROJECT This is the background against which we have analysed the tendencies of cultural change that manifest themselves at the level of the educated younger generation. The sample of target audience was made up of 60 people, of which 36 military and 24 civilians, 39 men and 21 women, 42 master’s students and 18 bachelor’s students. The age distribution of the target audience was the following: 30 respondents (50%) aged between 18 – 25, 15 (25%) aged between 26 and 35 years of age, 7 between 36 and 45 and 8 between 46 and 50 ( 25% over 36) . The data provided by these respondents during the professional counselling and career orientation interviews have given insights into the cultural orientation of the participants, as regards the cultural dimensions of individualism–collectivism, masculine – feminine, uncertainty avoidance and long-term vs. short term orientation. Individualism sprang from the respondents’ ability to establish goals and to act in order to attain them, the ability to manage their educational development or career, to pursue the necessary courses of action to attain their purposes, from the desire to continue their studies as a necessary condition for advancement in their career, to planning their actions as a sign of assuming merits and responsibility. Individualism is also linked to the need of the individual to find in their jobs the feeling of personal accomplishment, of doing the job well and being recognized for that, the need for work to be challenging and give a feeling of accomplishment 17. The answers provided by the students have shown that the vast majority of respondents know very well what they want to do in their lives and are pursuing their goals. The desire for professional growth was constantly mentioned by the participants, who made statements that they would like “to have a brilliant career”, ”to reach and stay at top professional level”, “to do professionally what I have to do”, “to reach the highest level in my profession“, “to have the chance to build something in the world and leave something behind”, “to attain a level as high as possible in my field”. Very often the respondents mentioned that they want their job to offer them the satisfaction of doing what they like, and their work to be a source of professional and personal accomplishments. The importance attached to professional goals as a way to define and develop as individuals was expressed in statements such as: „one has to invest in oneself”, ”professional achievement is a confirmation for myself”, or that there is a source of satisfaction“in doing what I like and being paid for it” or in doing “your job like a professional.” Out of the 60 respondents, 39 – Hofstede, Geert, Hofstede, Gert Ian, Minkov, Michael, Culturi și organizații. Softul mental. Cooperarea interculturală și importanța ei pentru supraviețuire, Humanitas, 2012, p. 97. 17

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that is 65% emphasized their desire to improve their professional competences, to advance in their career, to find professional and personal accomplishment in their jobs. The creed in the importance was work for an individual was expressed in mottos such as: “work is a source of satisfaction for myself and for the others”, through “ambition and work you can achieve any goal”, work hard and you’ll succeed”, and “do what you planned to do and finish what you started”.The respondents are convinced that in this way they will become “more mature in thinking” and they will acquire “self control and balance”. It was only four out of sixty respondents - and that means 6,66% - that vascillate between two fields of activity or two jobs in the same field. Three out of the four are students in the bachelor program and all four are aged between 18 and 25. Also related to individualism is the perception at the level of society that education is a major tool in helping the individual accomplish his/her role in society, and in allowing the individual to cope with new situations. In order to make that possible , the individual has to continue learning throughout his/her entirre life. In affluent societies, which are individualist societies, education extends over up to 20 years during the first part of life and it continues during the years of maturity. In contrast, in collectivist societies, education is a process mainly addressed to the younger generation. Awareness of the importance of education for the future career, the capacity to establish educational goals, the need for permanent education have been expressed by a large share of the respondents, who emphasized the importance of learning throughout their career , even considering it “the struggle to learn continually”. Forty three out of the sixty respondents, that is over 70% declared that they want to continue their studies one way or another, namely 9 intend to enroll into Phd programs, 11 in postgraduate, improvement and foreign language courses, 13 in master’s programs, out of whom 6 intend to start a second master’s degree – in the field of command or in a new field, and 1 intends to enlist in his second bachelor program. Here are some of the mottoes that inspire them to continue their education: ”learn continually”, ” be the best”, “be a true professional” , ” per aspera ad astra” „ do not yield in the face of difficulty”, „ learn over my entire career”. Likewise, from the 36 militaries that were interviewed, 16 stated that they have in view promotion to a command position. The answers given by the respondents show that military culture develops awareness of the need to manage one’s own careeer development and the ability to pursue career goals. Thus, in a collectivist culture, such as the military, where loyalty, discipline, hierarchy and group solidarity are important, there is also a marked tendency to develop individualism, which in fact represents an ideal situation. Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden Turner presented in their work, Riding the Waves of Culture, their own model of cultural dimensions, which also includes a dimension that is related to the definition of identity, which they call individualism– communitarism. In addition to Hofstede’s model the two authors undescore the fact that the two polar dimensions do not exclude each other, but are rather complementary, in the sense that both types of defining identity are acknowledged, through what the individual has specific and unique and differentiates him/her from the group, and through what the individual has in common with the group. Pushed to their extremes, individualism can lead to alientation, while communitarism means conformity and slow decision-making. However, in best case situations, the group’s most important mission is to encourage individual freedom but also the consensus and collaboration of the individuals working for the benefit of the group. In other words, in ideal cases the group creates the best conditions for the manifestation of the individuals, while the best thing an individual can do is to put his/her talents and competences in the service of the group18. Trompenaars, Fons, Hampden Turner, Charles, Riding the Waves of Culture– Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited, 1993, p. 58.

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In conclusion, if we consider that in the first Hofstede poll the individualism index was 30 and then in 2005 it increased to 49 , and that in our study 93,4% of the respondentshave firmly established their career goals, 65% mentioned their desire to improve their skills and comptetences and 70% plan to pursue various forms of education – phd, master’s and bachelor’s programs, foreign language, post-graduate or improvement courses, we can conclude that at the level of the educated younger generation, in the military system or wishing to join the military system, there is a marked tendency to increase individualism. How this comes to terms with the specificity of the military organization, which is based on hierarchy is shown by one of the military themselves : ”if you don’t agree with your bosses , you have to do as they say, but when you become a boss you can change things”. As regards the dimension masculinity vs. femininity, in a military system, even if just military education, the masculine values such as the assertion of one’s achievements, success, decision, initiative, challenge, but also the importance of promotion opportunities, the need to be in the middle of events, the spirit of adventure, the need to work in a competitive environment have a strong sense of appeal. The dimension femininity was evident in 21,6% of the answers (16 out of 60), which contained references to the need that the work environment shold offer a friendly atmosphere, financial possibilities to provide good living conditions for their families or that the quality of the work place, work conditions or spare time are important, or that they want a job closer to their families. It was interesting to note that the weaknesses recognized by men were, for example, a low degree of empathy, vanity, insufficient team spirit, tendency to focus on tasks rather than relations, being too direct, but also the tendency to take over the responsibilities of others and altruism which the others take advantage of. The weaknesses recognized by women were shyness, not liking to stand out, fear of talking in front of an audience, fear of failure. Although significantly dropping from 90 to 61, the uncertainty avoidance index shows that in Romania there is still a high degree of anxiety in the face of the future and a marked reluctance towards change. The Romanians in general find it difficult to face ambiguous and new situations. We analysed the uncertainty avoidance dimension in statements related to the need for stability and safety. It is worth noting that 18 out of the 60 respondents mentioned that a stable career, a stable job and the security of their job are very important, which means that only 30% are preoccupied with stability and safety, while 32, that is over 50%, have expressed the desire for change and for the new, either in the form of engaging into UN or NATO missions, cooperation with the NATO partner states, the intention to attend courses abroad, to make visits abroad, to work abroad, to work in a multinational company, to have intercultural contacts, or to change the current job, change current career, to apply the professional knowledge in the civilian environment, to start a business, to work in several fields, etc. ”I am willing to capitalize on any opportunity”, ”I would like to have access to everything that is new”, „I would like as little routine as possible”, “there are no obstacles, only opportunities”, these are some of the answers that express to a greater extent the participants’desire for the new and change, the acceptance of change without anxiety as an inevitable component of life. They show that the younger educated Romanians are less anxious in the face of change, as long as the changes are not drastical and unknown, but are confined within limits of predictability and control. The long term orientation index of 52 in the initial evaluation shows the prevailing importance given to the past and present and a general difficulty to plan for the future, that springs from the attitude of the type “I would rather concentrate on here and now”. The decrease in this value to 42 in the INTERACT poll indicates a more marked preference for the present, less importance attached to planning and to saving for the future. As regards the answers given by the respondents to the PROSCOP project, the difficulty of planning is 71


obvious, since most of the answers related to future planning were confined to 2016 or 2018 time horizon, in very few cases they extended to 2020. One single respondent, a bachelor student, has plans till 2030, and 8, that is 13. 3%, have made plans till 2025, although those plans are quite vague. Here are some of the justifications for not planning for the next 7-10 years : “I do not make long-term plans. In order to do so, you need stability.” „Plans should be permanently revised because new opportunities occur all the time” or Plans should be updated continually because changes are so frequent”. The short term orientation is obviously very strong. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, we can say that there is a strong tendency of the Romanian educated youth in the military educational system to develop their individualism since in a vast proportion – 93.5% they are extremely aware of their career goals, 65% are firmly determined to improve their professional competences and 70% have alrealdy made plans for continuing their education under different forms. As regards the dimension masculinity vs. femininity, the military system, with its military values, has a powerful force of attraction, but this does not mean that the young people disregard the values related to the quality of life and of the workplace. However, as regards this dimension, there are no drastic changes in the general tendency at the level of society. As regards the attitude towards change, there is a greater opennesss towards change as long as it occurs within predictable limits. Fifty percent of the respondents expressed their desire to take part in various activities abroad that are related to their jobs, but still have a greater degree of novelty due to unfamiliar surroundings and new challenges. In a world that is constantly changing, the educated young are less anxious and more ready to cope with change. As regards orientation to time, the young Romanians show a marked preference for the present and past and difficulty in planning for the future. The analysis of vocational couselling and career orientation interviews carried out during the PROSCOP Project, July – December, 2015 BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

Hofstede, Geert, Hofstede, Gert Ian, Minkov, Michael, Culturi și organizații. Softul mental. Cooperarea interculturală și importanța ei pentru supraviețuire, Humanitas, 2012, p. 97. http://geert-hofstede.com/romania.html, accesat la 15.02 ora 12.00 Luca, Adina, Studiu despre valorile si comportamentul romanesc din perspectiva dimensiunilor culturale dupa metoda lui Geert Hofstede, Aprilie 2005 , http://customer.kinecto.ro/2005/Interact/Overview%20Cross%20Cultural.pdf, accesat la 15.02, ora 14.30

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BETWEEN MARGINS AND CENTER – CONSIDERATIONS ON THE SECURITY DIMENSION Daniela MACOVEI PhD Profesor de limba engleza in cadrul CSILE Bucuresti, [email protected] Abstract: Between the center and the margins of any given social or cultural structure there are the interstices, the in-between spaces that are hardly ever recognized, let alone accepted. But due to such enlightened minds as Homi Bhabha (mainly, via Franz Fanon), Michel Foucault and Edward Said, the concepts of culture, discourse, power and hybridity have acquired rich and clear significations. The present article sets out to explore these theorists’ standpoints in an attempt to discover the mechanisms of intercultural communication and the dimensions that security can take from a situational-based perspective. The latter aspect will be principally analyzed through Edward Hall’s insights into the perception apparatus embedded in a deeper stratum of the psychological workings – the cultural one. Keywords: discourse, culture, power, security, hybridity.

Identity is "a concept – operating 'under erasure' in the interval between reversal and emergence; an idea which cannot be thought in the old way, but without which certain key questions cannot be thought at all."1 (Cl: 2) Stuart Hall deals with the notion of identity by questioning agency and politics. In terms of politics, he is concerned with what the modem forms of identity signify, especially in its relation to a politics of location. Roughly speaking, the geographical position of a nation or individual is a major factor able to bestow identity. Nations are believed therefore to possess different identities due to the fact that they pertain to different geographical locations. The first major step in the construction of identity is acknowledgment. Primarily, one acknowledges the existence of another, realizes there is a difference between oneself and the other; and then there commences a complex process of identity building – both of oneself and of others. Besides the image created out of imagination, the actual covering of geographical distances is most often essential to the process, as it was the case of the Orient which came to be known ever since antiquity due to the travels made there for commercial, religious and political purposes. The outcome is that "altogether an internally structured archive is built up from the literature that belongs to these experiences."2 (Or: 58) Since it is structured, this archive inevitably presupposes that a set of categories and stereotypes are created, typical of journeys, history, etc. Henceforth, it is these "lenses through which the Orient is experienced, and [which] shape the language, perception, and form of the encounter between East and West." (Or: 67) One comes again, therefore, to the point in which it can be understood why all things are finally put in categories and in order – as order is one of the main characteristic necessities of the human brain. Things can under no circumstances remain foreign; even though they do not come to be considered thoroughly well-known, they get to be nonetheless given a more familiar status. However, as much as one would be tempted to dismiss such thinking on the grounds that these distinctions and classifications are merely the fruits of imagination – motivated to a All further references to Stuart Hall and, Paul du Gay’s Questions of Cultural Identity, London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1996 will appear as CI followed by the page number. 2 All further references to Edward Said’s Orientalism, New York: Random House, Inc., 1979 will appear as Or. followed by the page number. 1

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large extent by ignorance – some sort of truth is nevertheless highly probable to exist: Not for nothing did Islam come to symbolize terror, devastation, the demonic, hordes of hated barbarians. For Europe, Islam was a lasting trauma. Until the end of the seventeenth century the "Ottoman peril" lurked alongside Europe to represent for the whole of Christian civilization a constant danger, and in time European civilization incorporated that peril and its lore, its great events, figures, virtues, and vices, as something woven into the fabric of life. (Or: 68) Conclusively, in line with the need for order and the solution reported as imaginative geographical thinking, the West, to whom "Asia had once represented silent distance and alienation" and "Islam was militant hostility to European Christianity," found it profitable to attempt to gather knowledge about the East, to trespass and seize it and ultimately to reforge it. De Lesseps had melted away the Orient's geographical identity by (almost literally) dragging the Orient into the West and finally dispelling the threat of Islam." (Or: 96) The geographical distance and gap were physically overcome by the construction of the Suez Canal which finally destroyed the Orient's distance, its cloistered intimacy away from the West, its perdurable exoticism. Just as a land barrier could be transmuted into a liquid artery, so too the Orient was transubstantiated from resistant hostility into obliging, and submissive, partnership. After de Lesseps no one could speak of the Orient as belonging to another world, strictly speaking. There was only "our'' world, "one" world bound together because the Suez Canal had frustrated those last provincials who still believed in the difference between worlds. Thereafter the notion of "Oriental" is an administrative or executive one, and it is subordinate to demographic, economic, and sociological factors. (Or: 96) This is the right place, then, to call again on identity politics, due to the fact that "[f]or imperialists like Balfour, or for anti-imperialists like J. A. Hobson, the Oriental, like the African, is a member of a subject race and not exclusively an inhabitant of a geographical area." (Or: 92) Nevertheless, geography is under no circumstances to be alone in defining identity. This is the reason why Said wishes that political interests be taken into serious account, admitting at the same time, however, the major role culture plays in the creation of such interests, and in their perpetuation and dynamics. However, Stuart Hall dismisses the concept of fixedness from the process of identity creation. He rather finds it better to tackle the relationship between subject and discursive practices than "to return to an unmediated and transparent notion of the subject or identity as the centered author of social practice, or to restore an angle which 'places its own point of view at the origin of all historicity." (LC: 2) This is the reason why he prefers the concept of identification to that of identity. In contrast with the definition given in common sense language where "identification is constructed on the back of a recognition of some common origin or shared characteristics with another person or group, or with an ideal, and with the natural closure of solidarity and allegiance established on this foundation," the discursive conceptualization sees identification as "a construction, a process never completed – always in progress." (CI: 2) The notion of identification helps one, therefore, understand that identity is subject to constant transfiguration, "never unified and, in late modem times, increasingly fragmented and fractured; never singular but multiply constructed across different, often intersecting and antagonistic, discourses, practices and positions." (CI: 2) Hall does not neglect the support that a number of determined and determining 74


conditions of existence provide for the modus operandi of identification; but that does not automatically exclude contingency. "Once secured, it does not obliterate difference." (CI: 3) And not only does it not expunge otherness, but it actually needs it to operate through it. "It requires what is left outside, its constitutive outside, to consolidate the process." As to agency, Hall would rather feel the need for a 'theory of discursive practice' than one of the 'knowing subject.' By this, he means "not an abandonment or abolition of 'the subject' but a reconceptualization“ of it. It is in this new manner that identity should be thought around - not as an essentialist concept, but as "a strategic and positional one." (CI: 3) Additionally, the repudiation of fixedness does not mean that origins are excluded; what is excluded instead is a correspondence with them, as the truth about identity is not the answer to the question 'what is it?' or 'where does it come from?' but rather 'what can it become?.' In this context, "identities are about questions of using the resources of history, language and culture in the process of becoming rather than being." (CI: 4) The phenomenon whereby these resources are used in the conception of identity runs under the name of discourse. In a previous commentary discourse has been defined as the game of power relationships. The present remark comes to add on to that characterization, for it is in the power game that discourse is the stage on which resources are used, strategies are created and employed, stories are told, audiences change and thus identities are constructed and reconstructed, in a continuum of transfigurations and adaptations, each influencing the other. One of the basic phenomena occurring in the process of identity makeup - actually, the initializing element of it, as it were – is difference. As a matter of practical fact, identities can function as points of identification and attachment only because of their capacity to exclude, to leave out, to render 'outside', abjected." And it is precisely due to this capacity to occlude - inherent as a sine qua non in the formation of identity – that 'the constitution of a social identity is an act of power'. (Laclau in CI: 5) “Derrida has shown that, along with it, a violent hierarchy between the two resultant poles" (CI: 5) is established. It is true that in the performative process of power differences are used in the discourse and the result of it is a dichotomy between what is kept inside and what is left outside precisely in order to define the inside, by contrast. But that is not to say that things must remain stuck in such dichotomous thinking. The desire to move away from such thinking is still an unfulfilled dream, although a lot has been done in order to give it a chance. The reason for the slow motion of this process is probably that Western thinking has not outgrown the imperialistic age. What is meant by this is that the era under survey in the present paper is the era of the largest colonial expansions of the West which go hand in hand with an ideology based on the superiority of the West over the East. This attitude has been named 'Orientalism' by Edward Said. The principal feature of it is the biased perspective which accompanies all thinking and action of the West. The great powers of the 19th to 20th century – England, France, the US – developed ideologies and politics on the basis of antagonistic perspectives which envisaged the West as the superior, the dominant, the strong, the civilized, and the East as its opposite. Being its antonym, the East was doomed, therefore, to be conquered, subjected, dominated, exploited and civilized. Edward Said's reprimanding tone has a great impact in the understanding of the facts: [N]either the term Orient nor the concept of the West has any ontological stability; each is made up of human effort, partly affirmation, partly identification of the Other. That these supreme fictions lend themselves easily to manipulation and the organization of collective passion has never been more evident than in our time, when 75


the mobilizations of fear, hatred, disgust and resurgent self-pride and arrogance – much of it having to do with Islam and the Arabs on one side, "we" Westerners on the other – are very large- scale enterprises. (Or: xiv) The problem with this attitude is, on the one hand, the practical, material disadvantages or even harms done to the East by the West, and, on the other hand, the great damage done by the negation of their identity. Denying the Easterners' right to affirm their identity, the West turned them into their enemies and victims, causing in this way a still unended conflict. The question of identity must be reexamined for both the East and the West. Actually, although they may seem quite reassured in their positions, their identities are not actually settled at all. On the contrary, the denser their encounters, the dimmer their contours. A way of reconsidering the state of affairs is proposed by Homi Bhabha, who speaks of a move away from "the singularities of 'class' or 'gender' as primary conceptual and organizational categories.”3 He claims there is a need "to think beyond narratives of originary and initial subjectivities because he identifies new opportunities of production that occur when cultural differences are articulated. What is produced are "moments and processes," or "in-between spaces" that "initiate new signs of identity, and innovative sites of collaboration, and contestation, in the act of defining the idea of society itself." These spaces are called interstices and appear as "the overlap and displacement of domains of difference" which are a consequence of the process of negotiation – and not of negation – of “the intersubjective and collective experiences of nationness, community interest or cultural value.” (LC: 2) As to reality and what is true, Homi Bhabha is of the opinion that when theoretical statements emerge, meanings are produced, thus constructing "counter knowledges in medias res." (LC: 22) The process of emergence itself is thus characterized by ambivalence and "negotiation (rather than a negation) of oppositional and antagonistic elements." (LC 22) That all knowledge – political or otherwise – is necessarily within and not outside representation is already a truism. Therefore, political positions or actions must be thought of not simply as gradual or revolutionary, but as part of the history of their writing. It is only thus that "the logics of causality and determinacy" predispose the political to be recognized as "a form of calculation and strategic action dedicated to social transformation." (LC: 23) The social is, therefore, defined by the power and dynamics of writing and textuality – figurativeness and rhetoric of discourse included. Writing turns the social into an objective of and for action and for that reason "[t]extuality is not simply a second-order ideological expression or a verbal symptom of a pre – given political subject." (LC: 23) Also, political issues require to be represented not "as a priori pre-constituted principles but as a dialogical discursive exchange" for what is needed is a negotiation during which is instated "a crisis of identification" due to "a certain 'difference' within the signification of any single political system, prior to establishing the substantial differences between political beliefs." (LC: 23) This may be translated by the finding that in order for a politicized theme or a public absolute to be admitted and disseminated, a number of conditions must be met: disagreement, incongruity and dissimilarity. If these do not actually exist, they must be imagined. Otherwise, if "they have never thrown themselves into the mental position of those who think differently from them [...] they do not, in any proper sense of the word, know the doctrine which they themselves profess.” (John Stuart Mill cited in LC: 23) What Bhabha understands from Mill's proposal is a reading between the lines. This inbetween-the-lines space where the reading happens is similar to the interstitial spaces or the third space that constitutes the leitmotif of Bhabha's proposal, for it is here that truth and All further references to Homi K. Bhabha’s The Location of Culture. London, Routledge, 1994 will appear as LC followed by the page number.

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identity occur. Both truth and identity belong neither to the one party of the interplay, nor to the other. They belong to the discourse that is the fruit of their negotiation. They are precisely the outcome of the negotiation of the two. In Bhabha's view, the political becomes possible only due to the ambivalence of writing and rhetoric. More specifically, he feels that the movement of the signifier is an oscillating one, as a main feature of the process of negotiation, and that "this fort / da" between the apparently isolated extremes of the symbolic operation actually founds the politics of address. The reason why this happens is that the predetermined antitheses are subdued, making instead room for the grounds of hybridity, "where the construction of a political object that is new, neither the one nor the other, properly alienates our political expectations, and changes, as it must, the very forms of our recognition of the moment of politics." (LC: 35) As argued before, the purpose of negotiation, as the author envisages it, is not the sublation of antagonistic notions but rather a stronger bound based on acknowledgment and knowledge between the subject and the object that spring continuously out of their interplay. In his own words: "They make sense as they come to be constructed in the discourses of feminism or Marxism or the Third Cinema or whatever, whose objects of priority – class or sexuality or 'the new ethnicity' – are always in historical and philosophical tension, or cross-reference with other objectives." (LC: 36) Again, the demarche is meant to counterbalance separatism of any kind, for there is no room any more for outright or exhaustive objectives, truths or theories. Instead, what is important is "the hybrid moment of political change" for it is here that "the transformational value of change lies in the rearticulation, or translation of elements that are neither the One (unitary working class) nor the Other (the politics of gender) but something else besides, which contests the terms and territories of both." (LC: 38) Bhabha is of the opinion that it is mainly politics that spurs translation, deracination and dispersal that entail, in turn, antagonism and discord. This is the reason why the outcome is a process of negotiation and not one of stagnation, all the more so since there does not exist any standardized given entity whose claims about truth and reality may be taken for granted. This does not necessarily mean that the parties involved do not struggle to gain the hegemonic position. According to Stuart Hall, as Bhabha reads him, what takes place is "a process of symbolic identification achieved through apolitical technology of imaging that hegemonically produces a social bloc of the right or the left [and] the work of hegemony is itself the process of iteration and differentiation." (LC: 39) Again, in the debate over identity construction, notions like conflict and alterity, image and signification inevitably appear as symptomatic. In brief, as Bhabha himself puts it, "[t]he contribution of negotiation is to display the 'in-between' of this crucial argument," (LC: 39) for it is this 'in-betweeness' resulting from the negotiation of the struggling parties that becomes crucial. It becomes synonymous with the negotiation itself, and thus, with the opposite of fixedness and calcification. This is a stance that Edward Hall was announcing in his 1976 Beyond Culture where, from the very beginning, he draws attention on the fact that behind the political stage there lies the actual substratal engine that keeps the world in motion – which is power. Furthermore, he adds that besides power there is culture that makes a difference, and he frankly warns that “any Westerner who was raised outside the Far East and claims he really understands and can communicate with either the Chinese or the Japanese is deluding himself.”4 (BC: 2) Conclusively, the sine qua non to get out of such tensed situations is one’s capability to become aware of and assent what Hall calls “the hidden, unique form of unconscious culture.” (BC: 2) He believes that only by knowing each other’s philosophies and mind-sets that All further references to Edward Hall’s Beyond Culture, Anchor Books, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland, 1976 will appear as BC followed by the page number.

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cooperation and win-win solutions can be agreed upon. One cause for mankind’s misjudgments and mistakes is found by Hall to be the “extension transference” – a phenomenon that is characterized by the inappropriateness of the institutions that man has created. They are believed not to be fit for they do not make man’s potentialities thrive. Moreover, since they are unfit to man’s needs, anger emerges first against man’s inner self, then against outsiders, but almost never against the institution on which man still depends. Hall takes his analysis deeper and he finds that the causation is of psychological nature. He explains that powerlessness and lack of self-affirmation lead to aggression; […] many people’s sense of worth is directly related to the number of situations in which they are in control, which mean that many people have problems with their self-image because they are clearly in control of so little. […] Psychological powerlessness is the result of past events, but situational and cultural powerlessness is here and now.” (BC: 6) Based on such a pertinent insight, a human security approach is the right one when it comes to the debate over how to prevent this sense of powerlessness that Hall brilliantly brings forth. At an individual level, as well as at a group level, the identification of the shortages and anxieties of strained populations is the first step to be taken in the framework of a human security policy. Within a society, these strains may come – and do come – from the part of the unfit institutional apparatuses that itself created (insanely, may be added); but they may also come from the feeling of insecurity that these people may experience when external threats seem to lower their own power and sense of control. This is why a human security approach ought to tackle both the internal causes of insecurity, as well as the external potentialities of intimidation – any determinant of the sense of powerlessness, in brief. This task is an extremely difficult one for one has to do with the hidden strata of the cultural system. Moreover, it is a doubly strenuous undertaking for it approaches both the internal, local cultural structure, and the external foreign one / ones. Edward Hall provides his argumentation with a relevant example. In a research project, two groups of people are put under hypnotic manipulation; one group is told they are blind and they make their way in space by touching their peers; the other group are told they are blind and keep their positions in space by keeping themselves away from their peers using specific signals that they have developed without being aware of the fact. When the two groups meet, they all get bumped, some willingly, some not. But the bottom line is that they all get frustrated because either group finds an opposite attitude in the other group (the former group do not get to the latter since the latter moves away from their reach, and the latter cannot maintain their distance since there are approached by the former). Consequently, neither group gets satisfaction of their needs. The conclusion is “to be able to identify those aspects of the two signal systems that are in conflict. […] This means that if one is to prosper in this new world without being unexpectedly battered, one must transcend one’s own system.” (BC: 51) One can clearly see now an evolution from the identification of problems, the causes of conflict (basically, Edward Said’s ‘Orientalism’), a proposal of solutions (in the abstract, Homi Bhabha’s in-betweeness) and in the concrete (Edward Hall’s scheme). The last in line is based on the uncovering of the fact that “translating behavior of one culture into another […] is one thing, getting people to believe it is another.” (BC: 51) He continues by revealing that there are two manners of dealing with the situation. One is to spend one’s life in a foreign country having to do with the daily reality of its system; the other method is the use of a technique that operates by taking into consideration the human central nervous system, all the 78


types of brains that one possesses, the role imagination and context play in the way one behave, as well as the manners in which time and space (in their quality of cultural basics) are employed in the adjustment of behavior. All these are, obviously, part of a cultural system at work. More specifically, the first component – the nervous system – is the anatomic structure responsible for automatic response of the brain and body to stimuli. Hall mentions that its working is mainly unintentional and effortless that it is hardly noticeable; therefore, its receptions and answers become more manifest when it reacts to negative stimulation. A second element under consideration within a cultural framework is the fact that one learns the cultural patterning specific to the environment one lives in automatically. Therefore, one spends one’s time principally in processing the received information; but, in opposition to the relationship with the familiar cultural ground, a state of confusion and torment occurs in the interaction of one’s own personal archetypes with those of an unfamiliar culture. Eventually, it is only due to the interplay with ‘the other’ that one becomes aware of one’s own mental paradigmatic structures and behavioral patterns that emerge in contrast with different ones. In conclusion, in order to ensure human security, the threat of feeling insecure or endangered may be avoided principally by providing the conviction that one is truly understood, accepted and given the right to be. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London, Routledge, 1994 Derrida, Jacques Of Grammatology, Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 Foucault, Michel Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 19721977, Truth and Power, New York: Pantheon Books, 1980 Foucault, Michel The Archeology of Knowledge, Cornwall: Routledge, 1989 Foucault, Michel Ethics - Subjectivity and Truth, New York: The New Press, 1997 Hall, Edward Beyond Culture, Anchor Book, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland, 1976 Hall, Stuart and du Gay, Paul Questions of Cultural Identity, London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1996 Hall, Stuart (1987), ‘Minimal Selves’, in The Real Me: Post-Modernism and the Question of Identity. London, ICA Documents 6, 44-6. Hall, Stuart ‘New Ethnicities’, Black Film British Cinema. London, ICA Documents 7, 1988, p. 27-31. Reprinted in ‘Race’, Culture and Difference, ed. James Donald and Ali Rattansi. London, Sage, 1992, p. 252-259. Hall, Stuart Cultural Identity and Diaspora’, in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, ed. Jonathan Rutherford. London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1990, p. 222-37 Kramer, E. M. (ed.) Consciousness and Culture Westport, Connecticut & London: Greenwood Press, 1992 Lefebvre, Henri The Production of Space Oxford UK & Cambridge USA: Blackwell, 1991 Said, Edward Orientalism, New York: Random House, Inc., 1979 Said, Edward Culture and imperialism. New York: VINTAGE BOOKS A Division of Random House, Inc., 1994 Taylor, Charles. ‘The Politics of Recognition,’ in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Taylor, Charles Sources of the Self, Cambridge, Massachusets: Harvard University Press, 2001.

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ACHIEVEMENT OF AN EXPERT IN PUBLIC RELATIONS, PERSUASION AND MANIPULATION – A GATE OPENER FOR AFRICAN COLONISATION Valeria MICU PhD Junior Lecturer, “CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected] Abstract: The wave of European traders, missionaries, explorers and adventurers who discovered Africa and its magnificent beauty and resources opened the gate to colonisation. In spite of having never asked for help the Africans became the target of numerous “philanthropic” designs, among which Leopold II’s colonising strategy served as a lesson of how well one of the most daring projects of the kind managed to trick into consent presidents, bright royal minds and other remarkable personalities. Everything was made possible mainly due to the king’s outstanding expertise in public relations, magisterially put to work in guise of persuasion and manipulation. Keywords: Africa, Leopold II, Congo, colonisation, persuasion, manipulation

It has often been proved that the best leaders of all times were first and foremost very good communicators. Sometimes the leader is also the head of a social entity – a king, a president or simply a chief – and may have a crucial influence upon the fate of the social group he leads. A leader’s drive often fueled by personal desire can make nonetheless, a significant difference for the design the leader will draw in order to reach their goals. HUMANIST PRINCIPLES OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT, A BASIS FOR AFRICAN COLONISATION The main scholarly preoccupations of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were travel, research and philosophy, human nature and human relationships. The French Revolution was promoting the natural human rights issued in a Declaration of Human Rights – a synthesis of previous similar texts such as the Bill of Rights issued in 1689, Habeas Corpus issued in February 1789 in Britain, and the American Constitution), and also of the political ideals of the Enlightenment. Article XI of this Declaration stipulated everybody’s right to free expression, which might have been an encouragement for different scholars to express controversial or contradictory opinions, sometimes even dangerous ones. Numerous European thinkers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries provided long discourses of justification for the colonial project; they brought arguments based on scientific research, logical assumptions or even empirical experiments meant to legitimize political domination. An important representative of the Scottish Enlightenment, philosopher and historian David Hume, generally categorised as a British Empiricist and “widely regarded as the greatest [philosopher] who has ever written in the English language”1, gave a new direction of analysis for the psychological basis of the human nature. Counteracting rationalists like Descartes, he claimed that human behaviour was primarily governed by desire more than by reason 2, thus announcing in a certain respect Girard’s mimetic theory of desire3 . Hume strongly believed Robert W. McGee. “The Economic Thought of David Hume” Encyclopedia Britannica: “Hume” 3 René Girard, Violence and the Sacred, 1972 1 2

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that feelings were more important than abstract moral principles in conceiving one’s ethical position, asserting that “power and necessity...are... qualities of perceptions, not of objects...felt by the soul and not perceived externally in bodies”4, arguing that events are always causally conjoined5. This could explain different human drives targeting greater or smaller designs drawn during the Enlightenment. Philosophers of those times were regarded with much interest and respect as they were the first who felt authorized in putting forward drastic judgements in spite of their lack of scientific support. In 1748 Hume published an essay (“Of National Characters”) where he displayed the ‘characteristics’ of the main categories of people in the world, also adding in a footnote to the original text that there is a deep connection among a person’s character, skin colour and his intellectual capacity, thus making a good preparation for the colonialist and imperialist discourses to come. This theory had a large echo and approval from important personalities of the time. Immanuel Kant, who admitted that Hume greatly influenced his views and who also shared Hume’s deterministic theory at the beginning of his career, issued an analysis of Hume’s text claiming that the difference between the black and white races of man is fundamental mainly concerning the connection between mental capacities and skin colour. Although Kant makes a correlation between “blackness” and “stupidity” it has been repeatedly claimed by some critics that his earlier writings revealing racist views changed into a different way of approaching colonialism as it is suggested by his Perpetual Peace and the Metaphysics of Morals, where he displays progressive views regarding European attitude visa-vis non-European societies.6 Kant as well as Diderot counter-acted colonialism supporters invoking the main principle of Enlightenment, which states that each human being is capable of reason and self-government. They also approached the Europeans’ lack of civilisation while being in the colonies, far from home, thus far from any legal institution which could apply punishments or sanctions. It is also argued that in such contexts man is tempted to reveal his full instinct for violence.7 Nonetheless, the newly discovered cultural practices of the indigenous peoples seemed irrational and savage, consequently difficult to be accepted as products of the previously asserted human reason. In order to maintain the direction of universalism and equality philosophers came with the solution of a “civilising” intervention supposed to be carried on up to the point where the newly “civilised” indigenous people would be able to take their life in their own hands helped by ready-made institutions and all the rest that an advanced culture could provide. There have always been genuine supporters for the ‘civilising mission’ that some peoples such as the French, the British and then the Americans self-assessed as the most developed in any field, the most educated and civilised on the discovered surface of the globe, had the urgent duty to help other humans climb the unique scale of civilisations as high as a certain degree of rationality, sociability and technology could push them to reach. A good example is the French philosopher, mathematician and political scientist Nicolas de Condorcet, whose ideal was a progressive unification of the Universe, aiming at universal laws for a homogenous population on the globe, which could only be achieved by disseminating the Enlightenment principles and technological progress. He argued that the European nations had the noble mission to civilise without subjugating them, all savage nations still living on large areas of the earth and the task was to be fulfilled by wise colonisers able to disseminate European principles of freedom, light and justice into Asia and Africa. He specified that everything was to be accomplished only for those peoples’ interest

David Hume. “Of National Characters”: 168 Ibidem 56 6 Howard Williams. “Colonialism in Kant’s Political Philosophy”, 2014 7 Diderot in Raynal' s Histoire des deux Indes 4 5

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and desire. This could be taken as a real colonisation project, but its principles are far too different from what this process finally became.8 In the same vein the linguist, philosopher and pioneer in anthropology Joseph-Marie de Gérando issued his Considérations sur les diverses méthods à suivre dans l’observation des peoples sauvages (Considerations upon Different Methods of Approach in Observing Savage Peoples), in an attempt to awake the audience’s interest to the importance of study of savage peoples who could be nothing else than our own ancestors. His philosophical account is close to that of Conrad’s Marlow9 when he argues that a journey to the savages’ land would be similar to a travel back in time in our own history. De Gérando is certain that their careful analysis would bring a lot of useful information for our own interest and development. He invites to philanthropic behaviour by sharing our knowledge in every field thus making friends with people living in wonderful countries, which could also become good markets for our goods. He also makes a good point in advising his contemporaries to share their arts not their vices.10 In spite of the tenets of French Enlightenment thought, which had crossed the borders towards other European nations and even to the young Americas carrying with it urges to create a Universal vision sustained by a universal set of principles (the ‘Rights of Man’), the old “link between nation and expansion” proved to stay inseparable even in France, where during the Second and Third Republics “the popular will was increasingly tied, not to a declaration of the struggle for universal human rights, but to a national vision of power and world expansion […] Imperialism became an extension into the wider world of the ideology of a ‘national’ formation based on the unifying signifiers of language and race”11. The manifestation of nationalism considered the engine of colonialism and imperialism was a consequence of the way philosophy, natural science, sociology and politics have always interacted. Thus, starting from the humanist principles of the Enlightenment, the theoreticians and eventually artisans who supported and started applying those principles got quite far from the original idealist projects of Condorcet and those of de Gérando. One of the scholars, J. M. de Lanessan, claimed that each and every people have a desire of expansion, of accomplishing physical and intellectual satisfaction through victories and conquest, thus fulfilling their need for domination and glory.12 Scholars such as Maurice Barrès utter explicit phrases about an industrial cooperation and a rich source of work13, which were to be materialised in colonising projects founded on inconsistent ideologies by acknowledging such views and mainly their nationalist dimension implying the necessity to disseminate everything that is rich and valuable from a spiritual perspective. In Victorian England Edmund Burke as well as some other British personalities claimed the importance of English institutions, viewed mainly through “the unique character of English liberty not to English constitutional arrangements but to the physical constitution of Englishmen”. In their case it was the Englishmen’s “energy, their civilization, their religion and their freedom” that had to be “[spread] throughout the habitable globe”.14 Such ‘reasons’ encouraged people of different times and spaces to arrogantly take foreign territories into possession and behave like supreme holders of virtues, knowledge, power and truth. Colonisation has a long history of conquest and control from antiquity to the Tvetan Todorov. Noi şi ceilalţi. 1999: 348-9 The main character in Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness 10 Todorov 1999: 349-351 11 Ashcroft et al. 1998: 152-3 12 Principes de colonisation/Colonisation Principles in Todorov 1999: 351 13 Todorov 1999: 354 14 Lewis in Bloom. 2008: 69-70 8 9

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present time, which turned too often into violent treatment and plunder of the indigenous lands and populations; it is argued that the imperialist ideology, interests and resources were the most important drives to European colonisation of new territories overseas, which is also called “the Europeanization of the globe” or Western Imperialism15. The age of imperialism or rather what has been called by many historians New Imperialism (1860-1914), was a predicted consequence and the last stage of capitalism, also called its ‘highest stage’ in Lenin’s analysis of imperialism (1916), when new modern states like Italy and Germany were created, the Second Industrial Revolution made possible ‘an enormous superabundance of capital’ and the “Scramble for Africa” (1885) embodied the ideal solution for profitable investments. The old and new nations had already learnt from the previous colonial experience that some important changes were necessary in the new imperial approach. The colonies had to represent more than simple sources of goods, raw materials and cheap work. As John A. Hobson argued “colonialism is a natural overflow of nationality, its test being the power of colonists to transplant the civilization they represent to the new natural and social environment in which they find themselves”16. A different kind of competition started, triggered by the visible rise of nationalism, intolerance, racism, which represented the opposite of the claimed Enlightenment urge toward humanism and equality for all people. It is generally accepted that “from the 1880s imperialism became a dominant and more transparently aggressive policy amongst European states for a variety of political, cultural and economic reasons”17. Robinson and Gallagher also place colonial annexation before the development of markets, but on the basis of clear cut political projects: It was not the businessmen or missionaries or empire-builders who launched the partition of Africa, but rather a set of diplomats who thought of that continent merely as a function of their concerns elsewhere…Only at the end of the process did the businessmen arrive…Imperialism was not the cause of the partition. It was the result.18

Sometimes the diplomat was the emperor or the king in person as in the case of Leopold II king of Belgium, who made all possible efforts to build a rich and strong state on the basis of the huge profit he made by ruling his private colony he ironically named The Congo Free State, from the distance of his huge ambitions and arrogance. It was a particular case of imposing old colonial rules by applying new imperial directions and practices. The belief in a ‘superior right’ to explore Congo’s resources was as huge as his greed for pure profit. The imposition of national culture, the French language and the Catholic religion seem to represent good memories and the best legacy for the native inhabitants of Congo compared to the brutal practices applied by his colonial agents and secured by the first created ‘militia’ in the new born country in order to exhaust higher quantities of ivory and rubber. WHO WAS LEOPOLD II? Not only wealth and money, but also international power and recognition were at stake for Leopold II. His own country was a ‘new born’ one, created in 1830 with his father Leopold I as the first emperor of the Belgian nation. Leopold II had witnessed his father’s numerous and unsuccessful attempts to get at least an important colony and more European admiration, which served as a good political school and drew the main directions for his consequent imperial behaviour among famous European leaders, some of them Leopold II’s close relatives. This peculiar involvement in imperial expansion was also closely related to his Ashcroft et al 1998: 123 Hobson in Ashcroft et al. 1998: 124 17 Ashcroft et al. 122 18 Robinson and Gallagher quoted in P. Wolfe: 400 15 16

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character: at a certain moment of his childhood “his own father [had] described him as subtle and sly as a fox”; it is also claimed that the young king of the Belgians “managed virtually single-handedly to upset the balance of power in Africa and usher in the terrible age of European colonialism on the black continent, [in the most astonishing and improbable way imaginable]”19. His interest in geography and finance as well as his attentive study of the international situation helped him assess the possibilities and the methods to be used in order to accomplish his dream, which had also been the unaccomplished dream of his father. At the beginning of his reign (1865) he did not bother to be very subtle, mainly when speaking about his colonial ambitions, the way European leaders were concealing their true intentions in discourses about Christianization and civilisation of heathen, savage peoples. He was heard saying to one of his advisers that “Belgium doesn’t exploit the world. It’s a taste we have got to make her learn”. He did not care about the source of the profit, “what mattered was the size of the profit”, and also the power such a colony would represent for him in an epoch when the royal authority was diminishing because of the elected parliament20. The king also confessed: “I intend to find out discreetly if there’s anything to be done in Africa”. And he launched in this ample project by “carefully comb[ing] the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society for information about the continent and closely followed the treks of white explorers”21. Human drives can help great designs become true Human drives can guide people towards both good and bad achievements; the great designs the above subtitle is hinting at are represented by almost unbelievable records which can be assessed mostly as negative human accomplishments. They can still be called great mainly due to the complex and subtle manner of approaching the fulfillment of a certain goal. Leopold II made use of specific maneuvers aiming at colonising a huge territory in the middle of Africa, an almost unknown continent at that time, succeeding in appropriating it as a personal property. The achievement proved to be great especially by being different from what was ordinary practice of the world rulers as a part of the general trend of colonising newly discovered lands on the planet. Many historians admit that everything was made possible due to Leopold’s most important talent: he was an expert in public relations. The irrefutable proof is represented by the whole Congo issue: years before he attempted to literally colonise the land, the well known monarch first visualized, then designed and eventually carried out his ambitious project. He had the ability to prepare each and every move as if on a chess board by properly assessing various people and appropriate situations, which could help him hit his targets in almost unnoticed manners. He proved to be an expert in persuading and manipulating different people, some of them quite smart personalities with special skills in leadership and politics. LEOPOLD II’S DESIGN STEP BY STEP Sponsorship of famous explorers The king’s first important move was a substantial contribution offered when Scottish explorer Verney Lovett Cameron attempted to cross Africa from east to west in 1875. At that time he had also heard about Stanley’s first successful expedition meant to find another famous missionary and explorer, dr. David Livingstone (1871-1873), followed by what was to become a famous publication, the two-volume account How I Found Doctor Livingstone. Peter Forbath, The River Congo: The Discovery, Exploration and Exploitation of the World's Most Dramatic Rivers. Harper & Row. 1977: 374 20 Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 1999: 37 21 Ibidem: 39 19

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Stanley was then in the middle of his second attempt to make new geographical discoveries in Africa, but nobody had news from the daring explorer at the moment Leopold would have also liked to contact him. Meanwhile, Leopold had understood that “a colonial push of his own would require a strong humanitarian veneer. Curbing the slave trade, moral uplift, and the advancement of science were the aims he would talk about, not profits”. Thus, he started preparing his second move: to host an international geographical conference. He took advantage of his royal international connections and of any other useful acquaintances he could use admitting that he had to moderate “his raw lust for colonies” as in each and every step he was going to take “he must depend on subterfuge and flattery”22. Hochschild magisterially depicts the slightest details of Leopold’s huge endeavour concerning the colonisation of Congo, which is even more difficult to apprehend as the king obtained the unanimous approval to be the unique owner of an immense surface of populated land in one of the richest African areas. Making a huge research Hochschild explains how an astute and tenacious monarch was able to indirectly ‘discover’ and appropriate tribe after tribe as personal fiefdom turned afterwards into a camp of forced labour for his own profit without having put his foot in Congo. His obvious merit was to discover and use the perfect man able to fulfill such a task: H. M. Stanley. Hosting an International Geographical Conference Leopold’s Geographical Conference held in 1876 was meant to display the king’s philanthropic interest in Africa and also to give him the possibility to feel the European pulse concerning exploration projects and economic interest, but mostly to establish each possible detail to his own advantage in total trust and European acceptance. His welcoming speech left no shadow of doubt about the noble intentions of the hosting king and his people. The ‘good’ changes to be implemented in the poor natives’ lives, already displayed by the British and French in other circumstances are to be noticed in Leopold’s speech as well. Each and every word had been conceived in a masterpiece of manipulation of the audience and of the large international public as it was eventually confirmed. A clear plan of exploration and research was shared with the audience at the same time establishing the best methods of approaching the natives by setting up “a line of stations extending across the continent from coast to coast, ‘for purposes of relief, of science, and of pacification…as a means of abolishing slavery, of establishing harmony among the chiefs, and of providing for them just and disinterested arbitrators’”23. The details of Leopold’s project, which claimed that roads would be built and each station would function as a research base and be staffed by specialized researchers such as astronomers, medical naturalists and other skilled artisans, were precisely aiming at giving all the data for a feasible act meant to be “primarily in the service of science, and secondarily, for the advancement of commerce, industry, and civilization”. The references to “a military presence”, which by no means was necessary taking into account the high humanity supposed to characterize all people who would participate in the project are in ironic contrast to what the Leopoldian regime would eventually become in Congo. “The stations would have ‘recourse to gentleness, persuasion, and that natural ascendency which emanates from the superiority of civilized man’. Thus the stations were expected to become centres from which the influence of European exploration and scientific research would radiate across the surrounding countryside, ‘diffusing the light of civilization among the natives’”24. The guests were very creative in mentally building what

Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 1999: 39 John Reader, Africa, 1998: 524 24 Ibidem 525 22 23

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seemed for most of them a palpable design, although some others described it as “gloriously impractical and absurd”25. In his feigned modesty Leopold invited the Russian geographer Pyotr Semenov to be the chair person, as his limited knowledge of Africa let free way to Leopold’s maneuvers. Thus, he was able to get endorsement from the participants for the thoroughly described chain of bases to be set up “across the unclaimed territory of the Congo River basin that interested Leopold most”. Besides, he “was elected by acclamation as the International African Association’s first chairman” with headquarters established in Brussels by the king’s magnanimous volunteering. The newly founded association perfectly served Leopold “to convince everyone that his interest was purely altruistic”. There were several voices praising “the greatest humanitarian work of [that] time”26, which in a dramatic irony was to turn into “one of the greatest mass killings of recent history”27. How could all this happen? Leopold’s main drive was his greed in an almost ordinary combination with his wish for fame and power. “Always a shrewd judge of people” 28 he perfectly used his capacities to find the most appropriate persons motivated by similar drives with his own, thus, able to reach his goals by merging his drives with theirs. The most appropriate performer While famous geographers and explorers of Europe were designing the scheme of civilising Africa at the Geographical Conference taking place in Brussels “in September 1876, Henry Morton Stanley, the man who [had] found Livingstone and whose proven abilities were certainly deserving of the king’s attention and royal hospitality, was in the depths of the continent itself, west of Lake Tanganyika, marching determinedly towards the headwaters of the Congo River”. Many observers of the time finally admitted that “Stanley’s expedition was the most ambitious in Africa yet undertaken: a traverse of the continent through hitherto unexplored equatorial regions, from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo”. He accomplished great deeds having been financed by both the New York Herald and the London Daily Telegraph, “but at tremendous cost [for] all three of Stanley’s European companions succumbed to the rigours of the expedition, as did 173 Africans”. The report issued in November 1877 made public a lot of Stanley’s discoveries, one of them confirming “that the Congo was navigable from the coast to the heart of the continent”, which had also been inferred by Leopold. This second complete report about the tremendous possibilities the king was fancying already fuelled his next decisive step: to meet Stanley and draw him in his design, which he wrote “bluntly” in a clearly outlined plan to the Belgian Ambassador in London.29 It took Leopold some time and trouble to co-interest Stanley in that plan, but he finally succeeded mainly because the Irish naturalized American explorer had not roused the expected interest and enthusiasm from the British or American governments. It thus happened in spite of having enjoyed “a hero’s welcome…in Britain in late January 1878” and also after having issued his next “two-volume account of the trans-Africa expedition Through the Dark Continent”.30 A five-year contract with Leopold II was finally signed by Stanley in December 1878 after having promised to keep secret the details of the agreement. Peculiar proceeding Stanley’s approach was quite different from what had already been done before; he used a lot of trickeries when dealing with the chiefs and he was harsh while pitilessly Severin quoted in Reader: 524 Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 1999: 41 27 Ibidem 10 28 Ibidem 51 29 John Reader, Africa, 1998: 526 30 Ibidem 527 25 26

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exploiting the local inhabitants, manners which cannot be called civilised and correct negotiations or diplomatic transactions. In spite of strong public disapproval of such methods most of the people reacted long time after everything had happened. Leopold had found the most appropriate person to stick to his instructions clearly demanding “to secure as much land as could be obtained and place it under the sovereignty of the king’s enterprise ‘as soon as possible and without losing one minute’”31. The king had carefully weighed his courageous investment so as to be used as a strong argument while demanding international endorsement for private appropriation of such a huge land, taking into account that he had also taken out some important loans and the Belgian nation felt it like an unnecessary impoverishment: “Leopold required international recognition, not simply for the philanthropic ideals of the International African Association he had founded, but more pressingly for the economic realities of an enterprise he had established at his own personal expense”32. Every detail was fruitfully taken care of in the same astute and deceptive manner: “Leopold called in the favours due from an old friend and confident, the former US Ambassador to Belgium, ‘General’ Henry S. Sanford…[who] ranked highly in the American establishment, well-placed to present Leopold’s case for recognition of the IAC to the United States”33. Together with a personal letter from the king containing tempting promises for the American citizens who “would be free to buy land in the Congo” and also granting for “American goods free of customs duties”, Sanford backed up his eulogy of the rightful arrangements established with the local chiefs by showing President Arthur a copy of such a treaty ‘signed’ with a Congo chief. “The copy, however, had been altered in Brussels to omit all mention of the monopoly on trade ceded to Leopold, an alteration that deceived not only President Arthur but also Ambassador Sanford, an ardent free-trader who wanted the Congo open to American businessmen like himself”34. The deception was to come later for persons like Sanford who worked for lobbying at high standards trying to win “congressional support for Leopold’s claim to the Congo”. He discovered that many Southern politicians of that time were “frightened by the specter of millions of freed slaves and their descendents harboring threatening dreams of equality” 35. Among those politicians there was a very influent person upon whom the already created image of the black person had deeply worked; Senator John Tyler Morgan of Alabama, a former Confederate brigadier general, chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee manifested his rage in a discourse pointing at “the dangers of ‘enforced negro rule’ as blacks were ‘foisted into…white families’”, where they might inflict “a worse fate than death upon an innocent woman”. As “his solution endorsed by many” was to send the black population back to Africa, Leopold’s new state seemed the perfect place where the above mentioned people could go.36 Besides, many other economic issues were supposed to find a favourable approach in a fruitful cooperation between the Congolese and the American black people: “Africa was prepared for the negro as certainly as the Garden of Eden was prepared for Adam and Eve…In the Congo basin we find the best type of the negro race, and the American negro…can find here the field for his efforts”37. Sanford received the draft of the resolution introduced in the Senate by Morgan, and he did not waste the opportunity to adjust and to multiply it in the form of a long report on the Congo under Morgan’s name: “It may be safely asserted that no barbarous people have ever so readily adopted the fostering Hird quoted in Reader: 531 John Reader, Africa, 1998: 531-2 33 John Reader, Africa, 1998: 532 34 Adam Hochschild, King Leopold’s Ghost, 1999: 64 35 Ibidem 65 36 Ibidem 65 37 Fry quoted in Hochschild: 65 31 32

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care of benevolent enterprise as have the tribes of the Congo, and never was there a more honest and practical effort made to…secure their welfare”. The following steps were almost predictable after the above mentioned document circulated in a thousand copies and comments of praise were published in the most popular American newspapers. Soon “the secretary of state declared that the United States of America recognized King Leopold II’s claim to the Congo. It was the first country to do so”.38 Meanwhile, Leopold used similar means of persuasion in France which “did not feel threatened by tiny Belgium or by the vast size of Leopold’s claims…[but] was willing to draw the boundaries [of that territory] on a map, where they included most of the Congo River basin”. On the other hand Chancellor Bismarck did not let himself deceived by Leopold’s maneuvers, but Leopold succeeded in his attempt of persuasion simply by touching the most sensitive side of any enterprising leader: economic and political power. “Bismarck let himself be convinced that it was better for the Congo to go to the king of weak little Belgium, and be open to German traders, than go to protection-minded France or Portugal or to powerful England”; that was why “Bismark offered to host a diplomatic conference in Berlin to discuss [further division of the African cake]… To Leopold, the conference was one more opportunity to tighten the grip on the Congo”.39 The famous conference of Berlin, where the most influential European powers were represented by their most appropriate representatives, managed to solve the thorniest issues obviously related to bilateral agreements regarding international trade facilities in the recently discovered African areas. Although it has often been argued that a clear partition of the black continent was equally fulfilled during the conference (1884-1885), Hochschild attests that things did not happen as such for “the spoils were too large, and it would take many more treaties to divide them all”. Paradoxically, the greatest winner of all agreements concluded, Leopold II, was absent. His representatives and informers had accomplished a very good deed.40 For the second time, Leopold reached his goals by applying a clever design similar to that which had perfectly worked in the United States of America, being helped by the most appropriate person, Stanley, in this case. Consequently, many representatives took for granted “the major agreement that came out of Berlin [according to which] a huge swath of central Africa, including Leopold’s territory in the Congo basin, would be a free-trade zone”, admiring and applauding him in absence for having already invested in something that many saw like “a sort of international colony—under the auspices of the King of the Belgians, but open to traders from all of Europe”.41 1885 could be considered the year when “the Congo Free State [was] legally born”42 (Llosa 43). *** This article gives an account of king Leopold II’s international manoeuvre, which helped him make of Congo a personal property and then transform it in a forced-labour camp where violence and atrocities perpetrated upon the Congolese became almost ordinary behaviour. I have mostly emphasized that the king was a master of public relations; he approached the best methods in dealing with people starting by satisfying their vanity and personal interests, then making use of his peculiar techniques of persuasion and manipulation, which proved to be the perfect weapons in his attempt to reach almost each and every goal he Hochschild: 66 Hochschild: 68 40 Ibidem: 69 41 Ibidem 42 M. V. Llosa, The Dream of the Celt, 2012: 43 38 39

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designed during a long and fruitful reign. The profit was not for him alone, but for his tiny kingdom as well, although, most of the Belgians did not know and are still astonished to find out more and more details of this historic truth, as the whole issue was kept almost secret for more than a century. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

Achebe, Chinua. (1958). Things Fall Apart. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 1995. Achebe, Chinua. (1963). No Longer at Ease. London: Penguin Books Ltd. 2010. Achebe, Chinua. (1965). Arrow of God. London: Penguin Books Ltd. 2010. Achebe, Chinua. (1975). “The African Writer and the English Language”, http://www.scribd.com/doc/139529573/Chinua-Achebe-the-African-Writer-and-theEnglish-Language Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin. Key Concepts in Post-colonial Studies. London and New York: Routledge, 1998. Bloom, Harold ed. (1987). Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness. New York, Infobase Publishing, 2008. Butcher, Tim. (2007). Blood River. A Journey to Africa’s Broken Heart. Vintage Books, London, 2008. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Wordsworth Editions Limited, 1995. Girard, René. (1972) Violence and the Sacred. Patrick Gregory (tr.) The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1989. Hochschild, Adam. (1998). King Leopold’s Ghost’s: A Story of Greed, Terror, and Heroism in Colonial Africa. A Mariner Book. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, New York, 1999. Hume, David. “Of National Characters” in The Philosophical Works, edited by Thomas Green Hill and Thomas Hodge Grose, 4 vols. Darmstadt, 1964. Llosa, Mario Vargas. The Dream of the Celt. Trans. Edith Grossman. Faber and Faber Limited Bloomsbury House, London. 2012. Reader, John. (1997) Africa: A Biography of the Continent. Penguin Books. 1998. Stanley, Henry, Morton. Calatorie prin Africa-1871. Editura tineretului. Bucuresti. 1960. Stanley, Henry, Morton. Through the Dark Continent. 1878. http://www.gutenberg.org/files/5157/5157-8txt Todorov, Tvetan. Noi si ceilalti. Iasi: Institutul European, 1999. Williams, Howard. “Colonialism in Kant’s Political Philosophy”. An Online Journal of Philosophy, Diametros 39. March 2014. Wolfe, Patrick. “History and Imperialism: A Century of Theory from Marx to Postcolonialism” in The American Historical Review, Vol.102, No. 2 (Apr., 1997): 388-420, Published by American Historical Association, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2170830

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THE RIGHT TO REMAIN SILENT – A WESTERN EQUITY BYGONE FORGOTTEN Daniela MACOVEI Ph.D Profesor de limba engleza in cadrul CSILE Bucuresti, [email protected] Abstract: It has been a long tradition to base cultural studies mainly on Western views. Lately, however, the number of Eastern perspectives that come frontward has increased and it is considered extremely beneficial to counterbalance the previous efforts with a way of looking at things from the other side. This is the main purpose of the present endeavor – to give a concise but concentrated summary of this otherness in the economy of acculturation – by comparison with their Western counterpart – narrowed down to the human security approach. Edward Said’s and Homi Bhabha’s insights, followed by Ben Salama’s, Ali Laidi’s and Shahrbanou Tadjbakhsh’s analyses constitute the main resources of this academic research work. Keywords: culture, otherness, stereotype, security, human rights.

As announced from the title, the present article explores the notion of silence in at least two senses. On the one hand, it is about the silence of the East as a form of accepting the West’s domineering position resulting from a process of territorial and cultural conquest; or, vice versa, as a form of subverting the dominator’s power for by remaining silent, the dominated brings the domination tools of the West down to a disarmed, hilarious, mocked at position. And, on the other hand, it is about the West’s silence understood as keeping their nose out of the East’s business. Thus, it becomes obvious now that the term ‘right’ has a double sense here – it refers to the privilege and just claim of human beings to be undisturbed and unchallenged by aggressive approach which would stir them to react. And it also refers to the antagonistic and unfair attitude of the West which does not respect the right explained previously. The importance of Orientalism is crucial for it is this that has marked the thinking, the politics and the life of the past two centuries and its effects are still being experienced today. Orientalism is a philosophy of life which has led to a wide range of international economical and political, cultural, and most importantly, spiritual conflicts. It is, therefore, fundamental, to understand Orientalism in order to understand the world we live in and infer the adjustments that are needed to be made if welfare is meant to be gained for people all over this planet. Orientalism has become the single most influential paradigm in studies of travel writing and of colonial cross-cultural exchanges. Orientalism is an academic tradition, a style and, most importantly, a way of ‘making sense’ of the Middle East that draws on a binary epistemology and an imaginary geography that divides the world into two unequal and hierarchically positioned parts: the West and the East, the Occident and the Orient, Christianity and Islam, rationalism and its absence, progress and stagnation.1 (Hulme & Youngs, 2002: 107)

Hulme, Peter, Youngs, Tim (eds.) (2002) The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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‘Orientalism’ denotes a discourse of power that is always and inescapably systematic, repetitive, and unchanging. It perpetuates stereotypes of the Middle East and MiddleEastern people that, Said and others have argued, hardly changed over a millennium. [...] Real orientals are denied humanity, history, and the authority to speak about and represent themselves, an authority which Orientalist travel writing reserves for occidentals. (Hulme & Youngs, 2002: 107) Back in the 50s, Aldous Huxley was even trying to explain why people treat others badly: Evil may be defined as the refusal on the part of the evil doer to regard other men and women as persons. We do evil when we treat others as though they were not persons, like ourselves, but as though they were things. Cruelty, lust, rapacity, domineeringness – analyze any one of these deadly sins; you will always find that its essence consists in this: the treating of a person as though he were wholly or partly a thing. Judge them by this standard, and you must conclude that there is an element of it even in certain charitable organizations.2 (CE 3: 418) Inescapably, people will always have this difficulty, by default, we may add, to understand and sympathize with others different from themselves: To understand sympathetically, with one’s whole being, the state of mind of someone radically unlike oneself is very difficult - is, so far as I am concerned, impossible.” (CE 2: 172-173) From his standpoint, this is the main and strongest reason for wrong-doing, low opinions and bad treatment. “All other people’s prejudices are either idiotic or immoral,” he maintains, “and their habits are generally disgusting. Travel is valuable because it impresses on the mind of the traveller (that is, if he is willing to let himself impressed) the second half of the Great Truth stated above. “We are all other people to somebody.” (CE 2: 72) This is why Huxley remains rather pessimistic about the future of the relations between people and peoples: The conclusion of all this is that we must not be too easily optimistic about the approaching millennium of international good will. That temperamental differences and dislikes should lead to warfare is deplorable; but, so long as actual slaughter can be prevented, it may be that such differences and dislikes are desirable and good. The world would indeed be a dismal place if everybody were like everybody else and humanity were one vast mutual admiration society. (CE 2: 102) The idea that one-sided essentialist thinking is faulty is extensively argued by Edward Said, who, first of all, condemns it for shriving in this way both nescience and demagoguery. Taking experiences of otherness for granted, as coherent givens with non-essential accidental properties to particularize their identity, the exclusive polarizations that such a ratiocination gives birth to make it impossible to further develop full knowledge of the matter and to promote its embranglements and attachments on other knowledge. Said, too, stresses the shortcomings of such one-sided thinking as the dominationresistance one, for example. The impression that the work of interpretation should take into consideration no notions of time or space is wrong, for adherences, encumbrances, stakes and profits are at all times factors of construct and deciphering, respectively. The world we live in is also a world of representations. These are generated, propagated, historicized, decoded, translated and ‘transliterated’. The result of all this complex process is the very element of culture, but in spite of its vital importance, it is not always or appropriately analyzed in its ample political frame of reference which is mainly imperial. The fact is worth keeping in mind for All further references to Aldous Huxley’s Complete Essays from 1920 to 1965, volumes I-VI will appear as CE followed by the number of the volume and the number of the page 2

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[a]ll cultures tend to make representations of foreign cultures the better to master or in some way control them. Yet not all cultures make representations of foreign cultures and in fact master or control them. This is the distinction, I believe, of modern Western cultures. It requires the study of Western knowledge or representations of the non-European world to be a study of both those representations and the political power they express.3 (Or: 100) That a codification of difference has been extant from the beginnings of time is irrefragable, which explains the diverse evolutionary schemata of peoples, races and cultures. It is, therefore, a matter of evidence that the means and patterns used in the construct of self – and other’s representations must be anatomized. However, these architectures come into existence in tight connection with their power. It is power that makes the affixation of the geographical amplitude of an empire and a totalizing cultural discourse possible, i.e. it enables the powerful to travel to remote places, to learn about them, to describe and display them in public settings and, most importantly, to govern them. Out of hypocrisy or merely in full honesty, the imperialistic discourse of power runs under the etiquette of civilizing endeavor, a devoir owed both to the ruled people to their benefit and to the mother country’s repute. Another reason why the history recorded in and by the West misses a serious number of aspects is simply because the conquistadors had very little knowledge of local traditional ethic codes and they lacked religious commission; besides, they did not pay attention to the natives’ mental or emotional responsiveness or to their policy and practice of protecting, preserving and reaffirming native tribal cultures in reaction to acculturation, Said gives an example of Oriental attitude that pervades even today’s America. With reference to Arabs, Said mentions with regret that it is mainly and almost exclusively around words designating the Arabs that interest is manifested, whereas for knowledge with regard to the Arab world – not to mention warmth or excitement for them – no concern or engagement at all are ever apparent. For that reason, the vocabulary connected with the Arab microcosm has been reduced to an oddly impersonal and speculative number of terms which also lack in fondness, empathy and sympathy. Said is one of the thinkers who believe that the best analysis is a contrapuntal one, all the more so because resistance is a counterpoint, isn’t it? “Reading and interpreting the major metropolitan cultural texts in this newly activated, reinformed way could not have been possible without the movements of resistance that occurred everywhere in the peripheries against the empire.” (Or: 53) Not only do the groups under scrutiny interact in a pointcounterpoint fashion, but there also exist the resistance and reaction towards the authority which reinforce the contrapuntal perspective of their study. A challenging manifestation of the resistance is silence. On the one hand, silence is always one of the characteristics of the colonized-colonizer relationship that is assumed on the part of the periphery taken for granted as a submission, an acceptance of the authority. Besides, there is almost ever no desire of the West to acknowledge, hear and know the non-Western, many times in spite of the resistance and rebellion of the colonized. This attitude is caused and supported by the developing fields of comparative literature, English studies, cultural analysis, anthropology which are given shape almost entirely under the influence of the imperialistic interests of the colonizers. But, on the other hand, silence really represents the resistance of the colonized, adopted consciously, willingly and meaningfully. Therefore, one single angle of how things are pondered is obviously proved wrong since there is already a second (other) alternative of interpreting silence. One shortcoming of limited horizons of judgments is “[t]he real trouble All further references to Edward Said’s Orientalism, New York: Random House, Inc., 1979 will appear as Or. followed by the page number.

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about most of these theories […] [which] justify and indeed logically impose upon those who accept them modes of behavior to which mere irrational cravings would never have prompted them.” (CE 4: 326) This is the reason why the allegedly objectivity of the Western observer must be doubted and questioned. Consequently, when the entities of the Western culture are withdrawn from their sheltering sovereign atrium and casted in the international dynamics initiated by imperialism itself, it becomes obvious that the history of imperialism ought to be contrapuntally – that is “with a simultaneous awareness both of the metropolitan history that is narrated and of those other histories against which (and together with which) the dominating discourse acts.” (Or: 51) And the attitude was, of course, disguised, for [a] complete history of justifications would be, to a great extent, identical with a history of thought. Most political, ethical, and even cosmological systems have been essentially justificatory. They are the work either of men in rebellion against the existing system, or of the scrupulous, or of the defenders of orthodoxy. To be effective, justifications have to be made in terms of the philosophy which condemns the acts of thoughts that it is desired to justify. (CE 4: 305) Said exemplifies this state of affairs with a quite recent situation: Britain bombed Iraqi troops in the 1920s for daring to resist colonial rule; seventy years later the United States did it but with a more moralistic tone, which did little to conceal the thesis that Middle East oil reserves were an American trust. Such practices are anachronistic and supremely mischievous, since they […] make wars continuously possible and attractive.” (Or: 296) In Huxley’s words with regards to foreign affairs Unfortunately the truth (if we consider the history of international relations) would seem to be the opposite of what the prophets of universal peace so tirelessly assert. If two nations wish to remain at peace, the best thing they can do is not to strike up an acquaintance but to remain, if possible, in total ignorance of one another’s existence. […] England had no trouble with India for the good reason that Indians and Englishmen were absolute strangers to one another. They have made an intimate acquaintance since, with the result that the Indians dislike the English and the English are bothered to death by the Indians. (CE 2: 99) The Location of Culture attempts at getting away from binary thinking and at proposing manners of ratiocination that consider generalities as new forms of articulations that are interstitial in the sense that they initiate disturbances and thus create new possibilities. Homi Bhabha further believes that such new possibilities may be given a chance if binary oppositions and mimesis are dropped out and replaced by iteration and displacement, for it is iteration that “introduces that uncanny moment where something may look the same, but in its enunciation, in the moment of its instantiation, in the thing that makes it specific, it reveals that difference of the same.”4 (Bhabha 1995: 80-84) One of Bhabha’s key terms is ‘splitting;’ by it, he refers to the attitude of separation on the part of both the colonized and the colonizer. This break-up presupposes the strategic mixture of both defensive and differentiating stances. On the one hand, becoming aware of All further references to Homi K. Bhabha’s The Location of Culture. London, Routledge, 1994 will appear as LC followed by the page number.

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difference generates the urge to defend oneself against the distress of being dissimilar; on the other hand, this very enunciation produces differentiation. By extension, every relation between two parties implies such things – difference, defense and further differentiation. But the extent to which the two parties fall under the effect of this process is not the same. What Bhabha finds the most interesting in this phenomenon are the doors that it opens for the subaltern party – they are given the occasion to destabilize the other’s authority. This is, indeed, one major effect of the interplay of the two and Bhabha’s remarks on it is worth considering: the reaction of the colonized is one of resistance and of undermining the other but the other party refuse to become aware of this reality; instead, they prefer to believe the subaltern are inferior in intelligence or weak in character. Consequently, the attitude of the colonized often “destroys the calculations of the empowered, and allows the disempowered to calculate the strategies by which they are oppressed and to use that knowledge in structuring resistance. I have always believed that ‘small differences’ and slight alterations and displacements are often the most significant elements in a process of subversion or transformation.” (LC: 80-84) An excellent example of this phenomenon is given by Huxley who realizes that the subjected Indians may undermine the British authority by simply refusing to pay attention or even disregarding them: “They have only to be incredulous of the white man’s pretensions they have only to ignore his almost invisible presence among their multitudes; that is all.” (CE 2: 414) However, in spite of the ignorance on both sides, a change does occur, the aspect of which is best rendered by Bhabha by the term hybridity. Hybridity affects both the colonized and the colonizer in that the former’s initial identity is touched and changed by the latter’s influence and the latter’s identity is similarly distorted by the former’s interpretation - some sort of misinterpretation – willing and not-willing. In this way, the two circles interact and overlap partially and the portion common to both is characterized by hybridity. This is one way that may be called the 3rd space and the new locus of agency. I'm looking for a form of the dialectic without transcendence. […] But […] there are certain dialectical structures, certain conceptual pairings, that you can live neither within nor without. To write contra Hegel requires that you "work through" Hegel toward other "supplemental" concepts of dialectical thinking. You do not surpass or bypass Hegel just because you contest the process of sublation. The lesson lies, I think, in learning how to conceptualize "contradiction" or the dialectic as that state of being or thinking that is "neither the one nor the other, but something else besides, Abseits.5 By this he means that supplemental discourses are continuously brought forth as locus of defiance, desire to withstand and negotiate. The dialectic as it is traditionally understood as based on binaries is still maintained, for it is impossible to do without it, but, in addition, there will be a supplement which is neither comprehended in it, nor can it be restored to the two fundamental oppositional elements. The new discourse opens a new interval of unanticipated perspectives. Just like Said, Bhabha critiques in his turn the practices of Orientalism and arguments that cultures are not measurable, nor clearly set in categories. In line with his predecessors, Ali Laidi comments on Samuel Huntington’s opinion that the real war is between civilizations and it takes place at the borders of the respective civilizations. Huntington forwards the idea https://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/bhabha/interview.html Translator translated. (interview with cultural theorist Homi Bhabha) by W.J.T. Mitchell, Artforum v.33, n.7 (March, 1995):80-84. COPYRIGHT Artforum International Magazine Inc. 1995.

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that peoples merge into each other while, simultaneously, cultures disintegrate. Therefore, the more powerful the feeling of living under the threat of globalization, the stronger their urge to return to their roots, be they cultural or religious. Laidi disagrees with the feeble argumentation in favor of the clear-cut opposition that Huntington establishes between hierarchically constituted cultures; instead, he seems to unveil the more pertinent reason for continuous conflicts – economic interests. He argues that the 1989 events mark the success of the war of ideologies – more specifically, the victory of capitalism. Capitalism is, thus, adopted by the vast majority of the countries. In consequence, it is the nature of the conflict and of the participants that change. Starting with 1989, there are no more wars to conquest territories, to obtain autonomy or independence; wars become, fore and foremost, commercial. He exemplifies it by the United States’ policy of equating their security with their economical development, mainly by transforming the newly born democracies into capitalist markets for their products. The outcome of this new victory is added on by the Arabs who do not use the profits they make by the selling of oil to develop their own country, and thus, to increase the state and human security levels. They prefer to keep their money in European and American bank accounts, contributing in this way to the financing of the lingering budget deficits of the Occidental world. A point has been made so far – these forms of keeping silent on the part of the Easterners are, up to a point, productive in terms of sublation of the dominators. Unfortunately, the dominated peoples fall in the apathy of continuing to remain silent even at their expenses, even when running the risk of thoroughly destroying their safety (state or human security.) At this point, Ben Salama’s argumentation that accounts for the sentiment of resentment that the Arab people experience when faced with the evaporation of their past glorious position in favor of the weakness of being lured into Occidental pleasures (American movies, lifestyle and all the wide range of capitalist illusions) makes complete sense. It is arguably the case, thus, that under these circumstances the East sounds the alarm in its own ears – state and human security are at risk and steps need to be taken. They need to become aware of the fact that foreign aid is not neutral. It has always engendered dependence and slavery – from primitive, physical one to the shrewd, economic type, as professor Tadjbakhsh sagely recommends. He is obviously convinced that the Westerners will never remain silent – that is, they will never keep a distance from the East as a sign of respecting the others’ private space, so to say. Instead, by making use of the policies that result from the initiation of the procedures underlying human security, every state potentially maintains its limits both of interference and domination, preserving in this way the same rights for the others, while claiming to reinforce them for themselves. A stand that is worth paying attention to is the one that the aforementioned professor advances – i.e., that human progress and human security go hand in hand. Being envisaged in a reciprocity relationship entails the avowal that they both lay emphasis on human freedoms and human dignity. Consequently, development of one initiates development of the other. And, most importantly, turning these into conflict management procedures, as well as into domestic and foreign policies will result in enormous advantages. On the one hand, this will benefit the right to remain silent of any culture that runs any potential risk of becoming dominated; on the other hand, it will reinforce the fairness of remaining ‘silent’, uninvolved, restrained in a respectful reserve of any potentially domineering culture. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2.

Arnett, R. & Arneson, P. Philosophy of Communication Ethics The Fairleigh Dickinson University Press Series In Communication Studies, 2014 Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London, Routledge, 1994

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29.

Cheney, G., May S. and Munshi D. (eds.) The Handbook of Communication Ethics Routledge, New York, 2011 Derrida, Jacques Of Grammatology, Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997 Foucault, Michel Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, Truth and Power, New York: Pantheon Books, 1980 Foucault, Michel The Archeology of Knowledge, Cornwall: Routledge, 1989 Foucault, Michel Ethics - Subjectivity and Truth, New York: The New Press, 1997 Hall, Edward Beyond Culture, Anchor Book, Doubleday, New York, London, Toronto, Sydney, Auckland, 1976 Hall, Stuart and du Gay, Paul Questions of Cultural Identity, London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 1996 Hall, Stuart (1987), ‘Minimal Selves’, in The Real Me: Post-Modernism and the Question of Identity. London, ICA Documents 6, 44-6. Hall, Stuart ‘New Ethnicities’, Black Film British Cinema. London, ICA Documents 7, 1988, p. 27-31. Reprinted in ‘Race’, Culture and Difference, ed. James Donald and Ali Rattansi. London, Sage, 1992, p. 252-259. Hall, Stuart Cultural Identity and Diaspora’, in Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, ed. Jonathan Rutherford. London, Lawrence and Wishart, 1990, p. 222-37 Hulme, Peter, Youngs, Tim (eds.) (2002) The Cambridge Companion to Travel Writing, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Huntington, Samuel The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996 Huxley, Aldous Complete Essays volumes I-VI, Ivan D. Ree, Chicago, 2000-2003 Kaldor, Mary Human Security Polity Press, Cambridge, 2007 Kramer, E. M. (ed.) Consciousness and Culture Westport, Connecticut & London: Greenwood Press, 1992 Knudsen, Are Political Islam in the Middle East Chr. Michelsen Institute, Postterminalen, Norway, 2003 Laidi Zaki (ed) EU Foreign Policy in a Globalized World Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon, 2008 Laidi Ali Retour de flame, comment la mondalisation a accouche du terrorism CalmannLevy, 2006 Lefebvre, Henri The Production of Space Oxford UK & Cambridge USA: Blackwell, 1991 Moss, Kate Balancing Liberty and Security – Human Rights, Human Wrongs Palgrave, Macmillan, 2011 MacLean, S., Black, D. and Shaw, T. A Decade of Human Security Ashgate, Hampshire, 2006 Said, Edward Orientalism, New York: Random House, Inc., 1979 Said, Edward Culture and imperialism. New York: VINTAGE BOOKS A Division of Random House, Inc., 1994 Samovar, L., Porter R. and McDaniel E. Intercultural Communication – A Reader Cengage learning, Boston, 2015 Taylor, Charles. ‘The Politics of Recognition,’ in Multiculturalism: Examining the Politics of Recognition, ed. Amy Gutmann. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. Taylor, Charles Sources of the Self, Cambridge, Massachusets: Harvard University Press, 2001 Tadjbakhsh, S. & Chenoy, A. M. Human Security: Concepts and Implications Routledge, UK, 2006

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INTERCULTURAL DIALOGUE A POWERFUL TOOL FOR RESOLVING CONFLICTS IN THE 21st CENTURY Simona Valentina MALESCU Mediator, Bureau of Mediation Simona Valentina MALESCU PhD [email protected] Lăcrămioara Gena PARASCHIV Mediator, Bureau of Mediation PARASCHIV G. Lăcrămioara Gena, PhD student [email protected] “Interreligious and intercultural dialogue has made significant contributions to mutual understanding, tolerance and respect, as well as to the promotion of a culture of peace and an improvement of overall relations among people from different cultural and religious backgrounds and among nations.[…] Tolerance of cultural, ethnic, religious and linguistic diversities contributes towards peace, mutual understanding and friendship among people of different cultures and nations and that these diversities should be made part of intercultural and interreligious dialogue efforts, as appropriate.” UN, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace1

Abstract: Culture with its main components – language (communication), religion (ethical norms and beliefs), customs (and traditions) and social organization (groups’ specific patterns as agreed reciprocal obligations and privileges) – has a great influence on peoples’ identities. Globalization and its goals of achieving social cohesion and global peace, requires the understanding of diverse cultural environments and the necessity of building dialogue among them. Understanding one’s culture that defines his identity means understanding his way of thinking, perceiving the external world, his emotions and feelings. The present paper explores the evolution of the role of culture (since the end of the Second World) in the context of shaping new ways to enhance security and rebuild relations between people, countries and nations. It also focuses on the importance of intercultural dialogue and intercultural competencies as key elements that must be used in any field, starting with foreign policies, in order to “improve the world’s global understanding and cooperation for peace”2. Keywords: culture, conflict, intercultural dialogue, competencies, security

INTRODUCTION The normative recognition of culture as an indispensable guarantee to achieve peace at international community level has started in 1945. The Constitution of UNESCO (1945) was the first major international document, elaborated after the Second World War which admitted the fact “that ignorance of each other’s ways and lives has been a common cause, throughout the history of mankind, of that suspicion and United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 67/104, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace, A/RES/67/104, 26 March 2013, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002211/221198e.pdf , retrieved February 10, 2016 2 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022), 10 June 2013, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002211/221198e.pdf, retrieved February 11, 2016 1

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mistrust between the peoples of the world through which their differences have all too often broken into war”3 and invited the international community to take into consideration “preserving the independence, integrity and fruitful diversity of the cultures and educational systems of the States Members of the Organization”4. Later on, in 1947, The Declaration of Human Rights5 focused for the first time on the respect of human being and on the rights and freedoms “that everyone is entitled to [….], without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status”6. The first definition of the concept of culture was stated by UNESCO in Mexico City Declaration on Cultural Policies World Conference on Cultural Policies7 in 1982 that agreed culture is “the whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a society or social group which includes modes of life, value systems, traditions and beliefs.”8 Since the 1990s all nations of the world have gradually entered the era of globalization which brought among other challenges one regarding handling cultural differences. The first step that was taken in this early stage was the promotion of tolerance practice. Is relevant to mention here the Declaration of Principles on Tolerance9 (UNESCO,1995) which introduces tolerance as “a necessity for peace”10. The first article defines tolerance “as respect, acceptance and appreciation of the rich diversity of our world's cultures, our forms of expression and ways of being human. It is fostered by knowledge, openness, communication and freedom of thought, conscience and belief. Tolerance is harmony in difference. It is not only a moral duty; it is also a political and legal requirement”11. Furthermore the declaration considers tolerance a “virtue that makes peace possible and contributes to the replacement of the culture of war by a culture of peace”12. In 1997 UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights13 stated that “the human genome underlies the fundamental unity of all members of the human family, as well as the recognition of their inherent dignity and diversity. In a symbolic sense’ it adds that the genome is “the heritage of humanity.”14 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Adopted in London on 16 November 1945, Preamble, p.5, in UNESCO Basic Texts , 2014 edition, Paris, 2014, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002269/226924e.pdf#page=6 , retrieved February 10, 2016 4 Ibidem, p.6 5 UN General Assembly, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III). The Universal Declaration is available in 369 language variations on the website of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights , retrieved February 10, 2016 6 Ibidem, Article 2 7 The World Conference on Cultural Policies (MONDIACULT) was held in Mexico City, 26 July - 6 August 1982 http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/12762/11295421661mexico_en.pdf/mexico_en.pdf , retrieved February 10, 2016 8 Ibidem, Preamble 9 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Declaration of Principles on Tolerance, adopted and proclaimed by Member States of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization in 16 November 1995, Paris, France, http://www.unesco.org/webworld/peace_library/UNESCO/HRIGHTS/124-129.HTM, retrieved February 10, 2016 10 Ibidem, Preamble 11 Ibidem 12 Ibidem 13 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights, 11 November 1997, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13177&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, retrieved February 11, 2016 14 Ibidem, Article 1 3

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Since 2001 the cultural diversity was internationally recognized through UNESCO’s Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity15 as a “common heritage of humanity”16. The Declaration also affirmed “that respect for the diversity of cultures, tolerance, dialogue and cooperation, in a climate of mutual trust and understanding are among the best guarantees of international peace and security”17. 2003 was the year when UNESCO’s Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage18 legitimated “the intangible cultural heritage”19 which “means the practices, representations, expressions, knowledge, skills [….] that is transmitted from generation to generation, constantly recreated by communities and groups in response to their environment, their interaction with nature and their history, and provides them with a sense of identity and continuity, thus promoting respect for cultural diversity and human creativity”20. The extension of European Union that generated mobility of its citizens determined European Commission to recognize coexisting cultural diversity of member states from a normative point of view. So, 2008 was declared The European Year of Intercultural Dialogue21. In the acceptation of the European Parliament and the Council of Europe “it is important to provide the means for intercultural dialogue and dialogue between citizens to strengthen respect for cultural diversity and deal with the complex reality in our societies and the coexistence of different cultural identities and beliefs; it is important to highlight the contribution of different cultures to the Member States' heritage and way of life and to recognize that culture and intercultural dialogue are essential for learning to live together in harmony”22. Furthermore, The Council of Europe preoccupied with the necessity of intercultural dialogue between the member states of European Union , within nations and as regards external relations, decided to adopt The White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue “Living together as equals in dignity” (2008)23, in order to provide guidance for the fundamental actions to be done for promoting intercultural dialogue. It recommends, for the next five decades, five political approaches for the improvement of intercultural dialogue namely: “democratic governance of cultural diversity, democratic citizenship and participation, learning and teaching intercultural competences, spaces for intercultural dialogue, intercultural dialogue in international relations”.24 Due to intensified globalization process, last decades made some important steps forward and approached culture as the main tool for dialogue, development, building peace and security. In this framework, UNESCO proclaimed the period 2013-2022 as the

UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity, 02 November 2001, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=13179&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, retrieved February 11, 2016 16 Ibidem, Article 1 17 Ibidem, Preamble 18 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage 2003, 17 October 2003, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.phpURL_ID=17716&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html, retrieved February 11, 2016 19 Ibidem, Article 2 20 Ibidem 21 Decision No 1983/2006/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council concerning the European Year of http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalIntercultural Dialogue (2008), OJ L412/44, 30.12.2006, content/GA/TXT/?uri=celex:32006D1983, retrieved February 15, 2016 22 Ibidem, p.45 23 Council of Europe (2008), White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue:”Living together as equals in dignity”, Strasbourg, June,2008 http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/intercultural/source/white%20paper_final_revised_en.pdf , retrieved February 11, 2016 24 Ibidem, pp.25 - 36 15

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International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures25 and UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 67/104 entitled “Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace”26. This resolution is accompanied by an Action Plan27 which establishes for the next decade as areas of action “promoting mutual understanding and reciprocal knowledge of cultural, ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity; building a pluralist framework for commonly shared values; disseminating the principles and tools of intercultural dialogue through quality education and the media; and fostering dialogue for sustainable development and its ethical, social and cultural dimensions”28. As we can see the concept of culture evolved in the last two centuries, from its recognition as a feature of human existence to a given right and respect of the specificity of human being. Later on culture moved to understanding of its diverse manifestation: admission of humans’ inherent diversity, mutual tolerance and understanding, legitimacy of the “identity” of a person as an “intangible cultural heritage”29. And what is very important to mention, it’s the shift from multiculturalism (the co-existence of people with diverse cultural backgrounds) to interculturality (the interaction of people from diverse cultures) and intercultural dialogue. Cultural diversity and Conflict The international and European legislation mentioned above is actually a response to the challenges that our globalized world faces today: imposing cultural standards of living. The recognition of cultural diversity was a major step made towards its admission as a fundamental component of human identity. Culture itself is characterized with diversity and diversity is shaped by culture. Both are interconnected and equivalent. We can’t speak about one without taking into consideration the other. That’s why international normative uses “cultural diversity” as a comprehensive term. Cultural diversity is present in the features of a social group as much as at individual level in terms of language, way of living, religious or spiritual affiliation, race, experiences of live, ethnicity or nationality. Cultures are not pure; they evolved through civilizations and generations and became a mixture infusing each other. They are constantly changing and dynamic. But every culture has its particular aspects of life that influence its own people, shaping their identities. Every human being has layers of different cultures and what you see at the surface differ from what is inside of a person. That’s why people get to know each other deeply in time. As we said before, belonging to a group with cultural norms, influences someone’s identity but not necessarily his behavior. In this case his personal experience of life must be taken into consideration. Therefore, culture is large and diverse and manifests in different ways when a facet of cultural identity is in danger to be dominated (or is passing through the assimilation process) by force. This is why conflicts burst out; culture is a source of conflict and every conflict has UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022), 10 June 2013, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002211/221198e.pdf, retrieved February 11, 2016 26 United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 67/104, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace, A/RES/67/104 , 26 March 2013, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002211/221198e.pdf , retrieved February 10, 2016 27 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Action Plan for the International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022), 03 March 2014, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002266/226664e.pdf, retrieved February 10, 2016 28 Ibidem, Annex I, p.3 29 Ibidem 25

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constantly a cultural part. One may say that culture and conflict are interconnected and nowadays conflicts are a proof of that. Let’s take for example the case of Iraq - Iran conflict that involves different religious groups namely Arabs and Persian, or the conflicts in Middle East family-oriented societies (governed by tribal systems) which are nurtured by disputing or rival tribes. Other examples envisage Pakistan conflict that has been lasting for almost three decades and involves two ethnic/sectarian groups – Shia and Sunni, the Northern Ireland tensions between Irish Catholics and Protestants, the Ukrainian-Russian cultural conflict over the status of the Russian language and their national identity, Muslims versus Orthodox Christian in Russia. And examples can go on. Actually, going back in time, in the Middle Ages history registered many conflicts with cultural components and one best example are the Crusades. Migration process also involves a contact between cultural diverse groups of people and generates in many cases resistance to adjust (traditional cultural values) to new cultures (social norms) and implicitly provokes conflicts. Migration changes inevitably both cultures that are colliding. In the acculturation process (the interaction between the migrant's culture and the host country culture) reciprocity in understanding the needs of migrants is vital. A partial adoption of the new culture preserving the original culture links is advisable as an integrative way. As a whole, the present global condition is characterized by intercultural dynamic where cultural diversity must not be considered as a treat. It requires understanding. “Such understanding “would provide a basis for the creation of a new spirit which, guided by recognition of our growing interdependence and a common analysis of the risks and challenges of the future, would induce people to implement common projects or to manage the inevitable conflicts in an intelligent and peaceful way” […] and “to escape from the dangerous cycle sustained by cynicism and complacency” 30. Is not enough "to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbors", as United Nations proclaimed in its Charter31, it was necessary to have a new approach that had to take into consideration the interdependence between cultures. 2011 was a remarkable year when intercultural relations became a key element of foreign policy of the states. As UN stated, it necessitated “for a firm commitment from all Member States of the United Nations to reduce and eliminate any notion of an ill-defined "clash of civilizations" which is rather a "clash of ignorances", through authentic dialogue among civilizations, cultures and peoples”32. In searching of new ways to approach the diversified range of threats to peace, UNESCO, designated by the UN as the main agency that promotes dialogue among the cultures, “shifted away from the concern with the disarmament-peace nexus […], and turned towards emphasizing the role of dialogue and understanding in a world of diversity“33 where “the universality of the fundamental principles of peace can then only be strengthened by genuine dialogue among cultures”.34 Extract from Tawil, S. and Cougoureux, M. (2013) in UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Learning to live together, Annex 1The Four Pillars of Learning, Paris, France,2014, p.93 http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002272/227208E.pdf , retrieved February 12, 2016 31 United Nations, Charter of the United Nations, 24 October 1945, Preamble, http://www.un.org/en/sections/uncharter/preamble/index.html , retrieved February 14, 2016 32 UN Chronicle, The Magazine of the United Nations, What the UN Can Do to Promote Dialogue among Civilizations? Vol. XLIX No. 3, September, 2012, http://unchronicle.un.org/article/what-un-can-do-promotedialogue-among-civilizations, retrieved February 15, 2016 33 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), High panel on Peace and Dialogue among cultures, UNESCO, 18 February 2010, p.2, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0018/001869/186995e.pdf, retrieved February 15, 2016 34 Ibidem, p.3 30

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Intercultural dialogue and Intercultural competences The recognition on intercultural dialogue as a key element on foreign policy means a change of attitude. At political level this is a great achievement with a great impact on detecting the source of conflict. It may be considered “a management tool of peaceful coexistence among states”35. International and national organizations play a key role in learning people to live and interact in a more and more diverse cultural environment. Not engaging into dialogue became a risk that must be taken into consideration. The lack of intercultural dialogue can develop “a stereotypical perception of the other, build up a climate of mutual suspicion, tension and anxiety, use minorities as scapegoats, and generally foster intolerance and discrimination. The breakdown of dialogue within and between societies can provide, in certain cases, a climate conducive to the emergence, and the exploitation by some, of extremism and indeed terrorism. Intercultural dialogue, including on the international plane, is indispensable between neighbors”36. In this context one may conclude that globalization invites us to become intercultural persons that must place cultural traits alongside human rights, democratic fundamentals and universal values. Intercultural dialogue means no limitation to any kind of affiliation – linguistic, cultural, religious or traditional – that creates dispensation and conflict; the acknowledgement of the existence of cultural diversity is not sufficient. Intercultural dialogue exceeds multiculturalism and universalism; it’s a responsibility of states to disseminate cultural values, attitudes and conducts that direct to dialogue, peace and the “rapprochement of cultures” as UNESCO named the decade 2013-2020. A good example of this kind of responsibility is the Action Plan of The International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022) which promotes “a new policy design and new stakeholders’ engagement to help bringing people closer together”37. For the first time interreligious dialogue is considered to be a part of intercultural dialogue and “encouraging activities aimed at promoting interreligious and intercultural dialogue38” a major priority “in order to enhance peace and social stability, respect for diversity and mutual respect in diverse communities and to create, at the global level, and also at the regional, national and local levels, an environment conducive to peace and mutual understanding”39. Promotion of intercultural dialogue became urgent. Nevertheless, in order for intercultural dialogue to occur, education is vital because “education fosters the values of tolerance and non-violence.”40 Without “reciprocal knowledge European Union, European agenda for culture, Work plan for culture 2011-2014, Report on the role of public arts and cultural institutions in the promotion of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue, January 2014, p.10, http://ec.europa.eu/culture/library/reports/201405-omc-diversity-dialogue_en.pdf , retrieved February 15, 2016 36 Council of Europe (2008), White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue:”Living together as equals in dignity”, Strasbourg, June,2008 , p.16, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/intercultural/source/white%20paper_final_revised_en.pdf , retrieved February 20, 2016 37 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Action Plan for the International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022), 03 March 2014, Annex I, p.2, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002266/226664e.pdf, retrieved February 20, 2016 38 United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 67/104, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace, A/RES/67/104 , 26 March 2013, p.2, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002211/221198e.pdf , retrieved February 10, 2016 39 Ibidem 40 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Action Plan for the International Decade for the Rapprochement of Cultures (2013-2022), 03 March 2014, Annex II, p.2, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002266/226664e.pdf, retrieved February 20, 2016 35

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of cultural, ethnic, linguistic and religious diversity”41 and intercultural competences, solidarity

and security in this globalized world will never be achieved. Intercultural competences are indispensable for addressing intercultural relations mostly because they became a feature, an intrinsic part of our globalized world. Nowadays they are a quintessential resource “to help individuals negotiate cultural boundaries throughout their personal encounters and experiences”42. Intercultural competences are defined as “having adequate relevant knowledge about particular cultures, as well as general knowledge about the sorts of issues arising when members of different cultures interact, holding receptive attitudes that encourage establishing and maintaining contact with diverse others, as well as having the skills required to draw upon both knowledge and attitudes when interacting with others from different cultures”43.

whether at intrastate level, interstate level or global level. Our world needs individuals who are interculturally skilled and able to find collaboratively solutions for keeping peace and security. International organizations promote a radically change in the way people must value and pursue to cultivate intercultural skills in their everyday life. UNESCO recommends some relevant ones, namely:  “Respect -valuing of others;  Self-awareness/identity - understanding the lens through which we each view the world;  Seeing from other perspectives/world views - both how these perspectives are similar and different;  Listening - engaging in authentic intercultural dialogue;  Adaptation - being able to shift temporarily into another perspective;  Relationship building - forging lasting cross-cultural personal bonds;  Cultural humility - combines respect with self awareness” 44. CONCLUSION Carl Gustav Jung noted that “in the history of the collective as in the history of the individual, everything depends on the development of the consciousness”45. We think this citation may be applied on “interculturality” issue because globalization is all about people’s consciousness of mutual interactions and respect. Ibidem, Annex I, p.3 Ibidem, p.5 43 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Intercultural competences , Conceptual and Operational Framework, 2013, p.17, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002197/219768e.pdf 44 Deardorff , D.K. (2011). Promoting understanding and development of intercultural dialogue and peace: A comparative analysis and global perspective of regional studies on intercultural competence. Report of the State of the Arts and Perspectives on Intercultural Competences and Skills, in UNESCO, Intercultural competences , Conceptual and Operational Framework, 2013, p.24, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002197/219768e.pdf, retrieved February 20, 2016 45 C.G.Jung, Collected Works of C.G. Jung: Complete Digital Edition, Part I- Archetypes and the Collective Unconsciousness, Vol.9, Edited and translated by Gerhard Adler and R.F.C.Hull, Princeton University Press, 1980, pp.271-272, https://books.google.ro/books?id=HhU3AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA272&lpg=PA272&dq=Jung+in+the+history+of+th e+collective+everything+depends+on+the+consciousness&source=bl&ots=P23OkVgFiB&sig=1pa3Z3K6yjmH Yp_uzdLUc04Uibo&hl=ro&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj4tY_TvvrKAhXIlCwKHQjQDtEQ6AEIIDAA#v=onepage &q=Jung%20in%20the%20history%20of%20the%20collective%20everything%20depends%20on%20the%20co nsciousness&f=false 41 42

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Considering that the global interconnectivity increased cultural exchanges and same cultural habits appeared among people all over the world, one may conclude that interculturality generated, aside from pressures, disputes and conflicts, an open road to innovative possibilities for transforming our “unitary” society into a secure one. And since global unity tends to depend on developing intercultural consciousness, achieving intercultural competences and skills represents that quality – insurance way to fully involve in building a secure society.

BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Council of Europe (2008), White Paper on Intercultural Dialogue:”Living together as equals in dignity”, Strasbourg, 2008 United Nations, General Assembly Resolution 67/104, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace, A/RES/67/104 , 2013 UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Constitution of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 1945 http://eur-lex.europa.eu www.un.org http://unesdoc.unesco.org

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LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL ASPECTS OF TRANSLATION IN GLOBAL MARKETING Virginia Mihaela DUMITRESCU Lecturer, Bucharest University of Economic Studies [email protected] Abstract: Past and present-day theories of translation acknowledge “equivalence” as the governing principle of rendering a message from one language into another, while at the same time admitting that, in actual translation practice, perfect equivalence (in form, meaning, and overall effect on the target reader/ listener) may often be just an ideal to be sought after, rather than a fact. The difficulty of achieving perfect equivalence is true not only about the most linguistically and rhetorically complex type of translation (that is, the “transference” of literary texts into a foreign language) but also about various categories of translation of non-literary texts and messages. This article analyzes the multiple challenges faced by translators in the area of global marketing, with a focus on brand and advertising translation, where strictly linguistic equivalence or trans-coding must be accompanied by cultural competence and “ localization” to ensure the success of business communication across national borders. Keywords: interlingual translation, transcoding, literal translation, transliteration, localization

PRINCIPLES AND REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD TRANSLATION According to traditional translation theory, equivalence, understood as both semantic and stylistic fidelity to the original, is the indispensable condition for a good translation, and the major principle underlying any interlingual “transference”. The overarching requirement of translation success is naturalness: “the reader should, if possible, forget that it is a translation at all, and be lulled into the illusion that he is reading an original work”1, an idea reiterated by Eugene Nida, who also considers that a translation should look as if it were an original, without any “trace of awkwardness or strangeness”2. Consequently, Nida notes, it should be apt to produce an effect on the target reader similar to the one the original must have had on its readers3; in other authors’ opinion, however, that effect cannot be estimated4. The translator is therefore perpetually torn between incompatible requirements (fidelity and freedom, literalism and concentration on meaning, “the letter vs. the spirit” 5 - or the 1 Francis W. Newman, quoted by Matthew Arnold, “On Translating Homer. Three Lectures Given at Oxford, 1861”, in Essays, Oxford University, 1914, accessed February 1, 2016, on https://archive.org/stream/essaysbymatthewa00arnorich#page/242/mode/2up, p. 245 2 Eugene Nida, Language, Culture, and Translating, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993, p. 13 3 See Eugene Nida, Language, Culture, and Translating, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993, p. 24. See also Alexander Fraser Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation, London: J.M. Dent & Co, 1900, accessed February 6, 2016, https://archive.org/stream/essayonprinciple00wood_0#page/n5/ mode/2up, p. 113, and Peter Newmark, A Handbook of Translation, London: Prentice Hall, 1988, p. 48 4 Matthew Arnold, “On Translating Homer. Three Lectures Given at Oxford, 1861”, in Essays, Oxford University Press, 1914, accessed November 15, 2015, on https://archive.org/stream/essaysbymatthewa00 arnorich#page/242/mode/2up, p. 246. 5 Eugene Nida, Toward a Science of Translating. With Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating, Leiden: R. J. Brill, 1964, accessed February 10, 2016, on http://www.worldcat.org/title/toward-a-science-of-translating-with-special-reference-to-principles-andprocedures-involved-in-bible-translating/oclc/778941/viewport, pp. 2-3

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contradictory imperatives of finding the exact semantic equivalent (the “matter”) and preserving the exact “manner” of the original6. In translation practice, multiple linguistic and non-linguistic factors seem to raise a difficult-to-surmount barrier between the translated text and the original, between the personality of the translator and that of the original text, or between the source language and the target language, making perfect equivalence appear as an ideal to be sought after rather than a fact. From the semantic point of view, something is always inevitably lost in any act of translation. Even the translation of isolated words, or linguistic “code units”, Jakobson argues, may become problematic for a translator bent on achieving perfect equivalence: “…on the level of interlingual translation, there is ordinarily no full equivalence between code-units, while messages may serve as adequate interpretations of alien code-units or messages. The English word “cheese” cannot be completely identified with its standard Russian heteronym “сыр,” because cottage cheese is a cheese but not a сыр. Russians say: принеси сыру и творогу “bring cheese and [sic] cottage cheese.” In standard Russian, the food made of pressed curds is called сыр only if ferment is used.”7 Moreover, translation is not just a matter of linguistic code-switching, or “transcoding”8, i.e. a mere transference from one language into another, and difficulties are not confined to strictly lexical and grammatical differences or inequalities between the source and the target language (e.g., the layers of meanings and connotations attached to words in the course of linguistic communication over time, the inexistence of similar idiomatic expressions9, or very different grammatical structures, noticed by some authors10 (Jakobson, pag 235)), but may also include cultural factors that can separate not only different languages but even varieties of the same language (such as British and American English, which use a different, culturally-determined, rhetoric11). The translator should be familiar with the cultural environment of the target reader in order to render a text correctly into another language. As a matter of fact, the interlingual translator’s task may sometimes become almost as daunting as that of an “intersemiotic” translator performing a “transmutation”12, or the transference of a verbal message to a non-verbal system of symbols, if we consider the interlingual translator’s mediation between symbolic systems of the same kind (linguistic), yet as far apart as those of Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, using totally different alphabets and ways of expressing ideas (e.g. Romanian vs. Chinese). 6 Matthew Arnold, “On Translating Homer. Three Lectures Given at Oxford, 1861”. In Essays, pp. 245-426, Oxford University Press, 1914, accessed January 24, 2016, on https://archive.org/stream/essaysbymatthewa00arnorich#page/242/mode/2up, p. 253 7 Roman Jakobson, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, in On Translation, Reuben A. Brower, ed., pp. 231239, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959, accessed February 12, 2016, on http://www.monoskop.org/images/6/68/Jakobson_Roman_1959_On_Linguistic_Aspects_of_Translation.pdf, p. 233 8 Christiane Nord , “Paratranslation – A New Paradigm or a Re-invented Wheel?” , in Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 20:4, Routledge, 2012 ( pp. 399-409), accessed February 14, 2016, on http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2012.726231, p. 404 9 Alexander Fraser Tytler, Essay on the Principles of Translation. London: J.M. Dent & Co, 1900, accessed February 6, 2016, on https://archive.org/stream/essayonprinciple00wood_0#page/n5/mode/2up, p. 147 10 Roman Jakobson, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, in On Translation, Reuben A. Brower, ed., pp. 231-239, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1959, accessed February 12, 2016, on http://www.monoskop.org/images/6/68/Jakobson_Roman_1959_On_Linguistic_Aspects_of_Translation.pdf, p. 235 11 Virginia Mihaela Dumitrescu, “The Cultural Dimension of Rhetoric: The Use of Meiosis and Hyperbole in British and Amertican English”, in Synergy, vol. 8, no. 2/2012, Bucureşti: Editura ASE, pp. 161-167 12 Roman Jakobson, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, in On Translation, Reuben A. Brower, ed., pp. 231-239, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1959, accessed February 12, 2016, on http://www.monoskop.org/images/6/68/Jakobson_Roman_1959_On_Linguistic_Aspects_of_Translation.pdf, p. 233

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Out of all translation areas, literary translation (which involves dealing with the most linguistically and rhetorically complex type of language, and requires special attention to the overall aesthetic effect of the text) best exemplifies the constant risk of translation failure caused by the lack of linguistic and stylistic equivalence. Non-literary translation, on the other hand, may sometimes be equally difficult, as it may pose various challenges ranging from linguistic and stylistic adequacy (e.g. the use of specific vocabulary, clarity of expression, stylistic equivalence) to cultural appropriateness. One such example, which requires a great deal of linguistic and cultural competence, as well as the ability to express ideas briefly, clearly and convincingly, is translation in the area of global marketing, especially brand and advertising translation. CHALLENGES POSED BY ADVERTISING AND BRAND TRANSLATION VIEWED AS LINGUISTIC AND CULTURAL MEDIATION In the case of advertising, translation largely involves an illocutionary speech act of persuasion which is characterized by an intensive use of rhetorical means, and whose validity is judged by the extent to which it produces the intended effect on target customers through a a convincing message that brings together a multitude of elements such as ideas, the advertising text proper, visual/ graphic elements, music, etc., in a coherent, cohesive, whole. This is in keeping with the primary function of an advertising text (or “advertising copy”), which is to persuade people to buy new products and services or to continue using already familiar ones, by informing them about the availability and characteristics of those products and services, as well as about their competitive advantages over all other products and services available on the market at a certain moment. Linguistically, the main problem posed by advertising translation has to do with the necessity of communicating a great deal of relevant information in an economical, impactful way, using various types of references (historical, mythical, social, artistic, etc.), catch words, verbal clichés, metaphors, humour, rhetorical questions, colloquialisms, idiomatic expressions, and puns exploiting the richness and connotative power of language. Given the extreme brevity of advertising copy, any linguistic blunder will immediately be spotted, producing the opposite effect on the reader/ viewer compared to the intended one, as in the following notorious and oft-quoted examples: “Fly in Leather” (the slogan of Braniff International Airways) , translated into Spanish as “Vuela en cuero” , “Fly Naked”; “Pepsi Brings You Back to Life”, rendered into Chinese as “Pepsi Brings Your Ancestors Back from the Grave”; “Turn it loose”, the Coors Brewing slogan, and its disastrous Spanish translation, “Suffer from Diarrhea”; the advertising message for Parker pen “It won’t leak in your pocket and embarrass you”, and its Spanish “translation”, in which the original English verb “to embarrass” is confused with its Spanish homophone and false friend “embarazar” (to make pregnant).13 Due to the frequent use of rhetorical means and the overt or implied cultural references and suppositions that are specific to this type of marketing communication, advertising translation involves both rigour and flexibility, so it requires, apart from linguistic proficiency and attention to detail, a lot of creativity accompanied by cultural awareness, sensitivity and competence. Language is an essential element of any culture and, as such, it is a reflection of culture-specific patterns of thinking and ways of looking at the world, which becomes apparent especially at its rhetorical level. Each language has its repertoire of positive and negative symbols that are passed down from one generation to another, in the process of enculturation, and are often preserved in the form of proverbs and folklore. In Romanian 13 Erik Qualman, 13 Marketing Translations Gone Wrong, 2011, accessed http://www.socialnomics.net/2011/03/29/13-marketing-translations-gone-wrong/

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culture, the oak, the fir-tree, the rose, the dog, snow, the colour white, are just a few symbols invested with positive connotations including resilience, persistence, love, loyalty, and peace/purity, all of which are considered important values, but they may be attached different connotations in other cultures (for instance, in some Asian cultures, e.g. China, Japan, Korea, India, The Middle East, white has mixed symbolic meanings, including not only purity/ innocence/ peace, but also death/ mourning/ misfortune/ unhappiness). In China, the privileged position held by such centuries-old traditional symbols as “the crane, pine tree, bat, carp, plum tree and flower, and lotus root, leaf, and flower” due to their positive connotations (“fortune, happiness, purity, and longevity”14), makes them favourite rhetorical means used in advertising. In advertising translation, it is important to know that even the values underlying advertising messages may differ substantially across cultures, rendering any reference to them problematic, especially when there is a great cultural distance between the source language and the target language. Values are, after all, the innermost, most important (though “invisible”) elements of culture that largely determine and explain visible manifestations. Advertising messages appeal to a great variety of human needs, motives, and emotions, in other words they engage human personality as a whole, which is, to a great extent, shaped by culture, among other factors. The cultural aspects (values, norms, taboos, thinking and behavioural patterns, ways of communicating ideas and feelings, etc.) that may become apparent in an advertising message range from “dimensions” such as Individualism vs. Collectivism, Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity vs. Femininity, LongTerm Orientation and Indulgence vs. Restraint, as Hofstede and Minkov understand them15, to high-context vs. low-context communication styles16, and to other cultural variables such as Universalism vs. Particularism17, or Expressive vs. Reserved18, to name just a few. The translator’s task is to correctly identify them in the source message and render them into the target language in a culturally sensitive and competent manner so as to avoid blunders that might compromise the entire advertising campaign. For instance, high-context cultures (e.g. Asian cultures, which are also people-/grouporiented, collectivistic, seeking social harmony19) tend to appreciate nonverbal communication, symbolism and an indirect form of address meant to build a relationship between the company and the potential consumers of its products 20 more than low-context individualistic ones (e.g. most Western cultures), which favour clear and direct verbal communication. In spite of the common commercial goal pursued by advertising messages all over the world, such cultural biases will still emerge lexically in advertising messages in the preference shown by collectivistic cultures for less categorical words, e.g. maybe, perhaps, probably, as opposed to “categorical words like absolutely, certainly and positively”21 14 Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13, Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, accessed February 11, 2016, on https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zhenyi_Li/publications, p. 13 15 Geert Hofstede et al., Culturi si organizatii. Softul mental, Bucuresti: Humanitas, 2012 16 Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture, New York: Doubleday, 1976, p. 101 17 Fons Trompenaars, Charles Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture – Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited, 1993 18 Richard R. Gesteland, Cross-Cultural Business Bahaviour, Copenhagen: Handelshojskolens Forlag, 1997 19 Geert Hofstede and Geert Jan Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005; Geert Hofstede et al., Culturi si organizatii. Softul mental, Humanitas, 2012, pp. 94-136 20 Marieke de Mooij, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016, on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising , p. 181 21 William. B. Gudykunst and Stella Ting-Toomey, Culture and Interpersonal Communication, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1988, referred to by Marieke de Mooij, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the

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(Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey, 1988, De Mooij, 2004: 187) preferred by individualistic Western communicators. The low-context and high-context communication styles have also been partly associated with another pair of cultural descriptors that may be relevant to advertising translators: Deal-Focused vs. Relationship-Focused, the so-called “great divide” which separates business cultures, consisting in a similar cultural incompatibility between the pursuit of clarity and directness vs. the pursuit of harmony and trust; this means, on the one hand, people-orientation and a need to build human relationships in the world of business, on the other hand, an orientation towards deals and tasks, with a minimum amount of time spent on rapport-building.22 In the absence of translators’ cultural competence, cultural distance may at best turn a powerful message in the source language into an unconvincing, neutral one in the target language, as illustrated by Nokia’s slogan “Connecting people”, which may have a great impact in an individualistic (e.g. American) cultural setting, but may lose its edge in an already “collectivistic” cultural environment, as defined by Hofstede23; to avoid such situations, translation needs to be supplemented by cultural adaptation, or “localization” in the broad sense of the word, as exemplified by the two subsequent (improved, more culturally appropriate) Chinese versions of Nokia’s slogan, which literally meant “success is because of connecting”, and “science and technology depend on human beings” 24. This only confirms the validity of De Mooij’s remarks that advertising copy is “not made of words, but made of culture”; it consists in “subtle combinations” of words and “the echoes and repercussions of those words within the mind of the reader”, and such “subtleties” cannot be easily approximated in translation.25 As noted by most interculturalists, non-verbal communication may also pose serious problems in situations of intercultural communication, a fact that should be taken into account by advertisers. The importance of culture-specific non-verbal communication may be exemplified by the different ways of advertising the Guy Laroche perfume “Drakkar Noir” in France and in Saudi Arabia, and the adjustments that had to be made in conformity with Saudi Arabian cultural taboos related to nudity and explicit physical interaction between genders: instead of “a man’s nude forearm held at the wrist by a woman’s hand” shown in the French advertisement, the man’s forearm was duly covered, and his hand was shown “lightly touched”26 with one finger by a woman. Brand translation is no less challenging than advertising translation, and requires as much linguistic and cultural competence. As in the case of advertising messages, translators must possess excellent cross-cultural communication skills besides proficiency in both the source and the target languages. The first thing they need to know is that people from different cultural environments, on the one hand, are likely to respond differently to the same words, symbols and images, and on the other hand, they may have different motives for buying a product (grounded in different cultural values such as a need for status, convenience,

Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016 on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising, p. 187 22 Richard R. Gesteland, Cross-Cultural Business Bahaviour, Copenhagen: Handelshojskolens Forlag, 1997 23 Geert Hofstede et al., Culturi si organizatii. Softul mental, Bucuresti: Humanitas, 2012, p. 95 24 Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 1, Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, p. 27 25 Marieke de Mooij, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016, on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising, p. 179 26 Michael R. Czinkota and Ilkka A. Ronkainen, International marketing, New York: Dryden, 1988, p. 616, quoted by Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13. Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, accessed February 11, 2016, on https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zhenyi_Li/publications, p. 28

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aesthetic appearance/ design, environmental protection, etc.27 Attention should also be paid to the fact that certain cultures also observe specific rules when choosing brand names: for instance, in Chinese culture, it is customary to use words that have a positive emotional effect on consumers, carrying such meanings as “lucky”, “auspicious”, “happy”, “power”, “strength”, “good”, “gold”, this being part of the Chinese tradition of turning to words that communicate “cherished desires” or “best wishes” when naming everything and everyone (children, cities, states, objects, commodities, etc.).28 Before rendering brand names into other languages, translators should be fully aware of the meaning and connotation of the original brand names, so that they may avoid linguistic and cultural blunders, after which they should decide on the most adequate translation method, considering the advantages and shortcomings of each, and depending on the specificity of the target language. When translating brand names from an Indo-European language into Chinese, for instance, a translator may choose one of the following options: 1) literal translation, which may work in the case of band names made up of notional words, that is words that can be understood by foreign consumers literally, but may sometimes fail to convey the exact meaning of the original, or to meet the requirement of cultural adequacy29; 2) transliteration, or converting a brand name from one writing system/ alphabet to another (a method frequently used in China and in the Arab World), in case the original brand name includes non-notional words that do not have an identifiable meaning in the source language – for instance, “Nokia” and “Nike” phonetically transliterated into Chinese as “Nuo Ji Ya” (having “nearly no meaning”30), and “Nai Ke” (meaning “Enduring and persevering”)31; in transliteration, however, there is always the risk of semantic blunders; 3) re-naming, an extreme example of “localization” that consists in finding a name that sounds similar to the original and connotes values that are favoured in the target market (as in the Chinese equivalent of “Hewlett Packard” - “Hui”, meaning “benefit”, and “pu”, meaning “popular”), or choosing an altogether different name in the target language that makes reference to the characteristics of the product (for instance, the Finnish brand “Kone”, re-created for the Chinese market as “Tong Li, meaning “general power”.32 Regardless of the method, the translator must remember that the basic characteristics of a brand name in any language are distinctiveness, ease of pronunciation and memorization, total compatibility with the image of the product, and ability to produce the intended emotional effect on the consumer. BY WAY OF CONCLUSION: THE RESPONSIBILITY OF TRANSLATION The above examples have shown that the challenges posed by brand and advertising translations can be dealt with only if linguistic proficiency is accompanied by creativity and cultural competence. Translating an advertising message into another language practically means re-creating it in such a way as to make it understandable, interesting, and convincing to 27 Marieke De Mooij, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016 on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising, p. 191 28 Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13, Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, pp. 102-103 29 Marieke de Mooij, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016, on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising, p. 188 30 Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13, Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, p. 106 31 Chalmers, Carly, 12 Amazing Translations of Chinese Brand Names, 2013, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.todaytranslations.com/blog/12-amazing-translations-of-chinese-brand-names/. 32 Zhenyi Li, “Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China”, in Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13, Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, pp. 105-106

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potential customers from a different cultural environment, who are very likely to differ from domestic customers in many respects (e.g. value system, preferred communication style, way of processing information, motives for buying, aesthetic criteria). Brand translation also requires re-thinking, re-creation, cultural adaptation and responsibility, considering the fact that brands are regarded as companies’ most valuable assets. To a greater extent than many other categories of translation, brand and advertising translation needs both rigour and creativity to avoid the inevitable pitfalls that might compromise the success of the entire marketing effort. Brand and advertising translation is both an art and a science, with the added responsibility of contributing to a company’s effort of foraying into new markets, or consolidating its position in existing ones. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

12.

13. 14.

Arnold, Matthew, “On Translating Homer. Three Lectures Given at Oxford, 1861”, in Essays, Oxford University, 1914, p. 245. Accessed February 1, 2016, on https://archive.org/stream/essaysbymatthewa00arnorich#page/242/mode/2up. Chalmers, Carly. 12 Amazing Translations of Chinese Brand Names, 2013, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.todaytranslations.com/blog/12-amazingtranslations-of-chinese-brand-names/. Czinkota, Michael R. and Ilkka A. Ronkainen, International marketing, New York: Dryden, 1988 De Mooij, Marieke, “Translating Advertising. Painting the Tip of the Iceberg”, in The Translator, vol. 10, no. 2, 2004, accessed February 11, 2016 on http://www.academia.edu/1290228/Translating_Advertising Dumitrescu, V. M., “The Cultural Dimension of Rhetoric: The Use of Meiosis and Hyperbole in British and Amertican English”, in Synergy, vol. 8, no. 2/2012, pp. 161167, Bucureşti: Editura ASE. Gesteland, Richard R., Cross-Cultural Business Bahaviour, Copenhagen: Handelshojskolens Forlag, 1997. Gudykunst, William. B. and Stella Ting-Toomey, Culture and Interpersonal Communication, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1988 Hall, Edward T., Beyond Culture, New York: Doubleday, 1976 Hofstede, Geert and Geert Jan Hofstede, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, 2nd ed., New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005 Hofstede, Geert, Gert Jan Hofstede and Michael Minkov, Culturi şi organizaţii. Softul mental, Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2012 Jakobson, Roman, “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation”, in On Translation, Reuben A. Brower, ed., pp. 231-239, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1959, accessed February 12, 2016, on http://www.monoskop.org/images/6/68/Jakobson_Roman_1959_On_Linguistic_Aspe cts_of_Translation.pdf Li, Zhenyi, Cultural Impact on International Branding. A Case of Marketing Finnish Mobile Phones in China. In Jyväskylä Studies in Communication 13. Jyväskylä : Jyväskylän Yliopisto, 2001, p. 28, accessed February 11, 2016, on https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Zhenyi_Li/publications Newmark, Peter, A Handbook of Translation, London: Prentice Hall, 1988 Nida, Eugene, Toward a Science of Translating. With Special Reference to Principles and Procedures Involved in Bible Translating, Leiden: R. J. Brill, 1964, accessed February 10, 2016 on http://www.worldcat.org/title/toward-a-science-of-translating-

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15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

with-special-reference-to-principles-and-procedures-involved-inbibletranslating/oclc/778941/ viewport Nida, Eugene, Language, Culture, and Translating, Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1993 Christiane Nord , “Paratranslation – A New Paradigm or a Re-invented Wheel?” , in Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 20:4, Routledge, 2012,( pp. 399-409), accessed February 14, 2016, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0907676X.2012.726231 Erik Qualman, 13 Marketing Translations Gone Wrong, 2011, accessed January 28, 2016 http://www.socialnomics.net/2011/03/29/13-marketing-translations-gone-wrong/ Trompenaars, Fons, Charles Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture – Understanding Cultural Diversity in Business, London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing Limited, 1993 Tytler, Alexander Fraser, Essay on the Principles of Translation. London: J.M. Dent & Co, 1900, accessed February 6, 2016, https://archive.org/stream/essayonprinciple00wood_0#page/n5/mode/2up

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E-LEARNING IN THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY Monica CONDRUZ-BACESCU Lecturer Ph.D, Academy of Economic Studies, [email protected] Abstract: The article presents how e-learning managed to develop in the knowledge society. E-learning means acquiring knowledge and/or achieving competencies through technology or using computer and Internet. The notion of knowledge society is used worldwide today, being an abbreviation of the term knowledge-based society. The knowledge society is more than just information society, encompassing it. Therefore, the knowledge society is possible only grafted on the information society and cannot be separated from it. Information society integrates the objectives of sustainable development based on social justice and equal opportunities, environmental protection, freedom, cultural diversity and innovative development, restructuring of industry and business environment. New information and communication technologies change the perspective on educational practice, complementing the educational framework with modern learning methodologies specific to the information society. E-learning does not want to replace traditional educational systems, but wants to reinforce the learning process. At the organizational level, e-learning systems can promote a collaborative learning, optimizing the organizational learning process specific to modern enterprises. Ensuring the availability of services and educational resources on the Internet, e-education will generate a better prepared workforce, more flexible and adapted to market requirements with positive effects on labor productivity, wages and employment. Keywords: e-learning, knowledge society, information society, internet, lifelong learning, information and communication technologies

PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS Nowadays society is characterized by a multilateral development involving reforms in the cultural, social, political, technological framework. In such a changing environment, a state’ human resource is the most valuable capital. The added value of human resource is closely dependent on the level of education; thus a genuine knowledge society is a society of lifelong learning. The knowledge society - this is the generic name of society today- refers to the fact that access to information as well as processing the information obtained is unrestricted, being accentuated by the currently existing technologies and mainly by Internet. The term knowledge society is preferable to the information society, with a larger coverage area of the changes taking place in accordance with their dynamism and complexity. In these circumstances, the e-learning system makes its appearance that aims to give the learning process new concepts, following that learning as an activity, to be conducted according to the needs and possibilities of the eager one for knowledge, without restrictions of time, date and presence. First of all, one must understand what is the notion of e-learning. What is the meaning of this word? Certainly each of us has heard it at least once, but what is its significance? A brief but concise definition would be that e-learning means acquiring knowledge and/or achieving competencies through technology or using computer and Internet. Achieving the learning objectives is made through online courses. E-learning system does not try to impose a revolution in the education system, but proposes a step further for the educational process by increasing the capacity to meet the demands and possibilities of the trainees, given the rapid pace of our lives. We increasingly need a more flexible education system, in which the one involved in training activities to contribute, a system to stimulate further learning and the desire to acquire more knowledge. Through the e-learning system, combining the direct 113


approach and distance education, it is managed to join other ways of expression, such as visual and / or auditory. Thus, it delineates the specific of e-learning system, a system which requires another dynamics of the teaching and learning processes, being able to provide a learning content and facilitate access to learning using a specially designed multimedia environment. The e-learning system, resorting to using digital environment, “develops human potential, without constraining to co-presence or timing”1. Examples of these digital technologies can be databases, bases which make possible the processing and handling of huge volumes of information, without taking into account the storage capacity of the person who uses them. The value of this system is to contribute to the transition from an information society to a knowledge society. Interculturality, common today, refers to cultural diversity and the existence of a convergence point to make possible communication between these diverse communities. In this respect, we notice the conversion of the entire world’ cultural content in a digital form, making it possible to access this information from anywhere, anytime. The word ‘isolation’ is no longer suitable in such a society, whose purpose, among others, is to find strategies that allow unlimited access to culture, helping to spread the idea of knowledge society. The use of e-learning system is especially important as it implies the existence of feedback from interlocutors, which cannot remain indifferent to the tools used by the system, tools that capture the attention and stimulate the desire for exploration, involvement and awareness of trainee’s personal knowledge needs. Therefore, e-learning system leaves its mark, representing a step towards achieving lifelong learning. In Romania, the concept of e-learning entered quite fast, “but very few specialists understood the profound significance of this technology in lifelong education and training”2. Pioneers in the use of e-learning technology in education were several universities in Romania, and several IT-software companies collaborating with some companies abroad. Significant progress has been achieved only after 2000, when these changes have produced their effects. Thus, during that period, influences and impact of web technologies on the education system were found. After 2000, when technologies web 2.0 and learning 2.0 expanded and developed, programs and projects related to strategy development and training, project management, teamwork, methodologies implemented by international standards were approached. The spectacular development of computer science is due to the fact that since the early 1930-1950, were initiated research projects that have reinvented and enriched concepts such as algorithm, language, system, project, management, architecture, so that they have contributed to the real scientific and technological revolutions. Table 1 Development stages of computer science 1990-2000

The last decade of the 21 century was dominated by the emergence and development of connections to Internet and web technology development; the need to develop dynamic web pages caused the occurrence of different technologies: JavaScript, JavaServer Pages (JSP), VBScript, PHP, ASP, Macromedia Dreamweaver, technologies for server applications and others for client applications; in 1998 the Google search engine was launched, and in 2001 the free encyclopedia Wikipedia.

Holmes, B., Gardner, J., E-learning: Concepts in practice. California: SAGE, 2012, p.99 Asandului, D., Ceobanu, C., E-learning in Romanian Higher Education – A study case, In: Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(3). Page 6, 2013, p.6

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2000-2005

During these years it was passed to a new generation web 2.0 where people initiated a wide variety of projects based on revolutionary new technologies; the education system was able to use a variety of technologies and applications for its improvement and efficiency; a lot of platforms emerged: CMS (Content Management Systems), LMS (Learning Management Systems), Wikispaces (Free Wikis for Higher Education, EducationalBlogging wiki); (new releases: 2001 - appears the free encyclopedia Wikipedia, 2004 – Facebook, the social network, appeared, 2005 - YouTube service);

2005-2015

A decade of efforts for various communities (scientific, technical, economic), which is the period of completion for various projects based on educational e-learning technologies and web technologies; it proved that there were many aspects and purposes in the use, ingenuity and vision of users and developers; in Romania many projects were completed, co-financed by the European Social Fund through Sectoral Operational Programme for Human Resources Development (POSDRU) 2007-2013 "Invest in People" (new technologies: 2007 - Steve Jobs from Apple launches iPhone and makes Internet mobile very popular, 2009 - Google launches the Android operating system that will dominate the smartphone market, 2010 –Apple launches iPad, opening tablets era (PC Tablet) and a new way to access the Internet).

Adapted from: www.wikipedia.org Major changes in education were focused on structural reforms and projects and less on the content. In Romania, immediately after 1990, an IT infrastructure for education modernization was needed. We have made significant progress, but only after 2000, these changes have produced effects. Thus, during that period were found influences and impact of web technologies on the education system: • usage of e-mail service by teachers, students and pupils; • development and use of web sites for teaching and research in the entire Romanian education system; • the emergence and use of digital resources for learning; • e-learning technologies in education and changing the attitude of teachers and students to use ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) in education and training. THE KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY AND THE INFORMATION SOCIETY Acquiring knowledge currently benefits from ICT technology through e-learning systems. E-learning, due to expansion and its effectiveness has become an important IT service for developing the knowledge society. “This is because knowledge society nourishes through the learning process, and learning based on e-learning platforms developed on web architecture becomes a global practice”3. The notion of knowledge society is used worldwide today, being an abbreviation of the term knowledge-based society. The knowledge society is more than just information society, encompassing it. Knowledge represents information. Therefore, the knowledge society is possible only grafted on the information society and cannot be separated from it. Palloff, R., Pratt, K., Building Online Learning Communities. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2nd Edition, 2011, p.28

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The information society is characterized by democratization of information, communication, understanding and cooperation. In essence, this society is based on Internet. Information society is a new stage of human civilization, a new high quality lifestyle involving intensive use of information in all spheres of human activity and existence, with a major economic and social impact. Information society allows broad access to information, a new way of working and knowledge, “increases the possibility of economic globalization and social cohesion”4. Table 2 The main features of knowledge society  extension and deepening of scientific knowledge and truth about existence by electronic methods (e-learning).  use and management of existing knowledge in the form of technological and organizational knowledge.  production of new technological knowledge through innovation.  an unprecedented dissemination of knowledge to all citizens by new means, using mainly the Internet and e-learning.  the knowledge society is a new economy where the innovation process is decisive. The influence of the Internet as a market in the information society and recognition of intangible assets value, especially knowledge, are features of the new economy.  the knowledge society is fundamentally necessary to ensure a sustainable society ecologically speaking, because without scientific, technological knowledge and management, those goods will not be produced and technological, economic changes will not occur.  the knowledge society is global and is a factor of globalization.  the knowledge society will represent a new stage in culture; the knowledge culture will be on the first place, involving all forms of knowledge: artistic, literary. Adapted from: Palloff & Pratt, 2011 The progress towards the information society, based on knowledge is regarded worldwide as a necessary development to ensure sustainable development in the context of the new economy based primarily on products and intellectual activities and to achieve an advanced civilization. Knowledge-based information society is more than the progress of information and communication technology and applications, integrating also the following dimensions: social (with impact on health care, solidarity and social protection, employment and labor market, education and lifelong learning), environmental (impact the use of resources and environmental protection), cultural (with impact on conservation and development of national and international cultural heritage, promoting cultural pluralism, the need to protect minors, development of multimedia industry and production of content information) and economic (the development of new paradigms of the digital economy and the new economy based on knowledge, innovation, entrepreneurial and managerial culture, education of consumer and citizen). A vector of the knowledge society is a tool that converts the information society in a knowledge society. Two major classes of vectors belonging to the knowledge society were defined: technological and functional vectors. 4

International Communication Union, Measuring Information Society 2014. Geneva: ITU-D. Page 3, 2014, p.3

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Table 3 Vectors of knowledge society 



 

Technological vectors the internet developed by geographical extension, the use of transmission bands to the widest possible, coverage of every institution in the network, of each home and citizen; intelligent agents artificial intelligence expert systems, used for data mining and even knowledge discovery; intelligent environment for human life activity; nanotechnology and nanoelectronics (which will become the main physical support for information processing, but also for many other functions, not only of the knowledge society and societal consciousness).

       

Functional vectors knowledge management for businesses, organizations, institutions, national and local governments; moral use of knowledge management globally; biological and genomic knowledge; health care system at social and individual level; protecting the environment and ensuring a sustainable society through a specific knowledge management; generating new technological knowledge; develop a culture of knowledge and innovation. an education system based on methods of information and knowledge society (e-learning).

Adapted from: Palloff & Pratt, 2011 The information society is characterized by explosive growth of digital information available through information and communication technology products. This means, for governments and administrations, more efficient, transparent and faster public services, closer to citizens' needs and less costly. Building the information society is a comprehensive, complex and lengthy process, his basic components being technological, financial, economic, social and cultural. Romania should be ready to meet new requirements imposed by the European and world development and Romanian citizens should be able to use information as a resource, in all the activities they carry out. Citizen access to information is a current requirement of Romanian society development, globalization and contemporary globalization processes and phenomena. The development of the information society, based on the development of technical infrastructure, “creates the need to ensure access of any citizen to information or conditions which influence his/her work, study and life”5. Among the main components of the information society can be mentioned: electronic documents, Internet and network services, electronic libraries and virtual libraries, multifunctional information centers for citizens, distance learning, e-commerce and electronic payments, mobile phone, online government services. INFORMATION SOCIETY IN ROMANIA Information society integrates the objectives of sustainable development based on social justice and equal opportunities, environmental protection, freedom, cultural diversity and innovative development, restructuring of industry and business environment. The indicators used to quantify the information society in Romania reveal a strong upward trend in Weller, M., Delivering learning on the Net, the why, what and how of online education. London: Routledge Falmer, 2012, p.65

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2000-2004. During this period, the gaps between Romania and other countries in Central and Eastern Europe subsided and information and communication technology market grew stronger. Communications sector is one of the most dynamic areas of the national economy, which is very attractive for foreign investors. Compared to developed countries, this sector's contribution to GDP (gross domestic product) creation is relatively low in Romania. However, the effects arising from propagation of communication technology and broad access to information, communications deeply influenced economic development. “ICT market in Romania had one of the highest growth rates in the region of Central and Eastern Europe (20.2% in 2014 compared to 2013)”6. This strong growth was partly due to the fact that the Romanian market is less mature and, therefore, has a higher potential for growth. The contribution of ICT to economic growth depends on the development of communications and information technology, as well as the use of ICT in the economy. Romania's progress in the field of information society and its future opportunities are far from satisfactory. Delays are recorded especially in terms of access to Internet, information society services and IT applications’ integration (Information Technology) in the economy. A relevant indicator of the situation concerning the information society in Romania is the level of spending in the IT field. In 2014 IT spending accounted for only “2% of Romania's GDP, less than half the EU average - 4%. Despite an increase from 1.34% in 2010 to 2% in 2014, it continues to be one of the lowest in Europe”7. Some causes may include: lack of funding, reduced investments in the public domain, and poor use of information technology among economic operators. To reduce the gap towards the EU average a lot of investments in ICT infrastructure have to be accomplished. Investments in IT characterizes the innovation percentage of a knowledge-based society, especially through the spread of IT equipment, services and software applications. Expanding broadband networks is a prerequisite for the existence of a knowledge-based economy. Services cannot exist or cannot be developed without the fast and reliable ways to exchange information. Also the development and improvement of electronic public services bring benefits both publicly and privately. Performance analysis in the field of information society shows that Romania has made progresses in the IT in education and public administration, but not enough to succeed in enterprises sector in ICT development. In terms of regional disparities in Romania, they are of two types: inter-regional (between development regions) and intra-regional (within the development regions). In recent years, Romania has experienced a phenomenon of widening disparities both between regions and within regions development. The greatest difference is in Bucharest-Ilfov region and other regions. It should also be reduced the discrepancies between urban and rural areas. To ensure the development of information society at the level of regions development, it is necessary to continually update and expand the existing ICT infrastructure, both locally and nationally. Romania has backlogs in comparison to the average of the new member states regarding the use of computers and Internet access. This has a negative effect on the competitiveness of Romania, because the use of computers and Internet access are major factors in economic development. The evolution of IT market in Romania shows that purchases of computers and Internet connections still remain at a low level, this is mainly due to the low income of population. Although the average annual growth rate of PC sales volume exceeds 50%, Romania is still at a low level in terms of computers equipment. Many underdeveloped regions lack basic infrastructure to ensure their Internet connection, and in some cases there is no access to fixed telephony. One reason for the low penetration of the 6 7

Anghel, T., Instrumente Web 2.0 utilizate în educatie. Cluj-Napoca : Ed. Albatros, 2014, p.63 Idem, p.68

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Internet is that in some cases, even if there is the technical possibility to connect to a network, the tariffs are much higher than for large urban areas. Low penetration is due to the high cost of fixed telephony and Internet compared to the average income of the population. Another reason is represented by the low investments in infrastructure. Of all households in Romania more than half (54.4%) have access to the Internet network at home, the majority (70.9%) of them concentrating in urban areas. During 2014, the Internet connection was more prevalent in households in the Bucharest-Ilfov area (76.7%), followed at a great distance by the regions West, North-West (61.3% and 58.3 %), Southeast and Center (51.8% and 50.2%). The lowest share of households with Internet connection is in the regions South Muntenia (46.1%), South West Oltenia (47.1%) and Northeast (48.3%). In terms of household size, there is a correlation between the number of people in the household and the increased interest in connecting to the Internet. (www.insse.ro) Table 4 Households with internet connection The percentage of households with home internet connection, according to the size of household in 2014 Households with 1 person 24.9% Households with 2 persons 45.3% Households with 3 persons 78.2% Households with 4 persons 78.5% Households with 5 and more 65.2% persons Source: www.insse.ro A large proportion of households (84.7%) use PCs to access the Internet from home. Laptop computers, tablets are used by 1 in 3 households. In a much less percentage other devices are used such as mobile phones and smartphones (20.0%). The types of connections used to access the Internet from home are in a proportion of 88.2% fixed broadband connections, followed at a great distance by mobile broadband connections (24.5%) and narrowband connections (9.1%). Most households that opted for fixed broadband Internet connections in 2014, come from regions Bucharest-Ilfov (16.3%), Northeast (14.3%) and North West (13.4%). By means of the mobile broadband connections were frequently connected households in Bucharest Ilfov (20.1%), North-West and South-Muntenia (16.3% and 16.0%). (www.insse.ro) Of all persons aged 16 to 74 years, the proportion of those who have ever used Internet was 61.6%. Among current users, 60.0% use this tool on a daily basis or almost daily. Among men aged 35-44 years, 52.5% used Internet daily or almost daily, compared with 54.4% of women in the same age group. To age group 55-64 years, the situation is reversed, the difference between women and men in terms of Internet use daily or almost daily is 6 percentage (35.0% women, and 41.0% men). On development regions, the share of people who have used the Internet was 80.7% in Bucharest - Ilfov and is the highest percentage in the country. At a considerable distance, is the West and North - East regions with 70.4% and 62.6%, and the other regions with proportions less than 60%. (www.insse.ro) In 2014, of all people aged 16 to 74 years, the proportion of those who used a computer at least once was 63.2%. By residence, frequency of computer use is clearly different in urban areas, the number of people who use computer surpassing twice that of rural users. Among those 16-74 years living in rural areas, more than half never used a computer. Even in young people aged between 16 and 34 years, living in rural areas, the percentage of those who do not use computers is 22.7%. On development regions, relatively small proportions of computer users are recorded among persons 16-74 years old from the following 119


regions: Northeast (63.3%), Central (61.7%), Southeast (60.2%), North West (59.0%), SouthWest Oltenia (56.8%) and South-Muntenia (54.2%) and the highest proportions in BucharestIlfov (81.3%) and West regions (73.5%). The proportion of men computer users is slightly higher than women: 65.3% vs. 61.1%. The age of people is important regarding the use of computers, meaning that it decreases in the higher age groups. (www.insse.ro) Table 5 The age group 16-74 years old regarding computer usage in 2014 The age group 16-24 years old 25-34 years old 35-44 years old 45-54 years old 55-64 years old 65-74 years old Source: www.insse.ro

Persons that never used computers 9.7 16 24.4 40.9 60.9 82.8

Persons that used computers 90.3 84 75.6 59.1 39.1 17.2

By the end of 2015, 783 localities in Romania will be connected to the Internet, under the RO-NET project: “Building a national broadband infrastructure in disadvantaged areas through the use of structural funds". The project is co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund and has a total value of 377.838.279.59 lei. Developed during eleven months, the project aims to build a national infrastructure for broadband communications in the provision of electronic communications services in disadvantaged rural areas, which, at this time, have no coverage for high speed internet services. RO-NET will cover 783 of the 2.268 localities identified by a feasibility study as "white areas" with market failure, where operators had no plans to invest. The project will help reduce the digital divide between urban and rural areas, bringing broadband internet closer to approximately 130.000 households with about 400.000 inhabitants, about 8.500 companies and 2.800 public institutions. The new distribution network will have about 4843km. (www.mcsi.ro) E-LEARNING IN THE BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT New information and communication technologies change the perspective on educational practice, complementing the educational framework with modern learning methodologies specific to the information society. “E-learning does not want to replace traditional educational systems, but wants to reinforce the learning process”8. Adopted in schools, as an alternative to traditional education, it leads to the formation of distance learning. At the same time, it facilitates the process of life-long learning / training of the community’ members who adopt an e-learning solution. At the organizational level, elearning systems can promote a collaborative learning, optimizing the organizational learning process specific to modern enterprises. Rapid erosion of knowledge makes e-learning a tool for delivering knowledge in the network (Internet, Intranet), effective (based on the best knowledge and experience, oriented on applications), economic (reduction of the educational process traditionally done in classrooms) and adapted to the demands of lifelong learning. An e-learning platform can be used for individual online courses or in virtual universities, etraining in companies, online workshops, as a collaborative virtual space and promoting organizational learning. Both individual learning and especially the collective one will enrich Conole, G., Oliver, M., Contemporary Perspectives in E-learning Research, Themes, Methods and Impact on Practice. London: Routledge, 2014, p.85

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knowledge, intellectual capital of the organization, the notion of learning meaning much more than training. The huge success of an organization is largely due to its ability to create organizational knowledge, i.e to have the ability as a whole to create new knowledge, disseminate this knowledge in all departments and to incorporate it in its products, services and systems. “Used first in traditional educational process, e-learning has quickly penetrated the management of economic business”9. In the knowledge society, business management focuses on implementing a strategy centered on competitive intelligence. Competitive intelligence is the result of organizational culture constituted by the synthesis of information in personal and group knowledge, a synthesis supported through individual and collective learning process. Elearning systems are true knowledge management tools in an organization. Members in groups on an e-learning platform have access to structured information and presented appropriately to the targets of learning process and dissemination of knowledge. By browsing facility of the learning units, of download and upload, email, chat, forum and blog, e-learning platform is a support for virtual group relationships, becomes a collaborative work environment and therefore a better basis for valuing experience and knowledge accumulation. E-learning platform becomes an important component of knowledge management support system (KMSS). In an e-learning system three main actors are involved: the user (the term used for trainees); instructor or teacher; platform administrator. Each has available, depending on the technical solution implemented, a series of menus and tools. The instructor is the one who provides the operative management of courses. Courses management means: a. creating and posting courses in compliance with a tree structure of chapters and subchapters that can be taken sequentially or accessed directly; b. creating a database of questions and based on their verification tests, the trainer can appreciate every question with marks / points differentiated from one test to another. c. additional documentation of the course by providing additional information resources: links to other sites in the web space, a database with answers of FAQ type, or even dictionaries; d. updating the course, the questions and tests by modifications or reordering the contents, tests; e. monitoring the students activity, from their enrollment and continuing with their marks for the quality of work. The students should be enrolled on differentiated groups: beginners, advanced - or other criteria. The instructor will monitor the work of each student. f. communicating with users via email, forum or blog. Moreover, the trainer can observe the role of his work among students through pools. The results of these pools are corroborated with statistical reports that an e-learning platform provides regarding the access to courses posted by the instructor. The user, learner is one who uses lessons, tests and other information resources available through the e-learning platform. He has available a number of options set by instructor and administrator of the platform. Possibilities of communication between students through traditional instruments of Internet- site, mail, forum or blog available on e-learning platforms; common areas of work, file-storage for collective projects, all contribute to the formation of cooperative work skills, absolutely necessary for teamwork. More and more professionals in human resources underline that the success of a project depends really on the project manager’ leader qualities but it also matters the quality of the working team. Pritchard, A., Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. Pedagogy and Practice. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2011, p.79

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To increase the competitiveness of the Romanian economy is necessary to develop a safe and dynamic e-business environment by increasing the number and degree of exploitation of e-business opportunities by companies in general and especially by small and medium size enterprises. Electronic commerce in particular, as ITC in general, can generate significant cost savings in the long term and may also facilitate access to domestic and foreign markets. “E-business is a new way of conducting business through electronic networking (Internet), effectively, with speed, innovation and creating new value in an organization”10. Whether the percentage of firms that have access to Internet is half the EU average, the percentage of those who have a web page is lower, respectively one third of the EU average. Banks had in 2003 a very aggressive promotion of electronic payment instruments (ebanking), currently there is a trend change in how the cards are used not only to withdraw cash, but also for direct payments. The effort was justified, given that 8 million Romanians own valid cards. “The market increased in 2013 by 30% and the volume of transactions increased by 60%”11. However, there is a growing interest in such services, both due to the popularization at governmental level and programs undertaken by banks. The use of bank cards is still mostly focused on cash withdrawal, although there may be a tendency of behavior modification for cardholder due to the increase in commercial systems. Banks in Romania have online transactions such as home-banking, Internet banking and mobile banking. With regard to electronic commerce (e-commerce) in Romania the percentage of those purchasing goods online (25%) is rather low compared to the EU average, but higher to percentages in Hungary, Bulgaria and Latvia. Although, in recent years the statistics data on e-commerce showed an upward trend, however, they show a low share of total trade. The low number of users in e-commerce is reflected by the reduced value of the turnover obtained from online trade. “In 2013, the share of e-commerce in total turnover was 5% in Romania, compared to 10% in the EU”12. The main reasons for the poor development of e-commerce in Romania are incomplete legislation and lack of confidence in the transactions security. CONCLUSIONS The essence of the market economy is the trust in the opportunities offered by unlimited competition between the main actors. Any product that can be traded must be sold on the market, including information. There is a growing concern in this respect that in the near future information will not be distributed for free. It will be emphasized in this context, the polarity of access to information, which will see a concentration in the triad - USA, EU, and Japan – these countries already completing the transition to the information society. The industrial revolution did not resolve discrepancies between rich and poor, in many cases emphasizing them, which led to many social conflicts. In the context of intensifying globalization in the world economy, the overwhelming power of new information and communication technologies can lead to the concentration of information in the hands of a small group of people who already own most of the world's wealth. As information means power, it is advisable to avoid its concentration, thereby creating the prerequisites for communication and collaboration between people regardless the region they are located, with direct consequences on the development of all countries of the world. Prensky. M., Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, On the Horizon. MCB University Press. Vol. 10, No. 2. Page 23, 2014, p.23 11 Anghel, T., Instrumente Web 2.0 utilizate în educatie. Cluj-Napoca : Ed. Albatros, 2014, p.78 12 Scheuermann, F., Francesc, P. (ed.), Assessing the effects of ICT in education. Indicators, criteria and benchmarks for international comparisons. Luxembourg :European Commission JRC/ OECD,. Page 2, 2014, p.2 10

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Ensuring the availability of services and educational resources on the Internet, eeducation, with increased use of the Internet and computers to equip educational institutions, will generate a better prepared workforce, more flexible and adapted to market requirements with positive effects on labor productivity, wages and employment. This system of education can help support ongoing training, which is low in Romania. Here are some conclusions: • IT expenditure from GDP per capita record low values in comparison with the EU average; • development of information society infrastructure (hardware, software, communication means) is insufficient; • the access tariffs to ICT infrastructure are high compared to population income; • Internet penetration rate and computers equipment (especially in preuniversity education) are low compared to the EU average; • the existence of high regional differences regarding the access to ICT infrastructure, between regions and urban and rural areas; • insufficient use of new information and communication technologies in the business environment; • insufficient development of e-commerce and e-banking services. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

Anghel, T., Instrumente Web 2.0 utilizate în educatie. Cluj-Napoca : Ed. Albatros, 2014 Asandului, D., Ceobanu, C., E-learning in Romanian Higher Education – A study case, In: Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 9(3). Page 6, 2013 Conole, G., Oliver, M., Contemporary Perspectives in E-learning Research, Themes, Methods and Impact on Practice. London: Routledge, 2014 Holmes, B., Gardner, J., E-learning: Concepts in practice. California: SAGE, 2012 International Communication Union, Measuring Information Society 2014. Geneva: ITU-D. Page 3, 2014 Palloff, R., Pratt, K., Building Online Learning Communities. San Francisco: JosseyBass, 2nd Edition, 2011 Prensky. M., Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants, On the Horizon. MCB University Press. Vol. 10, No. 2. Page 23, 2014 Pritchard, A., Effective Teaching with Internet Technologies. Pedagogy and Practice. London: Paul Chapman Publishing, 2011 Scheuermann, F., Francesc, P. (ed.), Assessing the effects of ICT in education. Indicators, criteria and benchmarks for international comparisons. Luxembourg :European Commission JRC/ OECD,. Page 2, 2014 Weller, M., Delivering learning on the Net, the why, what and how of online education. London: Routledge Falmer, 2012 http://www.mcsi.ro/Minister/Comunicate-de-presa-2014/783-de-localitati-din-zonele rurale-defavorizate-d www.insse.ro www.wikipedia.org

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THE IMPORTANCE OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE TEACHING-LEARNING PROCESS Veronica PĂSTAE Junior Lecturer, Ph.D, “CAROL I” National Defence University Abstract: In this paper we intend to discuss the importance of raising awareness towards the role of interpersonal communication in the teaching-learning process. First of all, we shall review and analyse some definitions of the concept, emphasizing the fact that there occurred several slight changes in the way interpersonal communication is viewed. Secondly, we shall expand on the role of interpersonal communication in the teaching-learning process as regards benefits and drawbacks. Thirdly, we shall make some suggestions to improve interpersonal communication in the classroom so that more effective learning could take place. Keywords: interpersonal communication, Pygmalion effect, self-fulfilling prophecy, learning climate

INTRODUCTION Learning is one of the most fascinating human activities since it is never simple or straightforward - it is a multi-faceted and messy process, but finally highly rewarding. Unsurprisingly, this process has aroused the interest of many categories of theorists and practitioners: psychologists, methodologists, teachers, counsellors, etc., all in search for improving the way in which teaching should unfold so that more learning would take place. Therefore we intend to investigate some aspects that could contribute to more effective knowledge acquiring. Our approach will be conducted from the perspective of interpersonal communication and its impact on what is going on in the classroom during the teaching-learning process. FACETS OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION There are several approaches to the concept of interpersonal communication and we consider it useful to review some definitions from the literature in order to show that what is going on in the classroom is closely connected to this type of communication. A classical definition of the concept, offered by Peter Hartley, reads as follows: interpersonal communication is that type of communication that occurs between two individuals, who meet face-to-face, the form and the content of their interaction reflecting the characteristics of the individuals, their social roles and relationship1. Other authors further emphasize the uniqueness of the interpersonal exchange, the irreplaceability of the relationship which results2, or the evolving nature of the relationship so that a particular bond is established3. When talking about interpersonal communication, one should bear in mind that the personal qualities of individuals are highly relevant and that the relationship is constantly developing, positively or negatively, in accordance with people’s actions. Mention must be made, however, that the concept of interpersonal communication has evolved encompassing not only face-to-face interaction, but also electronically mediated Hartley, P., Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edition, Ed. Routledge, London &New York, 1999, p.20 Adler et al., Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, 7th edition, Harcourt Brace, Fort Worth, 1998 3 Floyd, K., Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, 2011, p.22 1 2

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communication, via cell phones, computers or any other technological means. Moreover, recent definitions of interpersonal communication have extended the concept beyond the classical dyad of only two people interacting. According to Denise Solomon and Jennifer Theiss, “interpersonal communication can include more than two people. If you communicate with a group of people in ways that are personal and connect everyone involved, interpersonal communication occurs”4. The two authors take the example of a group of friends who spend time together and nurture various types of relationships, concluding that: “The key factor in interpersonal communication isn’t the number of people present, but personal interaction”5 This type of situation, in which people interact in different ways and develop relationships on the basis of their personal qualities, is not to be found only among groups of friends, but also among teachers and students in the classroom. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM The issue of interpersonal communication in the classroom has a variety of dimensions, but below we shall mainly focus on the role played by the teacher, since (s)he is the one entitled to set the pace, like a conductor for the orchestra. Many studies have been devoted to the ways in which the teaching-learning process could be improved, each having its own underlying principles. One of the authors who repeatedly emphasized the importance of relationships in the classroom is Jim Scrivener, a methodologist concerned with the quality of teacher-student interaction so that learners’ would perform better. In his renowned study, Learning Teaching, Scrivener6 talks about three kinds of teacher: the explainer, the involver, the enabler, summing up these teachers’ working practices in the following way: Explainer Involver Enabler

Subject matter   

Methodology  

People 

Figure1 Three kinds of teacher As it can be inferred from this table, the explainer is the kind of teacher who relies on knowledge of the subject matter; he lectures and explains facts to his/her students. The involver is the kind of teacher who, besides conveying information to his/her students, is also preoccupied with methodology, with effective techniques in which the subject matter can be transferred to the students. But the kind of teacher who goes one step further in his/her teaching practice is, according to Scrivener, the enabler, who is fully aware that “essentially teaching is about working with other human beings” and that his/her “personality and attitude are an active encouragement to learning”7. This means that the teacher’s personal style and behaviour are crucial elements in creating an effective and encouraging learning climate in the classroom. We want to stress the fact that it is important for teachers to be aware of their actions and reactions, to increase the level of self-control over their conduct during classes. If there are situations in which teacher’s attitudes and preconceptions may not be very influential, there are some other instances when they become crucial. One example is the situation of teaching heterogeneous Solomon, D. & Theiss, J., Interpersonal Communication. Putting Theory into Practice, Routledge, New York, 2013, p.6 5 Ibidem, p.6 6 Scrivener, J., Learning Teaching, Macmillan Heinemann, 1998, p.6 7 Ibidem, p.6 4

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classes in terms of race, gender, social status, etc., which makes supervising reactions sprung from preconceived ideas much more problematic. Theorists have drawn attention to a thought-provoking phenomenon that may occur in the classroom, namely the “Pygmalion effect”. Pygmalion is a famous character created by the Greek poet, Ovid in his Metamorphoses - a sculptor who falls in love with the statue he had carved; in other words, an artist, a creator who becomes enamoured with his own creation. In the context of class management the Pygmalion effect means that teacher’s expectations impact on students’ performance, or more precisely, teachers’ verbal and nonverbal language may encourage high-achievers to perform even better and determine lowachievers to perform even worse. This phenomenon is actually related to what has been called “self-fulfilling prophecy”, which is “an expectation that gives rise to behaviours that cause the expectation to come true”8. This “Pandora’s box” in education was opened in 1968 by Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson’s study Pygmalion in the classroom, in which the authors commented on the potential harm that teachers’ expectations and behavior may do to learners’ performance. The study stirred many controversies due to the time of its advent in the USA: the Vietnam War, the racial bias, the little concern and low investments in education; teachers and educators feared that they would be held responsible for the problems in the system. A huge amount of research started to flow after the publication of this influential study, bringing arguments whether in favour or against the hypotheses put forward. There were voices claiming that many of the things occurring during classes are “only human” and teachers’ expectations and reactions are a mere reflection of students’ own performance, level of knowledge and personal skills. Other scholars, supported Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson’s standpoint with research findings which proved that indeed teachers’ attitudes were biased, especially from the racial perspective, and that there were problems to be addressed in this respect. Leaving aside the sharp controversies in supporters’ and antagonists’ studies, there is a grain of truth in this debate, which gives educators food for thought. We would like therefore to further advocate the importance of interpersonal communication in the classroom. One basic recommendation is that teachers should display equitable behaviour since preconceived ideas and gender, racial and social stereotypes may be very harmful. Ideally, activities should be student-centered, which means that they should be tailored to really fit students’ needs. As the classical wordplay in methodology goes, teachers should remember that it is more important to teach the students than the lesson. Building up a pleasant atmosphere or good rapport among all the people in the classroom creates an environment in which learners are willing to be themselves, to take risks and become more creative. Researchers draw attention upon the fact that sometimes teachers cannot hide those emotions which impact negatively on low-achieving students, and many times there is “non-verbal leakage” in teachers’ conduct. Though not all reactions can be kept under full control, experienced teachers can better manage difficult situations. It is important to bear in mind that educators should not prognosticate failure in the classroom; on the contrary, researchers claim that establishing higher expectations may result in students’ better carrying out difficult assignments, which further leads to improvement in learning performance. It is therefore very important that educators give positive feedback to students in order to boost their self-confidence. As we have discussed above, teachers should remember that their mission is not merely about passing over knowledge to learners in what has been called the” jug and mug” experience. A dedicated and effective teacher has influence on much more than the simple learning of the subject matter. (S)he moulds personalities, fosters the 8

Floyd, K., op.cit., p.80

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love for knowledge, inspires confidence and enthusiasm. As a consequence, awareness of interpersonal communication is a vital element in effective teaching. CONCLUSION We have briefly gone through several viewpoints as regards the effects of educators’ behaviour on learners’ performance. Doing “people work” will always be problematic, because when interacting with an individual in the classroom, we are also dealing with his/ her emotions, self-expectations, frustrations, background, and even with the consequences of the events occurring in their life during the hours prior to the class. Since research findings have proved that teachers’ own expectations of students’ performance may influence the actual performance through the Pygmalion effect, we decided to underline how weighty aspects of interpersonal communication can be. All things taken into account, it is important for teachers to ponder over their behaviour and attitudes because people work is largely about empathy and respect. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Adler, R., Rosenfeld, L., Towne, N.& Proctor, R., Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal Communication, 7th edition, Harcourt Brace, Fort Worth, 1998 Babad, E., “Pygmalion - 25 years after interpersonal expectations in the classroom”, in Peter David Blanck (ed.), Interpersonal expectations. Theory, research, and applications, Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp.125-153 Floyd, K., Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, New York, 2011 Hartley, P., Interpersonal Communication, 2nd edition, Ed. Routledge, London &New York, 1999 Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L., Pygmalion in the classroom, Holt, Rinehart& Winston, New York, 1968 Scrivener, J., Learning Teaching, Macmillan Heinemann, 1998 Solomon, D. & Theiss, J., Interpersonal Communication. Putting Theory into Practice, Routledge, New York, 2013

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THE SMARTBOARD SYSTEM IN EDUCATIONAL DESIGN Mirela IONIȚĂ Associate Professor, PhD, “CAROL I” National Defence University, [email protected] Veronica PĂSTAE Junior Lecturer, PhD “CAROL I” National Defence University, păstae [email protected] Abstract: The SmartBoard belongs to what could be considered state- of -the- art technology in the domain of education. Recently, this educational tool has become a reality for the Faculty of Security and Defence due to the European project, ProSCOP, whose beneficiary was ”CAROL I” National Defence University. In this context, the present paper will deal with the ways in which the intelligent board, Hitachi StarBoard, can be used in the teaching process. The underlying idea of our scientific undertaking is that both students and teaching staff can take advantage of the benefits offered by this interactive tool, improving and expanding their professional experience, only if they are able to operate the system. Keywords: smart-board, educational design

INTRODUCTION The interactive whiteboard is a top technology educational instrument, a work tool that every teacher or student open to innovations would like to have, since it can turn the act of teaching into a magic experience. This aspiration has become reality for our Faculty of Security and Defence at “CAROL I” National Defence University through ProSCOP, an investment project financed by the European Union. Free access to this type of technology has allowed us to experience the advantages promised by promotion materials. The interactive whiteboard allows any trained user to run or create education applications. Below is a beginner’s guide to using a Hitachi Smart Board running version 9.6 of its dedicated software on Windows 8.1. Before beginning the actual presentation, we consider it appropriate to make the following remarks: 1.This paper is based on our hands-on experience using this product; 2. The training process was largely intuitive and partly based on Hitachi’s training guides for the 9.3 (2011) and 9.6. (2013) versions of its software, which are available on the Internet, and on Hitachi’s promotional tutorials, which are available on YouTube; 3. The Hitachi Smart Board v.9.x application has no menus or descriptions in Romanian; Romanian diacritical marks can be used to write, but the application only recognizes standard characters; 4. This guide features only the initiation process and has general applicability, regardless of the field of each application; 5. These preliminary details are provided in order to define a framework for working with educational applications, based on the idea that one has to be able to use an interactive whiteboard in order to take advantage of the facilities it provides; 6. The presentation is structured in accordance with the usual procedure followed by users, and designed as stand-alone articles with descriptive titles, allowing users to access the text according to their needs, competencies or interests; 128


7. The paper presents the first experience with an interactive whiteboard of a user with limited digital competencies; 8. Exploring the functions of the application has proved to be a fascinating experience and we are still discovering new things in every working session. Mention must be made, however, that we found it quite difficult to return to the initial menus after using the commands that change the view mode. As a consequence, in what follows, we shall include the return procedure wherever necessary. HITACHI STARBOARD SOFTWARE The StarBoard application is a software product made for Hitachi’s interactive whiteboards and can be installed on any PC or Mac using Windows XP or its equivalents. The board works with a wide range of overhead projectors. The StarBoard system comprises the interactive board, a computer and a projector. The board does not have any processing or display functions. The operating principle consists of generating on the board a network of infrared rays with a tactile sensitivity of min. 6x6 mm and a tactile reaction speed of around 60 dots/second. In order to function, the application needs a computer and a VGA cable connected to the input port of the projector and a USB cable connected to the board for supplying the required power and synchronizing commands between the computer and the board. Before starting the system, it is recommended to make sure that the PC and the projector are properly plugged in. The start order should be turning on the computer before the projector. The StarBoard application is launched by double clicking the StarBoard icon appearing on the desktop once the application is installed.The welcome screen presents the three operating options of StarBoard: 1. Local use: PC – mode (which does not require an Internet connection); 2. Conference mode; 3. Accessing Internet resources (information pages, social networks, dedicated education applications, tutorials, etc.). PC-mode is the default setting and the operating mode can be changed at any time during the work session. The interactive workspace: The working surface is about 2 m x 1.3 m and displays the image of a black pen in the middle. By touching it, the user can already write or draw a black line on the screen as the interactive whiteboard becomes functional. Writing tools. The user can conduct any operation on the interactive board by touching the surface with his hands, with the telescopic stylus or any object with a tip of at least 1 square centimeter (pen tips are too small to activate the screen). Multiple command: The system can be operated either from the board – through gestures and menus, or using the keyboard and the touch-screen of a computer or tablet. Each function can be activated in at least 2 separate ways, based on the user’s preferences. FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS We shall continue by describing some of the “spectacular” possibilities offered by the Starboard application, especially those that can be used in our field. The selected functions will be divided into 4 sections: text, image, insert and gestures. 1. Text 1.1. Type on screen: Allows users to write comments on the screen using standard characters. It is activated from: Menu>Tools>Text. The text can be introduced from the physical keyboard or the virtual one displayed on the screen - (to activate the virtual keyboard use the last button from the second column of the SideBar). 1.2. Text recognition: Handwriting can be turned into text using standard characters in two ways: 1. Using the text pen mode (from: Menu>Tools) and selecting the written text. A window will open to the right of the text containing word choices. The user selects the desired 129


option from those proposed by the application, or 2. Using the Intelli-Pen mode (from: Menu>Tools or Side Bar’s icon number 3. Select the word and follow the same procedure. Observations: 1. The standard text will retain its color. 2. The conversion operation is active only when connected to the interactive whiteboard. 3. The application can also look up Google and Wikipedia articles. The Google and Wikipedia pages are displayed in separate and inactive windows. 1.3. Text editing: Text can be edited in the same manner as in MS Word (using Properties from expandable tab 3.) >Object Properties. The user can select fonts, sizes, effects (bold, italic, underline), text positions within the box, pen types and writing colors. The other options, Line color, Line style, Line width, apply to the text box. 2. Image 2.1. Screen capture: Screen capture (the equivalent of a PC’s print screen function) is made from: Windows menu>tools>accessories>screen capture. The screenshot is automatically placed in a new page. It can be resized and processed. 2.2. Screen Recorder: Video recording of operations made on the screen is made from Windows menu>tools>accessories>screen recorder. A new window will appear, featuring 3 buttons: 1 = start/stop recording 2. pause recording; 3. recorder settings. The settings allow: microphone activation, naming files upon saving, selecting a save target and setting the recording quality parameters (high – 3.5MB/min, standard - 2.5MB/min or low – 1.5MB/min). The save window appears automatically when the recording stops. Videos can only be saved using the WMV format. 2.3. Photos taken with PC cameras or external devices connected to the PC (photo camera). It can be done from Windows Menu>Tools>Content capture center. The command activates the PC’s video camera. A window will appear allowing users to: 1. Broadcast live images: Live; 2. Take photos: Capture; 3. Take a series of photos: Continuous Capture; 4. Record videos: Recording; and 5. Load photo/video materials on various storage devices (HDD, DVD etc.): List. To take a photo using the PC camera, press Capture. The command will open a window containing the options: Accept/Retry. If the user accepts the photo, another window opens. In order to complete the procedure, the user must select option 2, Paste, and then OK in the open window. The Exit button closes the image application, but not before a dialog box opens displaying the text: Do you want to save the Photo/Movie Data? The Yes option puts the photo in a new page that opens automatically after the work page. The settings allow users to select the capture resolution (default is 320x240, maximum is 640x480), activate audio capture, set the photo series at max. 9 frames and select a save location. Observations: 1. The capture mode settings apply to: live, photo, series and video. 2. From the corner of the LIVE screen users can select: 1. Turn off PC camera, 2. Capture area (cropping is done by using the Zoom In function; the smaller the selected area, the more obvious the pixelation because selecting the capture area does not change the camera’s settings); 3. Returning to full screen capture. 2.4. Recording videos using the PC camera or external devices connected to the PC (video camera). It is done from Windows Menu>Tools>Content capture center by using the Recording and Stop commands. The image transfer is made by selecting option 2, Paste, and validating with OK in the new window. The Exit button closes the image application, but not before a dialog box opens displaying the text: Do you want to save the Photo/Movie Data?. The transfer time depends on the computer’s specifications. The option Yes does not place the capture in a new page, but saves the file using the WMV format in a directory called StarBoardCamera, which is created automatically (usually in PC: Documents). Video files: *.wmv, *.avi, *. mp4 are activated from Windows menu >open. 2.5. LIVE images using the PC camera. It can be done in two ways: 1. from Windows Menu > Tools > Content capture center users must select Recording OR 2. from Windows 130


Menu > Insert >WebCamDevice (the photo option inserts the photo into a new slide. The Zoom + function can be used to obtain a 4:3 full screen image. In order to return to the previous view mode, use: MENU>View>Back). 3. Insert 2.1. Insert text: Text from a Word document or from a web page can be put on the screen using the drag and drop option (select the text in question and move it to the workspace) or copy-paste. The text can be edited later. 2.2. Insert image: Images can be put on the screen using several methods: 2.2.1. Images from the Gallery (expandable tab 2) can be inserted in the workspace using drag and drop. The operation allows users insert images from the internal library of the application and images from the Internet. 2.2.2. JPG or PNG files located on any storage medium (HDD, memory stick, CD, DVD, etc.) can be inserted from the Windows Menu: >Insert >Insert picture.2.2.3. Insert shapes. Predefined geometric shapes can be inserted from the Side Bar by pressing the proper icon (the last icon in column 1). Observation: The image can be annotated using Pointer Pen (from windows menu>tools), which allows users to highlight relevant details in succession. 2.3. Insert presentation. DOC, PPS, PDF and other types of files can be attached to the StarBoard in use from: Document (Tab 1) >Attachments (Submenu 3) >"+". The Attachments submenu lets users import and extract the selected documents. The attached files will be interactive on the board. 2.4. Insert video. StarBoard Software can run AVI, WM and MP4 video files. Movies can be opened from Windows Menu >Open. Select the desired file. The film opens as a new topic (see tab 1: document; submenu: Topic List). A rudimentary video controller appears on the bottom of the screen, offering the following functions: Screenshot; Pause/Play, Stop, Magnify picture and Original size. Writing and highlight “pens” can be activated on the images. 4. Gestures on the interactive board 4.1. Using the "pen" to erase: can be done using any object with a tip of around 1 square centimeter. 4.2. Deleting. Selected objects can be deleted by passing two spread fingers over them. 4.3. Zoom in/out. Zooming in/out can be done by simultaneously touching the left and right edges of the selected object and spreading/closing the fingers. Observation: The Zoom gesture does not work for every tool. It’s generally used in the Intelli-Pen mode. 4.4. Scroll. Moving through the extended workspace can be done by touching the board with the palm. EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES Educational applications are mainly external. The only internal educational application is the anagrams game. The game can be accessed from Windows Menu>Tools> Subject toolbox> Language arts >Anagrams. The Library can be viewed from the same submenu using the Word Bank option. All the words in the library are in English, but users can add words in other languages following the instructions displayed on the screen. The game allows the use of Romanian diacritical marks. External applications, in the shape of executable files (*.exe), can be imported via Windows Menu >Tools >Accessories> Add/Delete External Applications. External applications can be added to the Side Bar. Hitachi’s free resource center can be accessed at: http://starboard.hitachisolutions.co.jp/resource_center/ or following the link available in Windows menu > Help > Resource Centre. The website offers interactive lessons, education activities and dedicated

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software. Any problems identified by users are discussed on the StarBoard forum: http://www.starboardforum.com/. To conclude, this paper has offered a presentation of merely a small part of the interactive whiteboard’s functions. Discussing the amount of the available educational resources and the wide range of creative possibilities provided by the whiteboard is a topic worth dealing with in further studies. In fact, the intention underlying the writing of this article was to open a window for those users willing to begin the exploration of smart whiteboards, in accordance with everyone’s interests and possibilities. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

***Starboard80_Training-Guide.pdf., https://shp.utmb.edu/ asa/ Forms/ StarBoard80 _Training-Guide.pdf (acc. 25.02.2016) ***-StarBoardSoftware93TrainigGuideWindiws.pdf, http://eu.hitachi-solutions.com/ fr/ customer_support/online_training/pdf/StarBoardSoftware93TrainingGuide Windows. pdf (acc. 25.02.2016). ***: How to Use a Hitachi Starboard.https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v= YRFkP02 -gKI3. (acc. 25.02.2016). ***: Beginner's Guide to Using A Smart Board (Hitachi StarBoard) in Your Classroom. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ve5ScjHNqzQ, (acc. 25.02.2016). ***: Hitachi FXTRIO-88W StarBoard, https://www.youtube. com/ watch?v =Lg9zgCvrJm0(acc. 25.02.2016). ***- http://starboard.hitachi-solutions.co.jp/resource_center/,(acc. 25.02.2016). ***: StarBoard Software 9.0 Tutorial - 3. Quick Instruction. https://www.youtube. com/ watch?v=XrjrA5QFg58, (acc. 25.02.2016). ***: StarBoard FX-79E1 User's Guide, 4/2012. Hitachi Solutions, Ltd. ***- http:// www.starboardforum.com/, (acc. 25.02.2016). ***- StarBoard+Softwae+9.6training+for+Win.pdf.http://www.noemedia.at/ upload/ HomepageDateien/ InteraktiveWhiteBoards/ Installation_StarBoard _Software_9.6.pdf, (acc. 25.02.2016).

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Colonel Professor Gelu ALEXANDRESCU, PhD Colonel Professor Ion CĂLIN, PhD

THE ASSESSMENT OF THE LEVEL OF CONFIDENCE FOR INFORMATION - ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR THE PLANNING OF NATO OPERATIONS Stelian TEODORESCU Col. Eng. (AF), PhD student, National Defence University “Carol I” Email: [email protected] "Who does not take a step forward, he remains one step behind " Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

Abstract: The current security environment marked by a significant number of risk factors and threats requires for NATO planning military operations a considerable amount of data and information from a wide array of sources. The diversity of the information sources and in most of the cases, the easy and handy access to these have led to an exponential increase of the data and information quantity used for the intelligence activity. The determination of the information level of trust disseminated to decision makers and the ensuring of a high degree of certainty for planning military operations at NATO level is a particularly challenging and important task for intelligence structures, whether they being national or, as it is normally, most of the times multinational. Keywords: military operation, support, information, uncertainty, validation, level of trust.

INTRODUCTION The current society marked by the effects of globalization proves that it exploits at the highest parameters and almost in real-time the access to unprecedented diversity of sources of data, information and knowledge. This has generated, as it was expected, the rethinking of information processing stage comprising besides integration activities, interpretation, collation and analysis of information and another extremely important activity as assessing the quality / level of reliable information. In this context, the refinement of the tools used in their processing, in particular of the assessment of the level of certainty / uncertainty that information bears within its composition, has become an imperative necessity for the intelligence services, which have to support a decision making cycle that may be carried in a very narrow time resource while under the influence of a high level of uncertainty. Even in the context where the structures of intelligence have understood the true significance of the concept of "need to share”, it is extremely important to be understood that there must be avoided overestimating or underestimating the reliable information level of trust before being disseminated to partner institutions or mostly to political and military decision makers. DATA AND INFORMATION, INFORMING OF DECISION MAKERS AND INFORMATIVE CULTURE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS WITHIN THE CURRENT INFORMATIVE SOCIETY The defining process of concepts like "data" and "information" enjoyed for a long time a special attention, experts in the field trying to develop more precise definitions in this

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regard. Out of the many definitions developed in recent decades, most accurate and most suitable appear to be: - "data" - set of raw facts and events - "information" - set of organized data, discoveries and creations that answer to an established set of questions The information is transmitted in various forms (written, audio, video), being an intangible and immaterial product which comes from the processing activity and which are disseminated on a material support (paper, film, tape) or immaterial (electrical signal, optical). In such a context, we can confidently state that information carries an added value created by expert analysts who organize data given by various sources at their disposal. Surely that the analyst, having a rich expertise and a good knowledgeable foundation can further organize information (integration, interpretation, collation, evaluation and analysis) and adds a new value through which he will achieve a higher level of knowledge and understanding of the events evolution. This process is ongoing, desired to be constantly improved, the information trust level assessment being an essential stage in the smooth operation of the information cycle. In 1968, a new science was born in the US, "Information science", with the aid of which it was intended that processes which have information as object to be studied, the main purpose being both the optimization of performances, particularly those regarding effectiveness and efficiency, and the knowledge transfer from a emitter/source to a receiver/consignee. Essentially it is very clear that in order to be efficient and effective, there must be born and added value in the course of a process, there being at least three measurement indicators from which we can deduce the performances of the process such as quality, quantity, productivity, etc. . As a consequence, it is important to define the concept of "quality" that according to the international standard EN ISO 9000: 2006, it represents "the ability of a set of inherent characteristics meet the requirements”1. Otherwise the requirements cannot be met to the full unless individuals who process the information possess a special informational culture, requiring them to own a set of knowledge and skills to enable them to work effectively and efficiently in the current informative society. Effectiveness requires you to do things that get you closer to your goals while efficiency means to accomplish a task, important or not, in the fastest and most economical way possible. According to the Romanian Language Explanatory Dictionary, both terms are being explained in the same way as "that takes effect (expected)”. However, in the English language the two words are: effective and efficient. Thus by efficiency we mean doing things properly (doing things right), and by effectiveness we mean to do the right things (doing the right things), from this the following equation being born: efficiency + effectiveness = excellence - that doing the right things right (doing the right things right). In this presented context, out of the multitude of definitions developed for the informative culture, the most accurate seems to be the one that defines this concept as "the set of skills necessary for an individual to recognize an informative need and to be able to locate, evaluate and use appropriate information"2. Individuals with such a set of skills enable intelligence structures to support optimal decision making in the planning process of military operations at NATO level.

Nicolae George Drăgulănescu, Quality rating information - concepts, principles, models, pp. 1-11, http://www.ndragulanescu.ro/publicatii/CP54.pdf 2 Elena Târziman, Culture Information, a concept that is necessary in terms of the widespread use of new technologies of information and communication, http://www.lisr.ro/4-5-tirziman.pdf 1

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THE REFINEMENT OF THE ASSESSMENT PROCESS OF INFORMATION QUALITY AND REDUCTION OF UNCERTAINTY, ESSENTIAL FACTORS FOR THE SUCCESSFUL PLANNING OF MILITARY OPERATIONS AT NATO LEVEL Important steps in the processing of data and information are represented by the integration and evaluation of the information provided by multiple sources, the main objective being the shaping of a true and fair image of the situation on which to base appropriate decisions. Currently, although these attributes are handled by human operators, efforts are underway to develop formal definitions and algorithms in order to manage these attributes more efficiently by standardization agreements (STANAG 2022) of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the main purpose being the definition of a common framework, of recommendations regarding the evaluation of information and the elimination of ambiguities, particularly with reference to the reliability and credibility criteria3. Assessing the level of confidence of every information is a complex process consisting of an appraisal of the level of trust the source of the information, and in evaluating the contents or reliability of the information. These two indicators once identified underlying identify the use of information in the process of analysis to develop those estimates to enjoy value and a level of certainty to enable their use in decision making and planning military operations . The level of credibility of the source that provides data and information is quantified according to the standard in the table4 below: A

Reliable

No doubt of authenticity, trustworthiness, or competency; has a history of complete reliability B Usually Minor doubt about authenticity, trustworthiness, or Reliable competency; has a history of valid information most of the time C Fairly Doubt of authenticity, trustworthiness, or Reliable competency but has provided valid information in the past D Not Usually Significant doubt about authenticity, Reliable trustworthiness, or competency but has provided valid information in the past E Unreliable Lacking in authenticity, trustworthiness, and competency; history of invalid information F Cannot No basis exists for evaluating the reliability of the Judge source The level of information validation provided by a source is quantified according to the standard in the table5 below:

https://www.google.ro/?gws_rd=cr,ssl&ei=JIQGVqHNsW_ywOh34jQAw#q=Information+Evaluation:+Discus sion+about+STANAG+2022+Recommendations 4 Robert J. Hammell II şi Timothy Hanratty, Capturing the Value of Information in Complex Military Environments, WCCI 2012 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence June, 10-15, 2012 - Brisbane, Australia, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6250786 5 Robert J. Hammell II şi Timothy Hanratty, Capturing the Value of Information in Complex Military Environments, WCCI 2012 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence June, 10-15, 2012 - Brisbane, Australia, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6250786 3

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1

Confirmed

2

Probably True Possibly True Doubtfully True Improbable

3 4 5 6

Cannot Judge

Confirmed by other independent sources; logical in itself; Consistent with other information on the subject Not confirmed; logical in itself; consistent with other information on the subject Not confirmed; reasonably logical in itself; agrees with some other information on the subject Not confirmed; possible but not logical; no other information on the subject Not confirmed; not logical in itself; contradicted by other information on the subject No basis exists for evaluating the validity of the information

In this context, it is very important to understand that in the process of evaluating the credibility of information it needs to be started with the assessment of the level of credibility of the sources of information in this regard establishing out a complex set of criteria according to the existing needs such as:  The opportunity/ actuality of information - which is the starting point of information launching; - if the information was reassessed and updated; - if the information is in line with the beneficiary’s informative needs, or if his/her necessities could be satisfied with old information resources; - if the connection with the source that has provided the information is functional; The information relevance or importance for the beneficiary’s needs  - if the information answers to a theme of interest; - which is the number of the exploited sources up to the identification of the information; - which is the level of knowledge of the source;  The authority and the level of the source validation - who is the author of the information; - which is the author’s credibility and the partner organizations; - if the author is qualified to provide the type of information;  Precision/ high level of credibility of the provided information: reliability, truthfulness and validity (including the precision of the information content) - where does the information come from; - if the information is consistent and supported by evidence; - if the information has been analyzed before; - if the information can be checked and confirmed by other sources or by the own knowledge; - if the information is objective and does not wear the mark of prejudices influence of any type; - if there are grammatical, spelling or typography errors;  The purpose and the goal of information provision - the purpose of the information provision is to inform, to learn, to obtain profits or to pursue; - the source of the information outlines very clearly its purpose and intentions; 138

-

information is truth, fact, an opinion or propaganda ( facts are the available data, and truth is a reality of facts); - if information is the result of the objective and impartial expression of a point of view; - if the source of the information is influenced by political, ideological, cultural, religious, institutional or personal prejudices; Once identified the level of the source credibility, we can move on to the analysis and evaluation of the level of information credibility. In this context we can make a connection with the concept of triangulation6, especially considering the rule that any information should be confirmed by at least three sources (fig.1).

Figure 1 The connection of the evaluation of the trust level of information with the triangulation concept process If the level of reliability, truthfulness and validation of information is at the same level for at least three sources, the accuracy / trust level of the respective information is one that allows dissemination to decision makers. The number of sources confirming the same level of reliability, truthfulness and validation of information will increase and the level of uncertainty is reduced. In this context it is significant to emphasize that the level of precision and certainty of an information may increase significantly given that sources confirm the same level of reliability, truthfulness and validation but from partially or totally different perspectives. Last but not least, the information confirms or rejects the credibility level of the information sources from which it comes. Nevertheless in the context of the vast number of available information sources and the impossibility to achieve the absolute certainty level the question that arises is about how far can we go with assessing the level of validation of information and the level of credibility of the source by exploiting them. It is very clear that a The method of triangulation, image by Dutchman Willebrord Snellius in the years 1615 - 1617, is to determine precisely the coordinates of the field in terms of a system of map projection given by arranging them as a network or chain of triangles (with form as close to the equilateral triangles). In such a device to measure only one or two sides, called bases, and all other points is determined indirectly by angle measurement only. The triangulation is performed a set of triangles on the ground, forming the infrastructure of any topographical called triangulation network. The principle of triangulation is used to achieve precise measurements using laser triangulation sensors. The method of operation is based on the assumption that the beam emitted and reflected beam laser emitter and detector spacing form a triangle. 6

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selection of the sources is necessary in accordance with the field specific to the defined problem for which the needs of information have been established with the aim of developing intelligence products to support the decision making process. So, we can estimate that the reliability of the information is the result of a complex process in which the intelligence structures assess the quality of information in most different operational situations, but we cannot skip here to emphasize that the whole range of types of military operations has changed drastically in the last 25 years, peace enforcement, peacekeeping and humanitarian missions overwhelmingly replacing conventional military operations. As expected, in a such context the range of information sources has been diversified from open and human sources to the most sophisticated technical sources. In a such context, more than ever it is necessary military intelligence services and decision makers to have the necessary tools for separating interest and high value information by low interest and value information or even by misinformation, These activities constitute a key step in the analysis process, the clarity and the accuracy used in running activities within this process represent an essential element in achieving informational superiority and the success of planned military operations. It must not be forgotten the fact that the whole process is conducted under a strong influence of the dynamics of the security environment and of the prejudices which human judgment is confronted with . In this context, determining the level of credibility of information should be based on the construction of a logical theory (fig.2).

Figure 2 Continuous, simultaneous and logical development of intelligence cycle and military operations planning cycle Identification as accurately the level of reliability of the information which were included in the processing can be made by people who can prove a high level of information culture which implies an adequate degree for identification, processing, knowledge and understanding of information, activities requires a developed critical thinking and, especially, a unbiased personal interpretation (drastically reducing the effects generated by the types of biases that can affect thinking of analysts).

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CONCLUSIONS One of the key issues of intelligence structures concern at present is how far can go refining of data and information processing, especially how we can be accurately determine the level of its confidence, the essential aim being to reduce uncertainty of intelligence products which are the base of decision-making process. Certainly, quality of information control will continue to be based on validating the authenticity and credibility of the sources its come from, but there need to train and educate intelligence analysts in terms of developing critical thinking, above all, expertise, knowledge base and level understanding of developments of events for raising the level of validation for information received. It is imperative to identify a set of evaluation criteria that contribute to improving the accuracy of assessment the level of trust of information by knowledge and validation expertise of source identification accuracy and precision of information, level of relevance and objectivity, scope and target entity, the purpose of the source and target connections in the area covered, accessibility, quality of language used and text disseminated, consistency and degree of comparability over time, geographic and interdisciplinary. Reconsidering intelligence activity and fast adjustment to the developments in the geopolitical and geostrategic require further reconsideration defensive aspect of intelligence and security services towards developing proactive attitude, which complains undoubtedly unity of effort within alliances or multinational coalition. Failure of intelligence services in information processing and decision-makers in decision making can be reduced or canceled by timely exchange of information, knowledge and understanding with partner services. Without being placed in the category decision makers, it is imperative that intelligence services to develop with priority such as provider of knowledge and understanding in all segments of national, regional and global security so that decision makers to be supported in an efficient and effective for making the best decisions. That should never forget that dynamic current security environment often requires planning of military operations proactive action in near real time, its planning requires decision-making with a time resource for the minutes or hours. In this context, we can say with full conviction that it is absolutely necessary to establish bases of information and knowledge in the form of systems multidimensional validate or invalidate inputs and to preserve the quality of information that has been quantifying a confidence level high but other indicators such as inconsistency information, the degree and time for outdated information, inaccuracies, etc. In such a context, it seems highly appropriate and significant to note the position of the American scholar neoconservative, Abram Shulsky who worked for the US government, RAND Corporation and the Hudson Institute and is a follower of military intelligence model in support of decision-makers, underscoring that "the truth is not a goal for intelligence operations but a victory."7 Therefore, we can say with certainty that overestimating or underestimating the reliability of information can lead to misunderstanding of a situation and the adoption by makers of decisional solution inadequate that can help development of unrealistic plans for the military operations of NATO.

7

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abram_Shulsky

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

17. 18. 19. 20.

Robert J. Hammell II and Timothy Hanratty, Capturing the Value of Information in Complex Military Environments, WCCI 2012 IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence June, 10-15, 2012 Brisbane, Australia, http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=6250786; Eyal Pechta and Asher Tishlerb, The Value of Military Intelligence, 06.06.2013,http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/ICES2013/papers/archive/pechttishler-understanding-the-value-of-military-intelligence; How to Evaluate Information and Judge Credibility, http://www.sfu.ca/~swartz/logical_reasoning/04_dowden_pp_145-171.pdf; Nicolae George Drăgulănescu, Quality rating information - concepts, principles, models, http://www.ndragulanescu.ro/publicatii/CP54.pdf; Elena Târziman, Culture Information, a concept that is necessary in terms of the widespread use of new technologies of information and communication, http://www.lisr.ro/4-5tirziman.pdf; Evaluating Information Sources, http://www.lib.odu.edu/genedinfolit/5evaluating.pdf; Evaluating Information: Validity, Reliability, Accuracy, Triangulation, http://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/17810_5052_Pierce_Ch07.pdf; Information management decision support, http://www.armyacademy.ro/biblioteca/CARTI/management/manci/a3.pdf; Laurence Cholvy and Vincent Nimier, Information Evaluation: Discussion about STANAG 2022 Recommendations, www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD; J. Besombes, L. Cholvy, V. Dragoş, A Semantic-Based Model to Assess Information for Intelligence, http://www.aerospacelab-journal.org/sites/www.aerospacelabjournal.org/files/AL04-07_1.pdf; Liviu CIORA, prep. Ion BULIGIU, Catedra de Informatica Economica, Universitatea din Craiova, Methods and techniques for analyzing data quality, http://revistaie.ase.ro/content/25/Ciora.pdf; Hermina G.B. Anghelescu, Criteria for assessing the quality of open access informative resources present on Internet, http://rria.ici.ro/ria2004_1/art09.htm; Roger Sevilla, Project Look Sharp, Criteria for Examining the Credibility of Information on the Internet, http://www.projectlooksharp.org/criteria.pdf; Peter A. Facione, Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts, http://www.student.uwa.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/1922502/Critical Thinking-Whatit-is-and-why-it-counts.pdf; Evaluating information sources, http://www.piecenter.com/wpcontent/uploads/2014/08/evaluateinfo.pdf; Brian Ulicny, Christopher J. Matheus, Gerald M. Powell and Mieczyslaw M. Kokar, Current Approaches to Automated Information Evaluation and their Applicability to Priority Intelligence Requirement Answering, http://www.ece.neu.edu/facece/kokar/publications/FUSION2010_0279.pdf; Vincent Nimier, Information Evaluation: a formalisation of operational recommandations, http://www.fusion2004.foi.se/papers/IF04-1166.pdf; Gautham Kasinath and Leisa Armstrong, Importance of Verification and Validation of Data Sources in Attaining Information Superiority, Security Information Management Conference, Australia, 2007, http://ro.ecu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=ism; Stefan Fenz and Andreas Ekelhart, Verification, Validation, and Evaluation in Information Security Risk Management, https://www.sba-research.org/wpcontent/uploads/2012/03/stefan_f4_2012.pdf; A. Bar-Noy, G. Cirincione, R. Govindan, S. Krishnamurthy, T. F. LaPorta, P. Mohapatra, M. Neely, A. Yener, Quality-of-Information Aware Networking for Tactical Military Networks, http://www.cs.ucr.edu/~krish/qoi-iq2s11.pdf.

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DATA ENCRYPTION AND THE LIMITS OF CYBER SECURITY SYSTEM IN USA TODAY Alexandru ION PhD Student at the Faculty of Political Science, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Abstract: In my paper I will discuss about the balance between freedom and security on the internet in the United States of America. NSA has proved during the last years it is capable of monitoring the flow of data in US and abroad, however the encrypted communications remain for them an impenetrable fortress. And so the following question arises: are the encrypted data considered a vulnerability to the cyber security system or are they representing the last known form of privacy in the Digital Age? Keywords: United States, internet, cyber security, freedom, cryptology

INTRODUCTION In the 21st century when we are discussing about today’s internet we have to take into consideration the balance between respecting the user’s freedom and having a successful national cyber security strategy. The main issue in international relations is that most of the political actors tend to tip the balance towards one of them and this results between: having a better internet security strategy and less pay less interest on rights (realism view) or protecting the rights and freedoms of the users while having a poor cyber defense (neoliberal view). While it seems that this is a concern for the whole international community, we can only have an authentic debate between the two views on why the internet is available only in democratic countries. My research hypothesis of the paper will focus on analyzing the balance between internet security and respecting civilian freedom in the United States. I will use as methodological instrument the research question: “Is the balance concerning the cyber space in the USA shifting towards respecting the citizen rights or having the most complex security system?” It is important to understand the financial support available for cyber security before other analysis; so a quick look on the available budget of ENISA for cyber security, ensured by the European Commission and member states contribution, adding up a total of 10.095.949 euros in 2015 must be compared with that of USA and Canada, in order to observe the huge difference on the expenses1. The table below shows the exact budgets of each 3 representatives on the cyber security spending. Table 1.1 Cyber security budget of USA, Canada and ENISA23 Budget in 2015 Estimated Budget in 2016

SUA 12,5 billions $ 14 billions $

Canada 94 millions $ 158 millions $

ENISA 10 millions € Under debate

Statement of estimates (Budget 2015), ENISA, Heraklion, 2015 “The President's Budget for Fiscal Year 2017”, accessed 25 November https://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/budget/ 3 “Budget 2015: Chapter 4.3: Protecting Canadians”, accessed 25 November http://www.budget.gc.ca/2015/docs/plan/ch4-3-eng.html 1 2

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2015,

on:

2015,

on:

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICAN VIEW ON SECURING THE CYBER SPACE In the last few decades the whole world looked up to the USA as an example of an authentic democracy, being praised right from the start of the American War of Independence even by the father of conservatism, Edmund Burke. On the aftermath of the Cold War, the victory of the US democracy in contrast to the communism was indubitable on the international scale. Most of the former countries which were under the Soviet Union, influence have fallen quickly under the American influence, a well-known soft-power method, which begun to infiltrate the media and the educational system. All of this changed in the beginning of the 21st century, with the terrorist attack on the World Trade Center, New York on 11th September 2001. The internal policy of the state had changed, to a more realistic view, where the individual rights had been sacrificed for the national security interest. And so, a new chapter has stated for the United States of America, concerning the strategy of security under the republican administration of George W. Bush. After 2001, the whole political elite of the US was concerned about the events that took place and the thought that one day history could repeat itself, they had to rethink the whole defense strategy, so the Department of Homeland Security was founded in 20024. Its role was to bring together all the American state agencies responsible for peacekeeping and national security under its rule. One of the stipulations of the Act of Internal Security of 2002 includes the Act of Improving the Cyber Security of 2002, seeking to improve the vigilance of the transiting data from the internet. The national authority assigned for the responsibility of monitoring and intervening in cases of threat in the cybernetic environment was the National Security Agency (NSA). Under the leadership of General Keith B. Alexander, NSA became one of the most powerful espionage agencies in today’s world, through reforming the politics of security into focusing on individual surveillance5. The disclosures that NSA agent, Edward Snowden, has shown the world the abuses of the United States secret services shocked the whole international community and at the same time mobilized the non-governmental organizations protecting human rights and respecting the private life. It is not surprising that among the programs of the agency, “Boundless informant”, was responsible for accounting the phone calls and e-mails each day and also the program “Prism” which responsibility lies in collecting data from directly from the huge internet companies world-wide6. From the leaked information concerning the “Boundless informant” program, the documents show that one of the NSA server units has collected data world-wide in 30 days: 97 billion e-mails and 124 billion phone calls7. As impressive as it sounds, those numbers remains a huge concern, without having any filter for the data and without a warrant of criminal prosecution emitted by any judge, are considered illegal actions of the state against its citizens. The most concerning aspect of the abusive surveillance of the agency is that President Barak Obama approves its actions as a member of the executive power in the United States of America8. Analyzing those events we conclude that though his actions, the president of the United States encourages the violation of the separation of the powers principle provided by Public Law 107-296-Nov. 25, 2002, Homeland Security Act of 2002, USA Congress, Washington DC, 2002 “Biography 16th Director”, accessed 25 November 2015, on: https://www.nsa.gov/about/leadership/bio_alexander.shtml 6 Glenn GREENWALD, Afacerea Edward Snowden: Cele mai şocante dezvăluiri despre spionajul global american, Litera, Bucureşti, 2015, pp. 117-119 7 Glenn GREENWALD, Afacerea Edward Snowden: Cele mai şocante dezvăluiri despre spionajul global american, Litera, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 118 8 “President Obama Thanks NSA Workforce for Dedicated Service”, accessed 25 November 2015, on: https://www.nsa.gov/public_info/press_room/2015/president_Obama_Thanks_NSAWorkforce_for_Dedicated_S ervice.shtml 4 5

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the Constitution of the United States of America according to the Articles I, II and III: “the legislative power, the executive power and the juridical power”9. The head of state in this case has access though NSA to personal information of the Congress members and judges, which could serve on manipulating them. The only solution in this case is to restrain the power provided to the NSA, so that the balance between the powers of state can be restored. What does it mean truly the surveillance of the NSA used by the US against its own citizens, without a juridical warrant? The answer is simple and easy to understand, the violation of the 4th Amendment of the US Constitution (Bill of rights), which states: “The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.”10. Through its actions NSA has violated the rights of the citizens stated in the US Constitution concerning privacy, while justifying the improvement of the national security in one way – the fight against terrorism. Which brings us to the question of the research paper on the United States of America has demonstrated that its internal politics has a Machiavellian point of view on international relations, through classic realism, in which security prevails with the sacrifice of individual rights. One of the most unique things about the cyber security of the USA is the strategic partnership between public and the private sector. The corporations from the United States play a decisive role in state politics and the conceptualization of the online security strategies gathering all the required resources in the process11. Research and development plays an important role in improving the methods through which they counter the threats on the internet. The Department of Homeland Security is an important institution which coordinates the relationship between the public-private spheres necessary for the policy-making of the national security12. It is true that the cyber threats aims at both the public and private sector when it comes from the internet. We can see that the politics concerning the cyber warfare has an important place on the US agenda. It’s about that different view that the Washington officials have realized that that the incidents on the online environment, pose a threat in real life. Among with this view we can also add the terrorist events from 2001 that marked the institutions responsible for the security that could have averted the danger. The experience of the national history plays an important role in creating the public policies and setting the balance between human rights and security. Also from the American perspective on cyber security we can learn an important lesson: there is only one step between the defensive doctrine and the offensive doctrine. Freedom House on its 2015 report on concerning citizen’s freedom on the internet had used 3 indexes: Obstacles to Access, Limits on Content and Violations of User Rights for establishing a scale from 0 (most free) to 100 (most restrictive) of the internet. The surprising thing is that not only does the US is among the first states in most freedom of internet, but is also better rated then some European Union states.

The Constitution of the United States, United States Congress, Washington, 1787 Bill of rights - The Constitution of the United States, United States Congress, New York, 1791 11 Lucas KELLO, The meaning of the cyber revolution, International Security, Massachusetts, 2013, p. 9 12 “Information Sharing”, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.dhs.gov/topic/cybersecurity-informationsharing 9

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Annex 1.2: Comparative study on the first 12 states on internet freedom13 Data encryption and cyber security within the US system As an international actor, the United States of America has the financial and military capacity to counter the threats from the virtual environment as NSA has proven countless of times. However, there are exceptions from this rule, as the “Achilles heel” in the international security system is represented by the encryption systems that are capable of transmitting information through the internet untraceable. Intercepting online communications become impossible because of the encryption key, making the information viewable only to the sender and receiver. The first computer encryption program, the Pretty Good Privacy (PGP), was invented in 1991 by Phil Zimmermann in order to protect our e-mails privacy from being intercepted by others. As such, every message of the sender is encrypted using a key of algorithms from letters and numbers and it is send to the receiver, who also has the decryption key at his disposal14. Initially the crypto program was using a key of 128 bits, but later they become more advanced offering improved defense against brute force decryption 15. The main purpose of Zimmermann encryption program was to provide the users with the privacy much needed on the internet as a basic human right and not for illegal activities16. He distributed his program free and also provided a beginners guide with it to be used by both individuals and companies17. Although his invention was praised world-wide, the US government didn’t see the things his way. Table 1.3: The required time for hacking a message according to his key size18 No. Crit. 1 2

Key size Possible combinations The necessary time to hack 56 bit 7,2 x 1016 399 seconds 38 128 bit 3,4 x 10 1,02 x 1018 years

Freedom House, Freedom on the Net 2015, New York, 2015, p. 872 Philip Zimmermann, The Official PGP User's Guide, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1995 15 Philip Zimmermann, PGP Source Code and Internals, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1995 16 Juliette Garside, Philip Zimmermann: king of encryption reveals his fears for privacy, accessed 20 November 2015, on: http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/may/25/philip-zimmermann-king-encryption-revealsfears-privacy 17 Internet Hall of fame, Philip Zimmermann, accessed 20 November 2015, on: http://www.internethalloffame.org/inductees/philip-zimmermann 18 Mohit Arora, How secure is AES against brute force attacks?, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1279619 13 14

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3 192 bit 6,2 x 1057 1,872 x 1037 years 4 256 bit 1,1 x 1077 3,31 x 1056 years So we ask ourselves how secure is in the present day our encrypted communications from others? We will take into consideration the most used and efficient from all the algorithms, the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) which uses a key of 128, 192 and 256 bits. The information becomes encrypted after the process of being grouped in 16 blocks on information (4x4) using mathematical matrices, combinations and permutations in 10, 12 or 14 rounds depending on the key selected19. Also known as the Rijndael cipher, it has his mathematical strength formula based on: “((2v)!)(2ⁿ) or (V!)N, were the length of cipher block is “v” has V = 2v possible values, and the length of the key “n” being influenced by N = 2n while having possible permutations {0, 1}v, were 0 and 1 are V!”20. After the encryption process, the information “Bach, Beethoven, Vivaldi and Mozart are impressive classical music composers who lived in the 18th and 19th century” will become after applying the algorithm AES of 128 bits21: “i7Egva3KE6Vf/zjhlsAYevGCPhzb94ML1N5ZaaoTG/W5ropi2uIEeSac9M9jjuWUnFCArQ B/JzTZS03PF+JqN6B7xnnLR20H7Gdw8XsUWG8d+/TVnhN755gRINumH1/PKn6N6N0Sj vRUdVEL2/+S3iqjsXjRSWchsmkWdu14lHk=”. In order to decrypt this information it is not only necessary using the same algorithm but also knowing the key which was used to crypt the information initially.

Annex 1.4: The AES algorithm used for encryption and decryption22 The concept of cryptology on the internet started from a simple method of communication, but in time a large number of software were produced making them available world-wide. The impossibility of intercepting the navigation of the internet and the lack of

Announcing the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, 2001, p. 14-19 20 Joan Daemen. Vincent Rijmen, The Rijndael block cypher, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, 2003, p. 39 21 AES Encryption, accessed 1 January 2016, on: http://aesencryption.net/ 22 IBM, Achieving high performance for Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) applications, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.ibm.com/developerworks/library/l-achieving-high-performance-aes/index.html 19

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prints make this concept a limitless liberty23. One example in this case is the Tor browser that can make you anonymous while accessing the internet on the Deep Web and Dark Net 24. Another program concerted from the PGP is Cryptocat that offers the possibility of sending messages from the mobile phone which are encrypted using a 256 bits key25. It is somewhat interesting that the cyber crypto technology that was used a few years ago by the national departments of defense, are today used by everyone. In the present day there are many debates on the theme of cryptology between different public institutions of the US, but the strong encryptions are preferred instead of the weak ones26. FBI proposes implementing “backdoors” in the communication encryption programs or even banning their use, this proposal was been dismissed even by the President Obama27. These desperate actions of the American institution regarding the encryptions prove that they are inefficient in fighting them and that they remain a good solution for years to come concerning the privacy of communication. However, this remains a vulnerability in the cyber security systems that can be exploited by criminal organizations, terrorist groups and illegal activities on the internet. The US Government is openly fighting against the encryption programs used for communicating on the internet that are more and more frequently used by malicious groups. NSA in collaboration with GCHQ lunched the program BULLRUN, through which they want to decrypt the communications of those groups28. This is an ambitious program that would bring satisfying results in the fight against cyber criminality, but bringing with it the risk of the total loss of internet privacy. The program until today has not shown any pragmatic results of its actions. CONCLUSIONS As we had understood from the previous chapters the cyber defense policy is one of the most important points on the US agenda. We had concluded that NSA doesn’t have access to all the individual citizen information regarding communications through the internet. Their surveillance and data collecting is limited due to the encryption software that is available freely to all individuals, but the problem is that not many use it, if this is a good thing or a bad one, it is remains a questions for another research topic. The issue with the encrypted communications isn’t a topic of discussions for a sectorial concern, it represents the interests of all international actors, USA was chosen as an example for its immense capability for cyber decryption. Two different perspectives can be underlined: the first is that, like the Enigma machine used in the Second World War there will Bloomberg, Obama Wants Silicon Valley's Help to Fight Terror Online, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2015-12-07/obama-wants-silicon-valley-s-help-as-terroristsembrace-social 24 Stuart Dredge, What is Tor? A beginner's guide to the privacy tool, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/nov/05/tor-beginners-guide-nsa-browser 25 Andy Greenberg, Crypto.cat Aims To Offer Super-Simple Encrypted Messaging, accessed 12 December 2015, on: http://www.forbes.com/sites/andygreenberg/2011/05/27/crypto-cat-aims-to-offer-super-simpleencrypted-messaging/ 26 Rob Prince, The former head of the NSA openly disagrees with the FBI's position on encryption, accessed 10 December 2015, on: http://uk.businessinsider.com/former-nsa-director-michael-hayden-disagrees-fbiencryption-comey-rogers-2015-10 27 Chriss Williams, FBI boss: No encryption backdoor law (but give us backdoors anyway), accessed 10 December 2015, on: http://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/10/09/us_encryption_backdoor_law_latest/ 28 Glenn GREENWALD, Afacerea Edward Snowden, Litera, Bucureşti, 2015, p. 119 23

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exist a team of cyber expects capable to decrypt the key used through the internet, the second one is that the encrypted communications will never become vulnerable to governmental interceptions. Neither of the two look promising from the individual perspective, as such the first one would mean the end of privacy or our communications, while the other will encourage criminal activities to spread undisturbed through the internet. At present, the verdict in the case of USA is that their main concern is the defense policy, from a realist vision in the international relations, however as proven they still respect individual privacy of internet communication as a basic human right. With the current technology at their disposal even the most efficient international renowned agencies, like NSA, haven’t got access to the encrypted messages with a 128 key. The design of the crypto system was to make the communications and accessing of the internet more private for users, for the next 20-30 years with the current key and it will be in the future is the quantum computers don’t improve too fast. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

Announcing the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, 2001 Bill of rights - The Constitution of the United States, United States Congress, New York, 1791 DAEMEN, Joan, Vincent RIJMEN, The Rijndael block cypher, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, 2003 Freedom on the Net 2015, Freedom House, New York, 2015 GREENWALD, Glenn, Afacerea Edward Snowden: Cele mai şocante dezvăluiri despre spionajul global american, Litera, Bucureşti, 2015 KELLO, Lucas, The meaning of the cyber revolution, International Security, Massachusetts, 2013 Public Law 107-296-Nov. 25, 2002, Homeland Security Act of 2002, USA Congress, Washington DC, 2002 Public Law 107-56-Oct. 26, 2001, Uniting and Strengthening America by providing appropriate tools required to intercept and obstruct terrorism (USA Patriot Act) Act of 2001, USA Congress, Washington DC, 2001 Statement of estimates (Budget 2015), ENISA, Heraklion, 2015 The Constitution of the United States, United States Congress, Washington, 1787 ZIMMERMANN, Philip ZIMMERMANN, The Official PGP User's Guide, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1995 ZIMMERMANN, Philip, PGP Source Code and Internals, MIT Press, Massachusetts, 1995 AES Encryption, www.aesencryption.net Bloomberg, Obama Wants Silicon Valley's Help to Fight Terror Online, www.bloomberg.com Government of Canada, Chapter 4.3: Protecting Canadians, www.budget.gc.ca Department of Homeland Security, Information Sharing, www.dhs.gov Mohit Arora, How secure is AES against brute force attacks?, www.eetimes.com Andy Greenberg, Crypto.cat Aims To Offer Super-Simple Encrypted Messaging, www.forbes.com IBM, Achieving high performance for Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) applications, www.ibm.com Internet Hall of fame, Philip Zimmermann, www.internethalloffame.org NSA, Biography - 16th Director, www.nsa.gov NSA, President Obama Thanks NSA Workforce for Dedicated Service, www.nsa.gov 149

23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Rob Prince, The former head of the NSA openly disagrees with the FBI's position on encryption, www.uk.businessinsider.com The White House, The President's Budget for Fiscal Year 2016, www.whitehouse.gov Juliette Garside, Philip Zimmermann: king of encryption reveals his fears for privacy, www.theguardian.com Stuart Dredge, What is Tor? A beginner's guide to the privacy tool, www.theguardian.com Chriss Williams, FBI boss: No encryption backdoor law (but give us backdoors anyway), www.theregister.co.uk

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IMPLEMENTING ENISA’S CYBER SECURITY PLAN IN THE EUROPEAN UNION Alexandru ION PhD Student at the Faculty of Political Science, University of Bucharest, Romania, [email protected] Abstract: While the European Union aims towards respecting individual rights of citizens and the sovereignty of member countries, this has a negative impact on developing a collective cyber defense strategy for ENISA. Developing a new strategy to successfully apply in a neoliberal perspective is vital for protecting the information infrastructure of member states. The goal of this paper is to demonstrate a possible way of rethinking the cyber security in the EU. Keywords: ENISA, EU, cyber security, ICT

INTRODUCTION European Union has proven that it’s a construction sustainable over time, bringing together the 28 member states, each having its own governmental agenda. As we had entered in the XXI century we face even more challenges, and one of the most important being the internet. Although over the years the EU had become an international organization that is based on the military power of NATO, regarding cyberspace, defines its own defense policy1. Although the objectives of the EU cyber security are defensive in nature, they aim at devising a strategy to defend the interests of the Member States having an aggressive like Russia and China. The programs initiated by the strategy on defense policy include the ambitious program "Action 29: Fight against cyber-attacks on information systems" of the European Commission on 22 July 2013. The reason why these measures have been taken is due to the everyday increase of the attacks in the online environment. The Commission has drawn up a plan for the coming years of Action 29 2014, aiming at informing the parties involved in the legislative process in order to ensure homogeneity and defense policies throughout the EU. In 2015, it envisages implementation of the Directive by the beginning of September 2015, and at the same time threatening to continue monitoring discovered across the EU2. There had been provided notices of this action to the European Commission for the first attacks that targeted the EU member states and in time this will also provide a long-term answer to the problem. European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) have the duty to protect virtual environments on their territory, from simple cyber-attacks, cyber terrorism, devising defensive strategies and risk reduction capacity online3. Its task includes not only monitoring the number of incidents in the EU but also providing expertise on issues faced online by the member states. ENISA reported on October 30 2014 the massive cyber-attack on the European Union, Cyber Security Strategy and programs handbook, International Business Publications, Washington, 2014, p. 53 2 “Action 29: Combat cyber-attacks against information systems”, accessed 25 October 2015, on: http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/pillar-iii-trust-security/action-29-combat-cyber-attacks-againstinformation-systems 3 “Activities - ENISA”, accessed 7 May 2015, on:https://www.enisa.europa.eu/about-enisa/activities 1

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European Union over 2,000 attacks were initiated on national defense systems4. The need for more efficient implementation of European legislation to counter attacks from the virtual environment is a priority for reducing damage annually. RETHINKING THE CYBER DEFENSE STANDARD OF 28 COUNTRIES UNDER ONE PLAN ENISA is working with the European Commission and national authorities of the member states, regulated under Directive Article 13a, for reporting and resolving major incidents on security and integrity of information networks5. Thus, since 2011, the European Agency began publishing annual reports on the issues raised by Member States. Although they are a total of 51 in 2011, their number increased 3 times according to the 2014 report, mobile internet being affected mainly at the expense of fixed internet6. Analyzing Reports issued by ENISA, understanding the impact of the events in cyberspace, and at the same time seeing how this reflects on our daily life. There are moments when our ISPs face problems due to cyber-attacks and our means of communication are affected by unauthorized interference, etc. we need a system able to counteract the destructive actions that so we can hold or even stop the channels of communication.

Chart 1.3: Major incidents reported during 2011-2014 by ENISA The chapter on EU cyber adaptability shows an overview which creates the legal framework for the implementation of rights and liberties cyber-security online and internationally competitive with other states. However, the duty of the EU to implement its policies is what makes the difference between a strong governmental structure and a less developed one, where rights are not a priority. In 2015 ENISA launched a warning about dangers that could arise in a long-term of fragmented and dismantled strategy concerning the cyber defense for the EU countries. Amongst them are stated the following: slow developing of new technologies, deficiency on key processes, failure to compete to new products and services7. These consequences will turn to vulnerabilities that can be easily exploited by others. That is why in a century of fast Jeremy Fleming, “Europe under massive virtual cyber attack”, accessed 24 September 2015, on: http://www.euractiv.com/sections/infosociety/europe-under-massive-virtual-cyber-attack-309623 5 Technical guideline on Security measures for Article 4 and Article 13a, ENISA, Heraklion, 2014 6 Annual Incident Reports (2011-2014), ENISA, Heraklion, 2011-2014 7 Standardization in the field of Electronic Identities and Trust Service Providers, ENISA, Heraklion, 2015, p. 2 4

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technological advancement it can be critical to be one step ahead of cyber-attacks8. While each country retains its independence on the strategy used to counter cyber threats, citizens of member states are the ones affected by lack of collaboration. FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE When studying the European Union we would start by defining it as “United in Diversity”9 or as “the United States of Europe”, named by Winston Churchill, and study it as such. But the question here is not about the unity or diversity of Europe as a whole, but about how can we bring together the best of every strategic cyber defense plan from each country under one organization, namely ENISA. The answer lies in the analysis of each of the 28 member state internet legislation on cyber defense. From the perspective of the theories of international relations in cyber space, neoliberals concluded that countries alone aren’t capable of defending themselves efficient against the newest threats from the internet10. Instead, by bringing them together under one international organization or political body, which would encompass different ideas and different perspectives of the international relations, and by constructing a program based on both competition and discussions is the first step towards a more EU-centric view of the matter. In such, an important role will be played by NGOs and private companies11, who will participate in the debates in order to have an improved point of view in cyber security of ENISA. The results of those actions will be visible after the few sessions of discussing ENISA’s new strategy in the virtual environment, a framework of the document that could be created that might later become the Constitution for cyber security signed in Heraklion. After this procedure, the executive body of ENISA, which will be similar to the United Nations Security Council, would be formed in order to implement and supervise the decisions of each meeting of 3 representing countries, with a term of 4 year each. More importantly is that representative from each county will be the ministers of defense and each one will have the opportunity to veto the decisions within each session. Providing this solution would look similar to the General Assembly, but in this case like European Parliament, in terms of a legislative body and would not affect the sovereignty of the member states. Also having available a citizen initiative body and consulting with NGO’s periodically12. Finally the Administrative body, which would be composed of the old ENISA structure, would be tasked with the financial aspects of the organization13. Through this form of representation, ENISA will get the full support of the European Union members and in future other non-EU countries will seek support or solutions from the European Agency.

“EU lacks 'unified vision' for 'important' standards on cyber security, says ENISA” accessed 10 February 2016, on: http://www.out-law.com/en/articles/2015/march/eu-lacks-unified-vision-for-important-standards-on-cybersecurity-says-enisa/ 9 “The EU motto”, accessed 18 February 2016, on: http://europa.eu/about-eu/basicinformation/symbols/motto/index_en.htm 10 “Cyber Terrorism and IR Theory: Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in the New Security Threat”, accessed 15 February 2016, on: http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/627/cyber-terrorism-and-ir-theory-realismliberalism-and-constructivism-in-the-new-security-threat 11 Rita ABRAHAMSEN, Anna LEANDER, Routledge Handbook of Private Security Studies, Routledge, New York, 2016, pp. 5-6 12 “About the UN”, accessed 18 February 2016, on: http://www.un.org/en/about-un/index.html 13 “Internal Structure – ENISA”, accessed 18 February, on: https://www.enisa.europa.eu/about-enisa/structureorganization 8

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Annex 1: The new proposed form for ENISA’s structure CONCLUSIONS As we are observing the development of today’s technology, we can understand why it’s vital for some countries and even international organizations to improve their cyber defense in order to face the threats from online. The analysis on data collected from 2011 to 2014 by ENISA demonstrate that everyday cyber-attacks are increasing and the EU countries continue to have an individualistic strategy to counter them (28 countries, 28 strategies), by refusing to apply a much more fruitful collaboration amongst them. ENISA needs to have the necessary political support in order to implement its cyber security plan. Individually the 28 states will lack behind China, Russia and USA cyber security. The solution as I have provided in my paper is to apply a strategic plan of ENISA on EU countries that is based on the neoliberal perspective in the international relations. In order to do so, the first step would be to have the representative of each country have several meetings to propose a framework document that in time would become the principles on which ENISA would act as a representative of the 28 countries. At the beginning this would be a slow process because each country will have a veto in the decisions, but in time it will become similar to the United Nations Security Council. This will also have a huge impact on the single cyber market and would encourage economic growth. But more importantly is that each of the citizens from the member states can provide new ideas for a better cyber security in the EU. The paper that I have written represents only a perspective on the strategy that ENISA could use in order to unify the 28 countries under its cyber security plan and so there are many other perspectives that could be used by scholars in international relations to improve the online collaborations in EU. Nevertheless it is only a matter of time before the European Union members realize that much more can be done by working together in terms of research and development in the virtual environment. The final conclusion is that ENISA would have to rethink its cyber strategy to meet the requirements of each of the member countries and by doing so it will become the representation of the international organization capable of providing security solutions for the European Union.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

15.

16. 17. 18. 19.

ABRAHAMSEN, Rita, Anna LEANDER, Routledge Handbook of Private Security Studies, Routledge, New York, 2016 Annual Incident Reports (2011-2014), ENISA, Heraklion, 2011-2014 CHRISTOU, George, Cybersecurity in the European Union: Resilience and Adaptability in Policy, Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2016 European Union, Cyber Security Strategy and programs handbook, International Business Publications, Washington, 2014 GEHEM, Maarten, Artur USANOV, Erik FRINKING, Michael RADEMAKER, Assessing Cyber Security: A meta analysis of threats, trends, and responses to cyber attacks, The Hague Center for Strategic Studies, Hague, 2015 PELTON, Joseph, SINGH Indu, Digital Defense: A Cybersecurity Primer, Springer International Publishing, 2015 RICHET, Jean-Loup, Cybersecurity Policies and Strategies for Cyberwarfare Prevention, Information Science Reference, Hershey, 2015 Standardization in the field of Electronic Identities and Trust Service Providers, ENISA, Heraklion, 2015 STEVENS, Tim, Cyber Security and the Politics of Time, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2016 TAPLIN, Ruth, Managing Cyber Risk in the Financial Sector: Lessons from Asia, Europe and the USA, Routledge, New York, 2016 Technical guideline on Security measures for Article 4 and Article 13a, ENISA, Heraklion, 2014 Action 29: Combat cyber-attacks against information systems, published on: http://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/pillar-iii-trust-security/action-29-combat-cyberattacks-against-information-systems Activities - ENISA, published on: https://www.enisa.europa.eu/about-enisa/activities Cyber Terrorism and IR Theory: Realism, Liberalism, and Constructivism in the New Security Threat, published on: http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/627/cyberterrorism-and-ir-theory-realism-liberalism-and-constructivism-in-the-new-securitythreat EU lacks 'unified vision' for 'important' standards on cyber security, says ENISA published on: http://www.out-law.com/en/articles/2015/march/eu-lacks-unifiedvision-for-important-standards-on-cyber-security-says-enisa/ FLEMING, Jeremy, Europe under massive virtual cyber attack, published on: http://www.euractiv.com/sections/infosociety/europe-under-massive-virtual-cyberattack-309623 www.europa.eu www.enisa.europa.eu www.un.org

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A LOGIC MODEL FOR THE NATIONAL CYBER SECURITY/DEFENCE STRATEGIES ? THE CASE OF THE FRENCH CYBER DEFENCE PACT Tasia GUDU Ph.D. candidate, National University of Political Studies and Public Administration (NUPSPA) Bucharest [email protected] Abstract: The cyber security/defence strategies are considered high level documents and many countries in Europe are into the second iteration of theirs national cyber security/defence strategies, but few have designed those strategies to support their implementation, evaluation and adjustment. The French Cyber Defence Pact is a positive example that illustrates the underlying logic of the components of a strategy and proposes an evaluation and adjustment framework based on key performance indicators. The French Cyber Defence Pact is organized in six axes and 50 actions to take in order to achieve the full economic and social benefits of the cyberspace. This paper aims to analyse the logic model of the French cyber defence policy on the basis of the fifth axis – maintaining a network of foreign partners, in Europe, within the Atlantic Alliance or in areas of strategic interest – in order to emphasize the existence of a successful evaluation framework of such strategies. Keywords: cyber security, evaluation, strategy, logical model.

INTRODUCTION In the evaluation of the cyber policy of a state, there are many tools to use, but the most important are the national cyber security/defence strategies. Many countries in Europe are into the second iteration of those high level documents, but few have designed the strategies to logic support their implementation, evaluation and adjustment. The problem was been addressed in the academic field, but formulated as “a lack of information visibility”1 and related to the need of developing improved visual structures to support information synthesis for policy actions. The position paper by Stoll & Bengez claims also that “a core task in making cyber policy actions is seeing the data that support them. In other words, decision-makers must take highly disparate data, many points of views, and synthesize them into a coherent and concise narrative that fits into a broader strategy. Yet seeing cyber policy remains difficult”2. In the official field, the European Union Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA) introduced an evaluation framework in order to “directly assist policy practitioners charged with designing, implementing or evaluating their NCSS”3, based on logic modelling, which “helps policymakers reflect on the assumptions upon which their plans are dependent; the risks related to the realisation of the program’s objectives and the conditions which are necessary for the planned results to materialise.”4

Jennifer Stoll and Rainhard Z. Bengez, “Visual structures for seeing cyber policy strategies”, 7th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Architectures in Cyberspace, p. 135. 2 Idem, p. 136. 3 National Cyber Security Strategies. ENISA, Annex B - Methodology, 2014, available at https://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/national-cyber-security-strategies-ncsss/anevaluation-framework-for-cyber-security-strategies-1, accessed on 24 January 2016, p. 1. 4 Idem, p. 4. 1

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I consider the initiative of ENISA appropriate and useful for the states who want to bridge the gap between the policy encoded into text and the efficient evaluation and adjustment of the policy actions. The logic model proposed by ENISA represents an example of a best practice in the pursuit of cyber security for states. The logic model represents also the best path to show that there is no magic and unique formula for the cyber security. Every state should address the question »how much cyber security do we need? « according to their logic determined necessities. The aim of the present paper is to show how the French approach on cyber defence and security fits into the logic model proposed by ENISA. LOGIC MODELLING The logic modelling is a (narrative or graphical) tool that has been used for program planning and evaluation and to justify a particular set of measures. This process describes the logical linkages “among program resources, activities, outputs, audiences, and short-, intermediate- and long-term outcomes related to a specific problem or situation”5. Under the benefits of implementing such a process are the following: it portrays the cause-and-effect relationships of a program, it helps indentifying partnerships critical to raise the capability and it links the problem to the intervention, and the impact. The cyber policy implies planning, program management, evaluation and communications. The states adopt cyber policies in order to enhance the performance by contrast to a pre-existing situation. The core of this process is represented by resources, activities, outputs, mobilized for a strategy cycle. Figure 1. Elements of the Logic Model, Insertion of evaluation into the logic model

Source: Paul F. McCawley.6 The Key Performance Indicators are qualitative and quantitative instruments used to measure the progress and the results and are considered fundamental for the evaluation: “Developing appropriate and measurable indicators during the planning phase is the key to a sound evaluation”.7 The fundamental characteristics for the indicators are presented under the

McCawley, Paul F., The Logic Model for Program Planning and Evaluation, University of Idaho, available at https://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/CIS/CIS1097.pdf, accessed on 20 February 2016, p. 1. 6 Ibidem. 7 Idem, p. 5. 5

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acronym SMART8 – specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, time-related – but the list is longer: realistic, specific, agreed, reported, assessed. The evaluation can be done by process indicators and outcome indicators. THE FRENCH CYBER DEFENCE PACT Through the 2013 White Paper on Defence and National Security, the cyber defence became a national priority. The French “Cyber Defence Pact” was launched in February 2014 as part of the Ministry of Defence’s efforts to improve the monitoring capacities and the level of awareness, “an engagement of the Ministry and a hand held to the national cyber security community and our foreign partners”9. The Cyber Defence Pact represents a pragmatic approach and a well-defined project, with a budget of one billion Euros that the French Ministry of Defence will invest for until 2019. The novelty of the French commitment consists in the structure of the pact – there are 50 actions to be taken, a quantifiable progress based on indicators and a responsible authority for every indicator. The starting situation or the problem statement could be described by the reinforcement of malicious activities in cyberspace, the fact that contractors and defence industries are victims of the cyber attacks, the threat of massive or destructive attacks even with a low level of sophistication and that the military operations has a more or less developed cyber dimension. The goals of the program can be identified with the six axes of action proposed: 1. Supporting the strengthening of the security and defence level of the information systems of the Ministry of Defence and its major trusted partners. 2. Supporting the industrial basis through research in the technical, academic and operational domains. 3. Promoting the careers dedicated to cyber defence. 4. Building up the cyber defence centre for the Ministry of Defence and a national cyber defence community. 5. Maintaining a network of foreign partners, in Europe, within the Atlantic Alliance or in areas of strategic interest. 6. Promoting the foundation of a national cyber defence community. The inputs of this project include the stakeholders, the financial resources, the time and the capabilities. The proposed activities (outputs) are different for every axis, but the aim of this article is to underline the international relations dimension of the pact, which corresponds with the 6th axis - maintaining a network of foreign partners, in Europe, within the Atlantic Alliance or in areas of strategic interest. To accomplish this objective, the French Ministry of Defence formulated the following actions and quantifiable10 indicators: - To define and to defend the French position regarding the stability of cyberspace. Indicator: the participation of experts from the Ministry at international negotiations. - To deepen the operational and technical cooperation in cyber defense with the partners involved in the same military operations, in order to develop interoperability. Indicator: tracking table of cooperation in this field. - To deepen the cooperation with the most present allies in cyberspace, to enhance the understanding of the threats, anticipate attacks and work together to solve them. ENISA, Annex B - Methodology, 2014, available at https://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-andCIIP/national-cyber-security-strategies-ncsss/an-evaluation-framework-for-cyber-security-strategies-1, accessed on 24 January 2016, p. 3 9 Ministry of Defence of France, Introduction to the Cyber Defence pact, available at http://www.defense.gouv.fr/actualites/articles/presentation-du-pacte-defense-cyber, accessed on 21 January 2016. 10 The indicators can be qualitative or quantitative. 8

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Indicator: tracking table of cooperation in this field. - To add a cyber component to the defense relationship established with partners, according to the level of the relationship and of the threats. Indicator: tracking table of cooperation in this field. - To set the integration of European cyber security as first priority for institutions and for member states. Indicator: progress of the European cyber security - To support the European cyber security solutions in areas where the national capabilities are not available or necessary. Indicator: development of research initiatives, training and European industrial projects in cyber security. - To promote military cyber defense in the European Union. Indicator: progress on military aspects of EU cyber defense. - To promote the organization and cyber defense force interoperability in NATO. Indicator: advancement of cyber defense within the Atlantic Alliance. - To contribute to the defence of the allies by sharing with NATO information on threats that could affect the safety and assistance in the event of a major cyber attack. Indicator: intensification of exchanges with the Atlantic Alliance. The activities within the framework of the Cyber Defence Pact are an ongoing process, so that poor quantifiable data about the effects is available, and not from primary sources. In the table below, I synthesize the logical linkages encoded into the Pact text, superpose the structure of the document to the summary of logic modelling process and estimate the outcomes of the analyzed strategy cycle. Figure 2. The logic model of the French Cyber Defence Pact INPUTS

S I T U A T I O N

Investment: - time: 2014-2019 - money: one billion Euros; - partners: European Union, NATO; - equipment and facilities: responsible authorities – DGRI, DGA, EMA.11

OUTPUTS

Activities: - defending the French position; - operational and technical cooperation; - integration of European cyber security as first priority for institutions; - promoting cyber defense force interoperability in NATO.

OUTCOMES

Change in: - consolidating the French identity in the international relations; - increasing interoperability; - differentiated cooperation; - institutional integration of the European cyber security; - European leadership; - European integration of the military cyber defense; - consolidating the membership of France in NATO.

EVALUATION STUDY MEASUREMENT OF PROCESS AND OUTCOME INDICATORS

Source: Author (2016) Even if the schematic nature of this approach presents a linear progress, the logic model offers the challenge of a roundabout cycle – the realized or the estimated outcomes need to be conceived as the inputs or outputs of futures activities. In French: Direction générale de la recherche et de l'innovation, Direction générale de l'armement, L'État-major des armées.

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CONCLUSION This article aimed to analyze the existence and the use of an evaluation framework of the cyber defense/security strategies and the French Cyber Defense Pact is an example of how politics can be formulated within a logic model. The statement of the problem, the inputs, outputs and outcomes are steps toward objectives of a strategy. The effectiveness of a policy and the efficacy of the process depend to a great extent on the activities and the process and outcome indicators. It was also the goal of this paper to show that there is no magic and unique formula for the cyber security. Every state should address the question »how much cyber security do we need?« depending on their logic determined necessities. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2. 3. 4.

5.

6.

7.

8. 9.

10.

11.

Andrea A. Anderson, A practical guide to theory development, Aspen Institute, The Community Builder’s Approach to Theory of Change, available at http://www.aspeninstitute.org/sites/default/files/content/docs/rcc/rcccommbuildersapp roach.pdf, accessed on 28 February 2016. Ministry of Defence of France, Introduction to the Cyber Defence pact, available at http://www.defense.gouv.fr/actualites/articles/presentation-du-pacte-defense-cyber, accessed on 21 January 2016. Ministry of Defence of France, Pacte Défense Cyber, available at http://www.defense.gouv.fr/actualites/articles/presentation-du-pacte-defense-cyber, accessed on 21 January 2016. ENISA, National Cyber Security Strategies: An Implementation Guide, 2012, available at https://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/nationalcyber-security-strategies-ncsss/national-cyber-security-strategies-an-implementationguide, accessed on 12 February 2016. ENISA, An evaluation Framework for National Cyber Security Strategies, 2014, available at https://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/nationalcyber-security-strategies-ncsss/an-evaluation-framework-for-cyber-security-strategies1, accessed on 7 February 2016 ENISA, Annex B - Methodology, 2014, available at https://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/national-cyber-securitystrategies-ncsss/an-evaluation-framework-for-cyber-security-strategies-1, accessed on 24 January 2016 Government of France, Information systems Defence and Security: France’s Strategy, 2011, available at http://www.enisa.europa.eu/activities/Resilience-and-CIIP/nationalcyber-security-strategies-ncsss/France_Cyber_Security_Strategy.pdf, accessed on 10 January 2015. Jennifer Stoll and Rainhard Z. Bengez, “Visual structures for seeing cyber policy strategies”, 7th International Conference on Cyber Conflict: Architectures in Cyberspace, 2015, 135-152.

Paul F. McCawley, The Logic Model for Program Planning and Evaluation, University of Idaho Extension, 1997, available at https://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/CIS/CIS1097.pdf, accessed 20 February 2016.

OECD, Cybersecurity Policy making at a turning point: Analysing a new generation of national cybersecurity strategies for the Internet economy, 2012, available at http://www.oecd.org/sti/ieconomy/cybersecurity%20policy%20making.pdf, accessed on 20 December 2015. William M. K. Trochim, Introduction to Evaluation, available at http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.php, accessed on 28 February 2016. 160

12.

University of Wisconsin-Extension, Enhancing Program Performance with Logic Models, 2003, available at http://www.uwex.edu/ces/pdande/evaluation/pdf/lmcourseall.pdf, accessed on 20 January 2016. 13. Isabel Vogel, ESPA guide to working with the Theory of Change for research projects, available at http://www.espa.ac.uk/files/espa/ESPA-Theory-of-Change-ManualFINAL.pdf, accessed on 20 February 2016. 14. W.K. Kellogg Foundation, Logic Model Development Guide, available at https://www.wkkf.org/resource-directory/resource/2006/02/wk-kellogg-foundationlogic-model-development-guide, accessed on 16 February 2016.

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MANAGEMENT OF THE JOINT FORCE COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATIONS SYSTEM Petrică-Marinel VOICU PhD Student, „CAROL I”National Defense University, [email protected] Gheorghe BOARU Professor PhD, „CAROL I”National Defense University, [email protected] Abstract: To ensure the successfully support of communication and information required to exercise command and control of joint forces engaged in operations, planning, installation and operation of communications and information system should be done in stages and specific activities of each stage, in part, to conduct standardized for strict implementation of the planning documents prepared. Keywords: communication and information support, command and control, planning, installation, operation.

CONSIDERATIONS FOR PLANNING AND INSTALLATION OF JOINT FORCE’S COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION SYSTEM IN THE MULTINATIONAL OPERATIONS Communication needs and capabilities of a joint force of small size with limited humanitarian mission, are very different from those of a Joint Force Commander (JFC) with continuous, multirole and multinational mission, based operation. Joint operation phases of a campaign are highly dependent on the situation and mission. The opportunities of the steps may be severely compressed. The phases do not follow the order and provide guidance to the JFC’s communications and information system (CIS) planner. In the operation phase, it would be useful to consider the critical activities that can influence the CIS. For example, to determine the terms and conditions of the operation, during an early phase actions may require mobilization and other preparatory activities. During the preparatory activities, JFC exercises with flexibility discouragement and adaptation options of forces to conduct the operation. Considerations to ensure information (IA) are critical for all activities1. Preparatory activities During this period JFC is designated and his subordinate forces are established. Commander Chiefs of Staff’s (CJCS) warnings and JFC’s alert orders, provide guidance to start planning. JFC issue a mission statement and intention commander for this. Subsequently, mission statement, commander's intent and concept of operation will be developed. The objective is to produce a plan to ensure the support of communications and information consistent with the intent commander, the mission received, the conception of progress of the operation and preparing initial packets to realization the CIS, thus realizing an

Joint publication 6-0, Joint Communication System, 2010, p. III-28, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/ jp6_0.pdf.

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initial operational capability in support of the operations plan. It can also be requested and planning routes and routing communications to support initial entry into the tactical field. Method. CIS planner uses analyzed planning methodology previously adopted to develop a concept of operations plan in support of the master. To begin initial mission analysis and planning, CIS planner should clearly understand the relationships of the components Joint Force Command. Base planning of all communications within CIS is a real understanding of joint forces and / or multinational JFC assigned, attached or given in the support its. Collaborative Planning, both horizontally and vertically, is a priority in all phases of operation. CIS planner of the JFC must involve subordinate structures and data support throughout the planning process. Assistance default, stored data, previous experiences and intuitive judgment, contribute to the development plan to ensure the support of communication and information. During the analysis mission, Joint Force planner works alongside planners components and support provided by defense agencies, such as the Agency Information System Defense (DISA) to evaluate communication infrastructure existing in theater, to determine requirements essential in ensuring the strategic and tactical communications. It is imperative that steps in achieving CIS plans to comply with the provisions of Joint Force Operation Plan. Capabilities Command and Control (C2) of the master are limited to the functioning capabilities essential implemented of CIS. Means. This phase of the operation will be based solely on the existence of communication infrastructure strategic, tactical and commercial. Installation activities of CIS The plan is finalized and disseminated. Communication and information system is expanded to provide necessary information flow, between JFC and joint force commanders components. Because the system is being installed, its main components are expanded in the operational area and installing the essential components of CIS takes place gradually achieving communications support specific area. Initial tactical communications are global, but may be insufficient in terms of capacitive if not planned, coordinated and properly engaged. In carrying out the operation, the main objective of the initial system packages tactical communication and information is to provide specific support commander in decision making and to provide a basis for extending networks and ensure continuous information flow. The objective is to ensure continuous flow of information between commanders in the initial stages of the operation and establish bases CIS infrastructure at both strategic and tactical in dynamic operations. Method. CIS initial capability is given by the high degree of mobility components and is composed of a modular package that provides master data services, voice and video. Initial package implementation plan provisions, provides global connectivity and the basis for the gradual building of the entire system. In austere tactical environments, the original network is not robust and can be seriously affected, and when certain faults occur. CIS should include reliable and redundant capabilities that would provide permanent commander, command and control (C2) components and support forces. Means. This phase of the operation is based on a combination of strategic communications, commercial and tactical support to ensure the introduction of forces into joint operations area (JOA). JFC employ satellite communications (SATCOM) on super-high frequency (UHF), SATCOM frequencies raised (SHF), military and / or commercial SATCOM frequencies extremely high (EHF), troposphere radio jamming and other military and / or commercial to provide long distance communications requirements at both strategic 163

and tactical. To ensure redundancy and support requirements of internal information, the Joint Force uses other system elements, such as radio frequency means high (HF), very high frequencies (VHF) and ultra-high frequencies (UHF). OPERATION OF COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION Organizing activities during implementation of the plan is the main challenge. J-6 must maintain an effective structure that would cope with rapid change of situation. Although each subordinate commander has the responsibility to identify, organize and prioritize the deployment of forces and means to implement the plan, J-6 must follow the implementation plan provisions regarding equipment installation activities in key communications nodes. Also, J-6 should provide a single point of contact to coordinate activities in order to seek permanent employment status of forces and means and ensure enrollment means of communication dynamics conduct joint activities and stage times (TPFDD). Usually, the units deployed in theater nationals claim tactical entry Defense Information System Network (DISN) via one portal sites Department of defense (DOD) the theater. Access to its sites requires close coordination between the unit concerned and its technical supervision. Therefore, to ensure support facilities DOD portal it could be prioritized by the joint NETOPS control center (JNCC). Initial operation of communications may be limited by the installation means a whole. Built capabilities and prepare the unit for installing components of CIS may delay the immediate portions of it. CIS structured approach to building capabilities in theater allows rapid construction of the original communications, followed by management of their development as planned. Monitoring and network control, reporting respectively. One of the critical functions of JNCC, during the installation activities means, is monitoring and network control, reporting respectively. CIS control function is to assess the efficiency of its operation, providing information, estimating its maintenance operations and changes in response to changing operational scenario. Monitoring network provides a macro-level of joint operations area (JOA) compartment of the Communications and Information Department of the Joint Force (J-6) in perspective and in order to ensure optimum performance of network. Reporting requirements require the establishment of performance measures and reporting times delimitation organizational relationships, responsibilities and procedures, and to identify other systems, circuits or elements of communication and information system to support operational functions essential / critical. Strength sitting services and functional components in their continued forbearance ensure balanced exploitation of CIS. In order of their phase, they create new capabilities and redundancy for existing CIS. JFC employs elements system to meet current communications needs and for providing support necessary communications and operational scheme of maneuver. The objective is to produce a reliable CIS, redundant and robust information flow to ensure JFC planned operation under design. Method. An CIS is thought to enhance and continually develop reliable, conditioned mission commander intention, design and operation to some extent its initial infrastructure. High-capacity satellite systems, terrestrial transmission and switching system is thought to enhance this phase of the operation. J-6 determined by JNCC many alternative routes to increase network robustness. Local Area Networks (LAN) are secured to the Joint Force and its components are interconnected and operate among themselves and within the wide area network (WAN), global information flow to develop.

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As CIS grows in complexity, more sophisticated systems are used to maintain efficient technical control after network expansion. In the course of the installation activities, J-6 continues to plan the expansion and transition CIS communications needs necessary to ensure compliance with the concept of operations of JFC for future operations. Means. JFC is based on various CIS, including joint communications support elements (JCSE) to connect to and expand other portions / services Global Information Grid (GIG) in the operational area. The ability for mobility of land forces and commercial satellite systems GIG provides connection with a mixed system composed of satellite and terrestrial systems to expand in the future operations, CIS in the JOA. Multichannel terrestrial radio communications in SHF and UHF frequency bands, provides video, voice and data over digital switches and technical control facilities. Maximum utilization is obtained due to commercial and government systems in operation throughout the existing installation activities elements CIS. CIS-keeping activity achieved At this stage J-6 continues to refine and improve CIS, this maintaining the robust and flexible to meet the requirements of the forms of maneuver of the operation. A constant concern during this stage is to provide spare parts and consumables required for the implementation of preventive and corrective maintenance operations. The objective is to support and improve information flow, to process information conveyed between commanders at various levels and adjust planning CIS depending on changes in the operation plan (OPLAN). Method. CIS existing changes are made depending on how the mission in its dynamics, master and user needs. These changes improve the overall capacity of the system to transmit information between components and complete secure and national organizations. Any errors are corrected design of the route communications and CIS becoming safer, attention is directed to those actions to keep the system running. The plans are designed to redistribute communication means controlled JCSE and replacement of system resources that are no longer working in parameters. Further, should pay particular attention to preventive maintenance and routine maintenance of stocks of spare parts and consumables required for this. Means. JNCC directs CIS changes in order to respond to changing mission requirements and users or any complaints. Technical control facilities play an increasingly important because the systems in place to make the necessary changes to continue and provide quality services to beneficiaries. Activities carried out during the transitional period Continuation and development planning. Changes in mission, structural organization and concept of operation may require substantial changes to the architecture CIS. Of course require adjustment system and other sources, namely shortcomings of CIS in support of the operation, network or equipment damaged and / or availability of a new system capabilities. In future operations, JNCC planners should actively monitor CIS to be able to predict future changes, needs of branching and / or further networks, thus ensuring proper connection needs. Transition planning. Although initially planning CIS will have a transition plan, ongoing and dynamic operations environment will require review and reformulate it. In many cases, though major operations cease communication capacity is required residual transition communications planning must take into account both the transition of communications services for permanent infrastructure, and their eventual deactivation for other structures. Most often, these services will be taken over by the commercial communications systems or host nation. 165

Transition. During this time, the priority of J-6 is the execution of the transition plan. It is possible that a Joint Force be appointed to temporarily stationed in and around the area where operations were conducted. In this case, J-6 should keep a close connection with the new organization designated to provide command and control facilities. Activities carried out in the post-conflict The planner should anticipate the conclusion of combat operations and transition to post-conflict operations. This stage of planning and execution must establish the basis for redistribution and communications needs continue and providing support for the accepted order. The objective is to monitor the transition CIS fully in line with changing operational requirements and ensure continuous support for specific joint force. Method. It is imperative that CIS is not reduced in an unsustainable pace, so it can support the JFC in continuing the mission. Network planner must keep a flexible, dynamic changes and respond quickly to mission requirements. Like repositioning of subordinate elements or assigning new missions, JNCC adjusted to provide network capabilities continue. Dependence on satellite systems can increase during this period due to the fact that more forces are preparing to go in other location, while JOA remains the same. To ensure the seamless flow of information in the operational area, the scheduler employs redundant capabilities such as tactical satellite (TACS) on UHF. To facilitate the coordination of the host nation, the scheduler must anticipate high dependence on local commercial infrastructure. Means. As in the previous phases, this phase of the operation is based on various systems to connect to and extend GIG in the operational area. The high capacity continues to ensure connectivity for satellite systems in the operational forces dispersed to other parts / services GIG. UHF systems such as TACS or host nation provides redundant communications capabilities throughout the operational area. Activities carried out during the redistribution of forces In the run-up redistribution activities, planning is the most important part of this stage. CIS must continue to ensure the flow of information necessary masters, even if certain major components of the network are switched off or removed consciously for redistribution. The objective is to redistribute unnecessary system components and continue to provide communications support for JFC and multinational forces remaining in the operational area. JNCC should focus on maintaining and transit network control until it is no longer common. A JNCC should remain in operation whenever either of two conditions exist, namely: a portion of the joint operational network or one or more components of the Joint Force deployed communications and support needs. Meanwhile, JNCC must ensure that all units follow instructions on disabling J-6 CIS resources. To ensure an orderly deactivation and minimal support, but continuous network services, JNCC will be supported by command units / components in order to prioritize disabling disn. Method. While carrying capacity will decrease the number of redundant systems, J-6 must maintain certain CIS capabilities to the JFC until no longer calls. In the last days of redeployment activities, communication system may look very similar system initially implemented. Means. Commercial infrastructure and government should support as much as possible redistribution of CIS and depriving it of such infrastructure; the latest systems redistributed consist usually of mobile means with a great capacity for movement and easy to carry such as a single UHF and SHF small satellite terminals. As noted, communications and support are the decisive element in the pursuit of joint forces command and control, planned and ensure throughout all phases of operation and its progress. 166

Standardization of planning, installing and operating communication and information system of joint force is a basic requirement to ensure successful command and control forces engaged in operation. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

*** NATO Handbook, published by Office of Information and Press, NATO - 1110 Brussels – Belgium, 2001 *** Allied Joint Doctrine for communication and information Systems AJP-6, April 06, 2011. *** Joint Publication 6-0, Joint Communications System, June 10, 2010 www.nato.int www.rft.forter.ro www.mapn.ro

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COMPONENT OF THE JOINT FORCE COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATIONS SYSTEM Petrică-Marinel VOICU PhD Student, „CAROL I” National Defense University, [email protected] Gheorghe BOARU Professor PhD, „CAROL I” National Defense University, [email protected] Abstract: Management of the communications and information system involves the establishment and control of all communications and information systems allocated. A good management of the joint communications and information system offers meeting planners the possibility of a precise and detailed knowledge of its condition to the modular level. It combines centralized control with decentralized execution and provide timely and effective support of communications and information to the Joint Force Commander (JFC). Keywords: communication and information system, joint force, operational structure, management.

COMPONENT OF THE COMMUNICATIONS AND THE JOINT FORCE Joint NETOPS control center (JNCC) Communications and Information Systems Department (J6) of the Joint Force will be prepared to respond effectively and timely access all the problems and challenges of the Communications and Information System (CIS) so that the support mission will accomplished. Joint NETOPS control center (JNCC) is used to manage all communications and information systems deployed both during operations and drills. By controlling component facilities / services, he supervises all communication and information systems developed and serves as an agency for the management and operational control communications networks met. Functional components, subordinate Commander Joint Force (JFC), constitute a control system (SYSCON) or a joint network operations security center (NOSC) to act as the single point of contact in solving problems regarding the communications system. Control center operations deals with joint network planning, execution, technical director and of course the management of all communications systems deployed. Mode of execution CIS management. When elements of the communications and information system are activated, planners and operators are beginning to monitor its condition. System issues arising are reported by users immediately and hierarchically to the Joint Force Commander through SYSCON / NOSC, along with the application of specific procedures to restore normality. SYSCON / NOSC implement immediately to solve problems or coordinate other technical control facilities and users in the chain of command, the specific procedures to eliminate dysfunctions. Joint network management system (JNMS) is the system that providing enhanced network management capabilities to the JFC. JNMS offers JFC and provides automatic capabilities to plan and manage network services, devices / equipment and operating systems. JNMS determine how the planning and management of the network can be 168

coordinated by a Joint Force’s higher structure in all organized communications and information systems. Management of Communications and Information System To support this activity data structures should appoint one office communication and information with related personnel to coordinate specific activities with J-6. They develop and disseminate to those involved plans, orders and specific operating instructions for the operation of communications and information systems. All components ensures technical control facilities and reconfiguring its network control or change destination circuits, immediate maintenance activities in solving technical problems and not least, providing CIS’s status information. They will also keep detailed records regarding the conducted traffic management, particularly the information transmitted in packets routed circuits and function. The Joint Information Management Board (JIMB) is the specialized JFC main responsible for policy making to disseminate information and coordinate the functions of information management (IM) within the Joint Force. JIMB must be convened during the initial development of the IM plan of the Joint Force and, where appropriate, when the situation requires. It is chaired by the designated officer with IM and is composed of representatives of the structures of command, compartments, agency support, and carry out their work under the supervision of staff or other officials designated by JFC to determine directions action consistent with the needs of the mission. The commander or his representative shall submit points-of view to JIMB members operating environment and the impact on the flow of information or IM. STRUCTURE OF THE THE JOINT FORCE COMMUNICATIONS AND INFORMATION COMPONENT Communications executive officer Defence Ministry or his deputy may appoint a chief executive officer of a component as authoritative, with specific responsibilities at the time of award. This is done when there are no means to achieve the ministry objectives of, and resources should be focused on a certain area of responsibility (AOR). Cheaf of the Joint Force Communication and Information Department (J-6) JFC, through J-6, directs the activities and prioritization system for providing communications and media profile Joint Force command and components. Basically, in the theater of operations (TO), Theater Network Operations Center (TNCC) is the cheaf J-6’s structure wich doing so, and to be effective, TNCC should be aware of the situation (SA) critical nodes of the communication and information system in almost real time. TNCC works closely with the JNCC to ensure accurate reporting, timely and detailed data received from subordinate agencies and support as shown in Figure 1. TNCC is an operations support center for Joint Operations Centre (JOC) and is responsible for knowing the precise activities and events network operations (NETOPS) of AOR. It also ensures the coordination of large-scale assembly processes specific AOR, such as service disruptions authorized and restoration, development and transmission of operational assessments of the impact of activities and events NETOPS planned and unplanned, providing support in the development of optimal courses of action (COA) and the implementation of orders and directives upper echelon. 169

Joint Force Commander (JFC)

JFC subordinate structures

J-6

Joint Force J-6

TNCC

TNC

Communications officer

JNCC Ministry of National Defense Gateway OPERAȚIONAL CONTROL LIAISON REPORTING/COORDINATION CONTROL COMMAND

JFC Subordinate component

SYSCON

Figure 1 Diagram of relationships in theater 1 Department of Communications and Informatics (J-6) J-6 is the structure responsible for the provision of communications and information necessary to support joint actions in a timely and qualified manner.

Joint publication 6-0, Joint Communication System, 2010, p. III-3, accessed February 15, 2016, on http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/new_pubs/ jp6_0.pdf.

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Operational element of J-6 is JNCC. To coordinate NETOPS and SA known, JNCC require the appropriate support sations or SYSCON.Grouping components of the Joint Forces command subordinate forces NOSC and agencies are responsible for data assimilation and integration NETOPS SA responabilitate their operational areas. Each NOSC install, maintain / preserve and ensure network operations management, as well as software for intrusion detection and implement a local database to build an image in near real time communication and information system. J-6 assists JFC in the management of the entire system of communication and information. Also, JNCC establishes a single agency to serve as the control, management and operational control communications system met. JFC commanders may order services or components, subordinate augmentation J-6 staff to ensure that there is expertise and is known as a whole the activity of JNCC. JFC and component commanders must designate an office / module staffed with specialized personnel within the structures to coordinate with J-6 mission line. Joint NETOPS control center (JNCC) J-6 establishes a JNCC to manage all communications systems deployed during operations and exercises, as follows:  ensure OPCON of exercises and technical management of communications control centers belonging to deployed forces components and subordinate commands;  serves as the single agency management control and operational structure joint communications networks, infrastructure;  perform the functions of planning, execution, technical supply and management;  develop / disseminate standards / procedures and collects / provides statistics of joint communications and information system management. Functional parts JFC and subordinate should appoint one office / module staffed with specialized personnel within them to coordinate with JNCC line mission. Communications and information subordinated units Communications and information subordinated units must ensure, reliable and realtime both JFC and his commanders. The components of communications and information system develop and disseminate operators meeting plans, orders and specific instructions for the operation of communications and deployed. Normally, there will not be a conflict between the joint communications and network facilities with any networks of the JFC and subordinate commanders. However, when a conflict occurs, SYSCON / NOSC can not decide unilaterally priority support. It must coordinate with the JNCC to prioritize its activities. In addition, it is essential that each SYSCON / NOSC can provide in time JNCC through the communication and information system, secure and real information. SYSCON / NOSC can coordinate with JNCC to obtain technical assistance and / or interoperability. Therefore, management of joint communications and information system involves hiring the roadworthiness of all systems of communications and offers planners allocated and the possibility of a precise and detailed knowledge of its condition to the modular level. It combines centralized control with decentralized execution and provide communications and information support JFC, timely and effective in ensuring successful command and control of the forces engaged in operation.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

*** NATO Handbook, published by Office of Information and Press, NATO - 1110 Brussels – Belgium, 2001 *** Allied Joint Doctrine for communication and information Systems AJP-6, April 06, 2011. *** Joint Publication 6-0, Joint Communications System, June 10, 2010 www.nato.int www.rft.forter.ro www.mapn.ro

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CONSIDERATIONS ON CYBER SECURITY LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS IN ROMANIA Dănuţ TURCU Professor, PhD, “CAROL I” National Defense University, Bucharest, Romania [email protected] Abstract: Currently, in countries such as Estonia, USA, UK, Germany and France there are national strategies for cybersecurity in place, underpinning the need for steps to develop own capabilities to counter cyber-attacks and to set up the framework for action and cooperation between different government entities and NGOs to limit the consequences of those attacks. In line with the steps initiated by the European Union and NATO, Romania has assumed the role of coordinating activities to ensure cybersecurity in the region. Keywords: Cyber security, Legislation, Romania, regulations, NATO, European Union (EU).

THE 2013 CYBER SECURITY STRATEGY OF EUROPEAN UNION Romania has issued its cybersecurity strategy in 2013 thus integrating it in the European regulatory process for cybersecurity initiated by the European Commission, with the High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The final version of EU document on cybersecurity was issued 7.2.2013 in the manner of a joint communication to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. In the EU acceptance, for cyberspace to remain open and free, the same norms, principles and values that the EU upholds offline, should also apply online. Freedom online requires safety and security. Cyberspace should be protected from incidents, malicious activities and misuse; and governments have a significant role in ensuring a free and safe cyberspace. In accordance with an important paragraph from the starting pages of the EU cyber strategy “governments have several tasks: to safeguard access and openness, to respect and protect fundamental rights online and to maintain the reliability and interoperability of the Internet.“1 The same laws and norms that apply in other areas of all EU day-to-day lives apply also in the cyber domain. All relevant actors, whether public authorities, the private sector or individual citizens, need to recognize this shared responsibility, take action to protect themselves and if necessary ensure a coordinated response to strengthen cybersecurity.

Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace, Brussels, 7.2.2013 JOIN(2013) 1 final, p.2, available online, http://eeas.europa.eu/policies/eu-cyber-security/cybsec_comm_en.pdf, accessed December 12, 2015 1

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Figure 1 The three key pillars to address cybersecurity in a comprehensive mode2 The EU vision highlighted in that cyber strategy is expressed in a number of five strategic priorities, which approach the challenges enumerated above: • achieving cyber resilience; • drastically reducing cybercrime; • developing cyber-defense policy and capabilities related to the Common Security and Defense Policy (CSDP); • develop the industrial and technological resources for cybersecurity; • establish a coherent international cyberspace policy for the European Union and promote core EU values.3 Cyber incidents do not stop at borders in the interconnected digital economy and society. All actors, from Network and Information security (NIS) competent authorities, CERTs and law enforcement to industry/contractors, must take responsibility both nationally and at EU-level and work together to fortify cybersecurity. In the final part of EU cyber strategy it is raised the issue of existing a variety of actors and legislation: “As different legal frameworks and jurisdictions may be involved, a key challenge for the EU is to clarify the roles and responsibilities of the many actors involved.“4 As we all know that the complexity of the issue and the various range of actors that are involved, a centralized, European supervision is not the certain answer. National governments are best positioned to organize the prevention and response to cyber incidents and attacks and to establish contacts and networks with the private sector and the general public across their recognized policy objectives and legal frameworks. Still, due to the potential or actual borderless nature of the risks, an effective national response would often necessitate EU-level involvement. To approach cybersecurity “in a comprehensive fashion, activities should span across three key pillars— NIS, law enforcement, and defense—which also operate within different legal frameworks“ (see figure 1).5 The Network Information Security (NIS) Directive is the first piece of European legislation on cybersecurity. Its provision aim to make the online environment more trustworthy and, thus, to support the smooth functioning of the EU Digital Single Market.6 idem, p.17 idem, pp.4-5 4 idem, p.17 5 ibidem 6 Network Information Security (NIS) Directive, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/news/network-andinformation-security-directive-co-legislators-agree-first-eu-wide-legislation, accessed December 15, 2015 2 3

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The proposal for a Directive concerning measures to ensure a high common level of network and information security across the Union was put forward by the European Commission in 20137. Last year in December, the Parliament and the Council have agreed on a set of measures to increase the total level of cybersecurity accross the EU. The new rules will:  improve cybersecurity capabilities in Member States;  improve Member States' cooperation on cybersecurity;  require operators of essential services in the energy, transport, banking and healthcare sectors, and providers of key digital services like search engines and cloud computing, to take appropriate security measures and report incidents to the national authorities. Following this political agreement, the text will have to be formally approved by the European Parliament and the Council. Upon publication of the adopted text in the Official Journal, the Member States will have 21 months to implement this Directive into their national laws and 6 months more to identify operators of essential services. THE ENHANCED NATO CYBER DEFENSE POLICY OF 2014 Within the 2014 NATO Summit, the Heads of State and Government of NATO member countries met in Newport, Wales, on 4-5 September 2014, where, between other topics, they validated the Enhanced Cyber Defense Policy, which had already been accepted by the defense ministers in Brussels on 3-4 June 2014. An outline of the Policy is written by the Summit Declaration.8 On the official web site of NATO it is stated that according to the new and enhanced Policy, NATO recognizes that international law applies to cyberspace, and that cyber defense is part of NATO's core task of collective defense. Therefore, Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty on collective self-defense can be invoked in case of a cyber-attack with effects comparable to those of a conventional armed attack.9 According to the information that we can retrieve from the NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence web site, Jamie Shea, Deputy Assistant Secretary General for Emerging Security Challenges at NATO Headquarters, said that “the Policy does not set any detailed criteria for the activation of Article 5, which would have to be decided by the Allies on a case-by-case basis.“10 NATO’s has fundamental responsibility for defending its own systems, while nations are expected to defend theirs. NATO will continue to integrate cyber defense into operations and planning and to enhance information sharing and situational awareness. NATO also intends to engage actively on cyber issues with international organizations, in particular with the EU. CYBERSECURITY STRATEGY OF ROMANIA Cybersecurity Strategy of Romania approved by Government Decision no.271/2013, establishes the conceptual, organizational and action framework necessary to ensure cybersecurity and cyber infrastructure protection consistently aimed with new concepts and

Proposal for a Directive concerning measures to ensure a high common level of network and information security across the Union, https://ec.europa.eu/digital-agenda/en/news/commission-proposal-directiveconcerning-measures-ensure-high-common-level-network-and, accessed December 15, 2015 8 NATO, Wales Summit Declaration, Paragraph 72-73, http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_112964.htm, accessed December 12, 2015 9 idem, Paragraph 72 10 NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence web site, https://ccdcoe.org/nato-summit-updatescyber-defence-policy.html, accessed December 15, 2015 7

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policies in developed and adapted cyber-defense within NATO and the European Union.11 Cybersecurity Strategy of Romania (CSR) presents the objectives, principles and main directions of action for understanding, preventing and counteracting threats, vulnerabilities and risks to cybersecurity and promoting Romania's interests, values and national goals in cyberspace. The main objective of the CSR is to create an integrated national system - The National Cyber Security System (NCSS) body which oversees the consistent implementation of all measures for preventing and responding to cyber-attacks against public institutions or private companies and has comprises public authorities and institutions with responsibilities and capabilities in the field. NCSS goal is to provide the elements of knowledge, prevention and countering of threats, vulnerabilities and risk cyberspace that may affect national cyber security infrastructure, including consequence management, cyber-attacks.12 The objectives of the tasks of NCSS are transposed into national action plan on the implementation of the NCSS, document approved by Government Decision no. 271 of 15/05/2013. Its contents are listed in the tasks of the authorities with competence in the field and deadlines. BODIES RESPONSIBLE CYBER SECURITY Supreme Council of National Defense is the authority that coordinates strategic NCSS. Ministry for Information Society ensures the coordination of other public authorities in order to achieve policy coherence and implementation of government strategies in the field. The public authorities competent in the matter (Romanian Intelligence Service, Ministry of Defense, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry for Information Society, the Special Telecommunications Service, the Foreign Intelligence Service, Protection and Guard Service, National Registry Office Classified Intelligence and Secretary of the Supreme Council of National Defense) within NCSS included actors from the environment of NGOs, professional and business. The mechanism for implementing the strategy for cybersecurity at the national level, realizes measures proactive and reactive and is ensured by setting the following structures: - Cyber Security Operative Council (CSOC), whose Rules of Organization and Operation was approved by Decision of Supreme Council of National Defense no. 17/2013. CSOC is composed of representatives at the level of Secretary of State within the national security system institutions, which carries the unitary coordination of NCSS. Technical Coordinate of CSOC is provided by the Romanian Intelligence Service Authority as a national cyber security through CYBERINT National Centre (CNC) which informs the CSOC about the emergence of cyber incidents that may affect national security; - Technical Support Group (TSG) - consisting of expert-level representatives of the national security system institutions represented in the CSOC. CSOC reports CSAT annually or whenever circumstances require, on the actions taken and the developments in cyberspace, especially with regard to cyber incidents and attacks; - The structure of Romanian Intelligence Service operates the National Cyber Security Center (NCSC), in case of a cyber-attack on cybersecurity of Romania, is the point of contact for networking with similar organizations abroad;

Government Decision no. 271 of 15/05/2013, available online, https://www.certro.eu/files/doc/StrategiaDeSecuritateCiberneticaARomaniei.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015 12 ibidem 11

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- National Cyber Alert System (NCAS), the main means of NCSS for preventing and counteracting activities affecting the cybersecurity. NCAS set Cyber Alert Levels (CALs) on the basis of the assessment of Risk Management to address cyber security of Romania; - The technical coordination and control activity NCAS alert level specific measures proposed in the CSOC and approved by Supreme Council of National Defense is achieved by CNC; - Cyber Security Strategy of Romania also provides the development of CERT type entities (specialized structures within the meaning of Art.2, Letter a, of Government Decision no. 494/2011 establishing the Romanian National Computer Security Incident Response Team - CERT-RO13), both within the public and private sectors. Romanian National Computer Security Incident Response Team - CERT-RO14 is an independent, full expertise and R & D entity on cyber infrastructure protection, which has the necessary capacity to prevent, analyze, identify and response to cyber security incidents in IT systems that ensure functionality or provide public services for information society. CERT-RO is coordinated by the Ministry for Information Society and is funded entirely by the state budget. According to GD - 494/2011, law regulating the activity of the center, CERT-RO may issue alerts and warnings about cyber-attacks preceding activities.15 CYBERSECURITY ACT OF ROMANIA According to the commitments in the EU and NATO, Romania has taken steps to develop national legal framework in the field of cybersecurity harmonized with international regulations, which meets international requirements and which facilitate voluntary cooperation and exchange timely and effective information between competent authorities for combating the use of IT&C critical infrastructure for the terrorist or criminal activities. Recent developments in cyber-attacks placed the cyber threat among the most dynamic current threats to national security. The Romanian Government approved on April 30, 2014 the cybersecurity bill, which was submitted to Parliament. The entire legislative process is presented in Table 1 The bill envisages the regulation of activities in cybersecurity as a component of national security and regulates the obligations of legal entities of public law and on individuals in order to protect cyber infrastructure. The law aims, thus, Internet service providers and bound on the security of their systems and customer notification in case of incidents / cyber-attacks and taking action to restore normal operating conditions. Table 116 Time 09/16/2014 09/19/2014 09/22/2014 09/22/2014

Action adopted by the Chamber of Deputies joined Senate for debate nr.b513 (address no. plx263 / 2014/09/16/2014) with nr.L580 presentation Standing Bureau; The Senate is the decisional Chamber report sent to the Committee for Defense, Public Order and National Security (Deadline: 09/24/2014)

Government Decision no. 494 of 11/05/2011, available online, https://www.cert-ro.eu/files/doc/HG_4942011_CERT-RO.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015 14 English language for Centrul National de Raspuns la Incidente de Securitate Cibernetica, according to official web site, available online, https://cert-ro.eu/, accessed January 4, 2016 15 Government Decision no. 494 of 11/05/2011, available online, https://www.cert-ro.eu/files/doc/HG_4942011_CERT-RO.pdf, accessed December 15, 2015 16 Translated and adapted from the Senate web page, https://senat.ro/Legis/Lista.aspx?cod=18494, accessed December 15, 2015 13

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Time 12/16/2014 12/19/2014 12.19.2014 12/19/2014 12/23/2014 01/21/2015 03/04/2015 03/09/2015 03/09/2015

04/17/2015 04/20/2015 04/21/2015 04/27/2015 04/28/2015 04/28/2015

Action Committee for Defense, Public Order and National Security submit the repot with no. 155 – positive endorsing with amendments inscribed on the agenda of the plenum of the Senate passed by the Senate (no. Votes: YES = 92 NO = 0 AB = 0) submitted to the Secretary-General and announced in the Senate to exercise the right to notify the constitutionality of laws submitted complaint of unconstitutionality; authors: PNL deputies Constitutional Court accepts the objections of unconstitutionality (Decision No. 17 / 01.21.2015 published in the Official Gazette No 79 of 01.30.2015) Chamber of Deputies accepts the objection of unconstitutionality, the law is completely unconstitutional joined Senate for review with no. L580 sent to the Legal, appointments, discipline, immunities and validations Committee to report on the Constitutional Court decision (Deadline: 03/25/2015) Legal, appointments, discipline, immunities and validations Committee submit report no. 64-NEGATIVE inscribed on the agenda of the plenum of the Senate inscribed on the agenda of the plenum of the Senate inscribed on the agenda of the plenum of the Senate inscribed on the agenda of the plenum of the Senate rejected by the Senate (no. Votes: YES = 90 NO = 0 AB = 1)

According to art. 18 of the Law, „holders of cyber infrastructure and providers of Internet services are required to notify immediately, customers, public and private entities, in cases where the information systems used by them were involved in incidents or cyber-attacks and the necessary measures to restore normal operating conditions.“. The offenses are defined in art. 28, and the fines that would be imposed are as defined in art. 29. Under the Law on cybersecurity Romania CERT-RO is the national contact point with CERT-type structures operating within institutions or public authorities or other legal entities of public or private, national or international. CYBERSECURITY LAW UNCONSTITUTIONALITY On December 23, 2014, cyber security bill was challenged in the Constitutional Court, although it was adopted a week before unanimously in the Senate. The decision of unconstitutionality of the law adopted by the Constitutional Court, it argued that the law had been avoided and not requested for the opinion of Supreme Council of National Defense and violated several constitutional provisions. The Court found violating constitutional provisions contained in Article 1. (3), (4) and (5) relating to the rule of law, separation of powers principle, namely the principle of legality, Article 21 para. (1) and (3) on access to justice and the right to a fair trial in Article 26 on the intimate, family and private life and in Article 28 on the secrecy of correspondence, lack of the necessary guarantees in terms of respecting these rights and in Article 53 on the restriction of certain rights or freedoms. The Court declared unconstitutional several provisions of the law, including those relating to the definition of cyber infrastructure owners (Article 2 of the Law), the Romanian Intelligence Service designation as a national authority in the field of cyber security (Article 10) lack of legal guarantees (authorization by a court) relating to compliance with obligations

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of the cyber infrastructure owners to allow access to data, held by representatives of the competent authorities, data that are relevant in the context of a request (Article 17), the lack of regulation by law for establishing the criteria according to which selection is made for entitling the cyber infrastructure of national interest and the way in which they are established (Article 19), the authority conducting the audit of cyber security (Article 20 c), the lack of regulation by law in circumstances where it is necessary a notification and its contents (Article 20 c), lack of legal consecration of the judicial control of administrative acts issued by the competent authorities which are likely to prejudice the rights or legitimate interests (Articles 16-23), lack predictability of rules on the procedures for monitoring and control, namely those concerning the establishment and sanctioning of offenses (Articles 27, 28, 30), lack of legal guarantees (authorization by a court) relating to compliance with obligations of the cyber infrastructure owners to enable competent authorities to carry out inspections, including unannounced, at any facility, or site infrastructure (Article 27 para. (2).17 In the analysis of constitutionality, the Court also assumes that the strategy for cybersecurity and law on cybersecurity of Romania have an important role in ensuring national security of Romania, on the one hand and the protection of the individual against the risk to privacy and protection personal data in the online environment, on the other hand. On these issues analyzed in conjunction by the Decision of 6 September 1978 in Case Klass and Others vs. Germany, European Court of Human Rights held that “democratic societies nowadays find themselves threatened by highly sophisticated forms of espionage and by terrorism, with the result that the State must be able, in order effectively to counter such threats, to undertake the secret surveillance of subversive elements operating within its jurisdiction.“ (Paragraph 42). However, “the Court, being aware of the danger such a law poses of undermining or even destroying democracy on the ground of defending it, affirms that the Contracting States may not, in the name of the struggle against espionage and terrorism, adopt whatever measures they deem appropriate!“ (Paragraph 49).18 CONCLUSION Cybersecurity law, must strike a balance between individual rights and national security that Romania must ensure in its legal system. The possibility of accessing electronic data without a court order from any computer, regardless of the owner, represent an unjustified interference with the right to privacy as guaranteed by Article. 26 and 28 of the Constitution. Thus under the pretext on protection against cyber-attacks, any data can be accessed without any control of civil society. Through this law, in a masked way, are restricting the rights and liberties of the citizen, by sharing access to cyber infrastructure and contained data, based on a simple reasoning provided by authorized institutions and nominated by law, without the express approval of law under the Romanian Code of Criminal Procedure and requirements adopted by the Constitutional Court by decisions 440/2014 and 461/2014, so the law is not harmonized with the requirements of the Constitutional Court. Moreover, the cybersecurity law violates the provisions of Article 148 (2) of the Constitution, by failing to transpose correctly the relevant Community rules. In these circumstances, cybersecurity law of Romania being unconstitutional in Romania currently operates in the field of cybersecurity Government Decision No. 271/2013, Decision no. 17, January 21, 2015 of the Constitutional Court the objection of unconstitutionality of the law on cyber security of Romania https://www.ccr.ro/files/products/decizia_nr17.pdf, accessed January 5, 2016 18 Case law of the European Court of Human Rights concerning the protection of personal data available online, https://www.coe.int/t/dghl/standardsetting/dataprotection/Judgments/DP%202013%20Case%20Law_Eng_FINA L.pdf, accessed January 5, 2016 17

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the Criminal Code, Law No 161/2003 Book I, Title III on preventing and combating cybercrime and attempts to implement the EU Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Cybersecurity Strategy of the European Union: An Open, Safe and Secure Cyberspace, Brussels, 7.2.2013 JOIN (2013) 1 final, p.2, available online, http://eeas.europa.eu/policies/eu-cyber-security/cybsec_comm_en.pdf. Decision no. 17 of 21 January 2015 the Constitutional Court the objection of unconstitutionality of the law on cyber security of Romania, accessed at https://www.ccr.ro/files/products/decizia_nr17.pdf. Government Decision no. 271 of 15/05/2013, available online, https://www.certro.eu/files/doc/StrategiaDeSecuritateCiberneticaARomaniei.pdf. NATO Cooperative Cyber Defence Centre of Excellence web site, https://ccdcoe.org/nato-summit-updates-cyber-defence-policy.html. The website of the Senate, accessed at https://senat.ro/Legis/Lista.aspx?cod=18494.

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CYBER CRIMINAL AND CYBER TERRORIST - TWO CONCEPTS THAT NEED TO BE DIFFERENTLY TREATED Sorin TOPOR Professor PhD, „CAROL I” National Defence University [email protected]

Abstratct: Analyzing the nature of actors engaged in hybrid warfare, included terrorism, we can see that terrorists are no major differences between traditional and cyber sides. Even if we consider terrorism seems to be evolution of human society adapted to the requirements of informational age, should different between a hacker- cyber criminal and cyber terrorist. To achieve a conceptual separation between cyber terrorists and cyber criminals consider that we have to analyzed the motivations that determine those very well educated to engage in various aggressive actions, with specific informational warfare tools, in a hybrid confrontation against rules and policies of governing system. Through this work we want to draw attention to the need to establish boundaries between conceptual differences of cyber terrorists and cyber criminals, differences that will determine ways to combat them. We believe that through this study we are able to justify the need for different strategy aganist cyber terrorism and the request to control this phenomenon, inevitably appeared in the implementation of the latest informational technologies in human society. We consider that any attempt to block the access of terrorists to this technology is only an impossible desire. Therefore, this control should be based on a cyber security culture, a strategy extremely necessary to be included in the overall strategy of combating terrorism. Keywords: cyber terrorists, hybrid warfare, cyber criminals profile

Analyzing the actors’ nature engaged in hybrid war, included and terrorists, we can see that aren’t major differences between traditional and cyber terrorism from motivation to organize a terrorist attack side. Moreover, we consider that the relatively new concept of cyber terrorist may include an adapted terrorist activity to the requirements of daily life directly dependent on information technology. Therefore, achieving a conceptual separation between cyber and traditional terrorists have started to analyze the motivation that lead peoples to engage in violent reactions to various rules and policies of system governing, exploiting the specific vulnerabilities of information systems. Through this study we want to draw attention to the need to establish boundaries between cyber terrorists and cyber criminals’ conceptual differences that will determine the ways to combat them. We believe that so we will need to justify the different approach of these different concepts and to developing distinct strategies for cyber terrorism. Thus, we assume that to achieve a control of the of cyber terrorism phenomenon, appeared inevitably by implementing the newest information technologies in human society, any blocking terrorists' access to systems and informational devices is only one extremely expensive impossible way. Obtaining and maintaining an information system control, based on wide civil society culture of cyber security is a necessity and can be a sustainable method of the global strategy to combat international terrorism. THE CYBER TERRORISM CONCEPT Establish that terrorist is a person who has committed an offense under this law or intends to prepare, commit, facilitate or incite to terrorist acts doing. According to art. 2 / L.

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535/2004, acts committed by terrorist entities (person, group, structured group or organization) are penalized if they meet one of the following conditions: a) they are usually committed with violence and produce feelings of anxiety, insecurity, fear, panic or terror among the population; b) seriously infringe upon human factors specific and nonspecific, and the material factors; c) pursue specific political objectives by determining state authorities or international organizations have to abandon or influence decisions in favor of the terrorist entity. In European Union, the terrorism is closely linked to the critical infrastructure protection concept. In this regard, criminal activity, in any of its forms, cyber terrorist attacks on critical infrastructure, arms, drugs, human beings traffic etc., provide facilities to increase both crime and terrorist financing mechanisms.1 As we can see, the concept of cyber terrorism in international law about the terrorism is addressed when looking for solutions to neutralize the threats of this nature and when it wants to strengthen cooperation in this regard. In the Council of Europe's Convention on Cybercrime identified a number of potential crimes that may be specific to cyber terrorism and that involve specific actions, clearly defined by usual cyber crime and by the cyber criminals’ behavior.2 In Romania, the cyber terrorism is defined as those premeditated activities in cyberspace by individuals, groups or organizations politically, ideological or religious motivated which may cause material damage or casualties, likely to cause panic or terror.3 We have this definition but is it enough in understanding the threat of cyber terrorism? Based on this definition can understand that this sequence of global terrorism, cyber terrorism, involves using information as a weapon, or as a method or target? Can informational systems users perceive that cyber terrorism exists in and beyond cyberspace and may include physical destruction of any informational device, systems, network, computer software and of life itself by destroying databases of any informational community members? And the problem is that, like traditional terrorism, random victims will be the only criterion being given relatively easy to obtain access to that database. Based on these observations we consider that cyber terrorism should be defined as an action taken for disruption, denial of service, destruction and corruption of software and their codes, an action organized and carried out to intimidate or coerce national governments or strategic organizations staff in order to achieve political, religious or ideological targets. One possible feature of cyber terror is given by the ability to commit specific actions of terrorism with computers and to obtain disproportionate effects of the destruction, deception, corruption, exploitation, denial and disruption of computer services etc. In addition, cyber terrorism can substantially contribute to maximizing the panic among the people by influencing, distortion or gain control entirely of mass-media services and increase the destructive effects of classics attacks by achieving remote control of computers, remote exposure to reduce the risks of attackers capturing, however amid increasing the effects and effectiveness of the whole action. The threat posed by cyber terrorism is determined by inducing terror by perceptions and emotions stimulating by methods well adapted to modern informational technology, and by undersending that this can amplify the effects of traditional terrorism support. Informational technology is part of contemporary human life comfort and not just an important element of any critical infrastructure. In other words, cyber terrorism terrorize by understanding that he can strike anyone and anywhere not only in close proximity to a physical space where that can be felt the destructive effects of explosion. Speech of the first vice president Frans Timmermans for the opening of the European Parliament for adoption European Security Agenda, Strasbourg, April 28, 2015 2 Convention on Cybercrime, Status (as of October 7, 2014), http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/Commun/ChercheSig.asp?NT=185&CL=ENG. 3 Cyber security strategy of Romania, in Annex I, Oficial Monitor Part I no. 296/ 05.23.2013 1

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THE TERROR OF CYBER TERRORISM Analyzing the nature of hackers who can be classified as the cyber terrorists we can conclude that there are no major differences between their work and that of the cyber criminals. Both classes of criminals are basically hackers. Currently, hackers can make it possible to access to any open computer network. Whatever today's computing and communications device can be connected to such a network. Unlawful penetration in that devices involve hackers skills and appropriate computer technology. It is well known that actual hackers have adequate equipment and tools that allow the release of malware in any computers connected to an open network on which they operate. From their instrumentation are a series of software with passive effects that allowing spy on a target or create back-door for penetration and installing other programs and destructive effects found by users from cyber attack executed on system. We appreciate that cyber terrorism can be both individual activity and a phase of a traditional terrorist attack whose effects can be expected of catastrophic proportions. For the second situation must be considered that computing devices connected to a network is not limited to the computer system used in decision-making but also those who control the management of other system as the access systems, the supply by water, energy or transportation etc., even the control of ventilation or air conditioning equipment. Unlawful use of computerized component in a critical infrastructure by terrorists in an attack, that does haven’t as main objective this purpose, leads to the conclusion that the perception of this facility can produce a coercive effect on an already public trapped in informational saturation. The dissemination of this information will produce certainly a huge emotional load that will increase pressure on key decision-makers. We appreciate that the appeal of terrorist groups for this type of cyber terrorism would be determined only by the capacity increase and improve the traditional effects of terrorist attacks, amid shrinking during penetration inherent vulnerabilities level to the target attacked. Moreover, an informational support from an attack by gathering information, providing communications support, logistics etc., makes cyber terrorism a method for organizing and planning any attack method from calling a terrorist organization. But the uses of information technology in terrorist support activities do not qualify as cyber terrorism. Our definition does not include issues related to this purpose and usage of information technology by terrorist organizations. It is possible that computing using to improve the distribution of message terrorist or effective terrorists global action, but this can not be interpreted as cyber terrorism. We appreciate that they can take legal activity carried on computer networks or possibly be assigned to the cyber crime that do not meet legal requirements. We try to clarify the difference between cyber terrorist attacks and cyber criminals activities in three directions pertaining to confidentiality, integrity and availability of informational systems. A) A breach of confidentiality occurs when an unauthorized user gains access to a certain type of information. Breach of confidentiality is and should remain a criminal foresight of cyber crime feature. Only if it turns out that this activity supports the organization of an attack it must be classified as cyber terrorism. Thus, acquiring a user's password information of a target device is an activity essentially passive. Classic hacker activity is characterized by this type of crime. Not every threat to the disclosure of stolen information from computers should be considered as cyber terrorism. Only when a terrorist group threatens or uses information stolen in organizing and conducting attacks that can be a support of terrorism and means a cyber terrorism. A framing legally flawed of this activity does nothing to neutralize the attack that diminution effort, loss of popular support and to attract criticism from human rights defenders.

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B) The violation of the integrity of a computer system occurs when are changed the processes, instructions or other routines necessary for the operation of that system. These changes, in some cases, can hide damage or theft of information. Therefore, it is considered that such a method can occur not only in areas which are stored or in transit information. We appreciate that violates the integrity of incidents that can be used by terrorists in their actions. However, we appreciate that clandestine change a user account, so as to allow access for the attacker in a computer system, without being followed by a threat or action with a coercive political, religious or ideological effects, represent only cyber crime with serious effects. In this regard, we consider that media coverage of changes to software products can produce a influencing to target audience, an action which can produce terrorizing the audience, but can not be equated to cyber terrorism. It is well known hacker Kevin Mitnick famous case who managed to steal files from your computer Tsutomu Shimomura (specializing in network security), which found "Nokitel code" and complex virus called "contempt". Thus, it has become a threat to the security of the entire American nation because, by pressing some computer keys could destroy the whole informatics community, could intercept any call or email, could disrupt air traffic, electricity in a city, could destroy the software that worked in hospitals, banks etc. The hacker had managed to evade capture for two years, during which harassed investigators computers and demonstrated their ability to be connected simultaneously to 10,000 computers via a laptop and a cell phone, thus hindering efforts taken to be identified. Yet it was a criminal, not a cyber terrorist. C) Availability refers to the ability of users to access information and informational resources. Infringements of this cluster are "DoS attacks". In addition, the loss of a computer service may also occur as a side effect or unintentional. Based on these observations, we can assume that cyber terrorists would obtain deliberate coercion or intimidation of staff of a computer system using a DoS. If that system is the element of a strategic critical infrastructure such as the computer system of the security structure of an embassy, we can estimate that blocking detection of access to persons within the objective is a way to support an attack. Embassies may be targets of terrorists, the most important example depicting the attack of Iranian Embassy in London (1980), where resulted all terrorists kill. On the other hand, the denial of computer services of air traffic control system of an airport can be an informational attack with serious consequences and so, if it is not claimed by a terrorist group. Therefore, all acts of cyber terrorism involve a breach of confidentiality, integrity and availability of computer systems. But not all categories of listed crimes involving a terrorist attack. Any other penal executed by or against information systems and does not have a terrorist objective isn’t cyber terrorism. We appreciate that terrorism is everything at the intersection of crime and violence expressed political activity. The political nature is the element that separates terrorism from other criminal activities usually motivated for financial gain or personal frustrations. In general, espionage and crime is not terrorism. Therefore, any similar method adopted for this purpose shouldn’t be considered part of cyber terrorism. We believe that the common distinction between criminal activity and cyber terrorism, even if the deployment assume cyberspace, is determined by motivation. Terrorist groups seek to provide financial support to support planning and carrying out attacks, especially if they do not have sponsors. Therefore, extending the definition of terrorism on economic motivations, even if targeting international area, it shouldn’t be done without a strong discernment. Even if it can be seen an increased use of computer networks to support criminal activities, usually in money laundering activities, not all of them are related to terrorism. The activity of drug cartels and organized crime is to be addressed as such. For terrorist organizations, cyber activities are motivated by political goals.

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In other words to be cyber terrorism must first be a form of terrorism. We appreciate that this distinction will allow separation of cyber terrorism by cyber crime. A HYPOTHETICAL PROFILE OF CYBER TERRORIST Terrorism transition from the traditional to the informational side, is the most likely form of the new terrorism, when the terrorist organizations will use specific methods and tactics of informational warfare. Thus, it may happen that a terrorist group to operate a specific method of informational warfare while another planting bombs or take hostages. For effective joint action, the staff of terrorists must be specialists in informatics actions. They will participate in the organization and execution of cyber attacks and in specialized training of fighters. As time passed and progress in training the terrorist group will be divided into traditional and informational terrorist cells. For most informational systems, encoding and password protection are the only protection against attacks. Thus, terrorists can strike any encrypted information stored in a system, the better a traditional terrorist attack. The profile of a leader of such structure is based on its technical expertise in the fields of information systems and electronics. It is possible that the profile of a cyber terrorist correspond to particular psychological skills. According to the opinions of Dr. Mich Kabay, director of the National Computer Security Association, some hackers may suffer from clinical narcissistic deviations of their personality. It suggested that classic hacker personality is blamed by society, characterized by the following general characteristics as: a grandiose self-importance sense, a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, the constant need to attract members attention and admiration, negative strong responses in threat situation of own feelings, feelings of autotitling, major lack of empathy, explosive interpersonal relationships and increased alternating feelings of idealization and devaluation. Hackers tend to be especially men aged between 12 and 28 years old, intelligent, but not very good at school, misunderstood by adults and fundamental failures.4. Based on these features multiple members of a group with parallel identities can take some similarities between them and those terrorist groups who use information tools. It can be concluded that these cyber terrorists are terrorists who have undergone fundamental changes at the individual level, but only at the structural level, the modes of relating between individuals. Thus, we consider that a cyber terrorism group will focus its action on the cell phone system based on particular software, another will focus on the identification passwords or cryptographic elements and so on. Therefore, within them will develop new specialties, their leader and acted only to stimulate their creativity and determination for a cause. We conclude that when terrorists conventional will use the information warfare will have on hand a wide variety of differences and obvious organizational and individual, that will determine that future cyber terrorism be more dangerous for the global society than traditional terrorism. At the basic level, the terrorist group that will use traditional tactics will fundamentally change the importance of cyber terrorist organization. Instead of groups, it may be that individuals endowed with superior intelligence to execute and reap the benefits of terrorist attack information. For this model the execution of a terrorist attack no longer need a whole group. On the other hand, even if a traditional terrorist will not use the information warfare the purpose of attacking, only to realize relations management based on information systems, the adoption of these informational tools will allow operation of the organization with faster Winn Schwartau, Information Warfare: Cyberterrorism: Protecting your Personal Security in the Electronic Age, 2nd Ed. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1996, p. 340.

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efficiency. The efficiency of the force will be increased due to the high quality of informational leaders having similar qualities to those participating in the execution attacks. This is a marked contrast between informational and traditional leaders. However, only by implementing of tools and technology of information or by merging with traditional informational capabilities throughout the organization can print low or high cost of an attack, depending on the level at which the information warfare is embedded in the organization. Moreover, information warfare will change the structure of the group and will make an informational terrorist organization to be much stronger than can a traditional terrorist organization. Contemporary informational systems are at the basis of citizens' daily activity of a society and can be considered as a sub-category of civil system. Perhaps if cyber terrorism will succeed in control of their operation will be the biggest danger of the development of nations. This brief comparative analysis shows that, while individually terrorists have similar qualities and characteristics the organizational of a cyber terrorism structure is much different from that of traditional terrorism. If terrorism is associated with traditional physical acts of extremely violent in a fixed point, performance of a cyber terrorist attacks will be much broader, complex and practically undelimited. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

***, Law no 535/2004 on preventing and combating terrorism (Romanian Law). ***, Speech of the first vice president Frans Timmermans for the opening of the European Parliament for adoption European Security Agenda, Strasbourg, April 28, 2015 ***, Convention on Cybercrime, Status (as of October 7, 2014) ***, Cyber security strategy of Romania, in Annex I, Oficial Monitor Part I no. 296/ 05.23.2013 Schwartau, Winn, Information Warfare: Cyberterrorism: Protecting your Personal Security in the Electronic Age, 2nd Ed. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press, 1996. Şerbănescu, Monica, Ilie Botoş, Dumitru Zamfir, Law&Crime.net, Bucharest: Tritonic Publishing house, 2003.

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ASPECTS IN APLYING CYBERNETICS IN THE MODERN FIGHTING SPACE Gelu ALEXANDRESCU PhD. „CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected] Abstract: Cybernetics is a multidisciplinary science that appeared at the meeting point between mathematics, logics, system and information theory, control and automatically adjustment theory, mechanical engineering, networks theory, computer and communication science, games theory, operational research, biology, psychology and other modern sciences. Keywords: cybernetics, military informational systems, space fight, data, information, information technology

Military informational systems are characterized by a continuous process of modernization, especially its functions, so that the provided services to have a more important role in emphasizing the informational and knowledge society, such as the command perfecting and control in electronical and cybernetic space fight. In the military conflicts the informational component percentage increases permanently in relation with the energetically one, and the informational systems assure obtaining informational and decisional advantage (superiority, domination, supremacy). The modern technology study for collecting data and information in the space fight occupy an important place, being a main component of the informational activity that founds and sustains the command and control processes. The multitude and performances of technical means that can be used impose the rethinking of informational ensuring of military actions with the scope of a large automatization of it and creating conditions for its functioning in real time. In this context, the cybernetics principles have a larger use, especially the ones that concern the prediction, informational approval and the reverse connection. As its founder, Norbert Wiener1, mentioned, cybernetics is an important component of modern science that bases, among others, on the modern theory of information, assuming a complex data and information travelling, which justifies its treating in a strong connection with the informational systems. The cybernetics concept was taken from Greek language (kybernetos) that means to governate, conducting and effectively and efficiently leading. Cybernetics is an open field of study, but its main target stays in understanding and defining functions and processes from complex and dynamic systems. Cybernetics studies the leading processed regardless, mainly, of the system substrate, especially of its material and energetically characteristics. It points out the informational processes, so that theses ones determine the system behavior, no matter its nature, what contributed to taking into consideration the informational theory as main part of cybernetics. In some specialty2 works, the cybernetics is the science that has as main object of discussion the mathematical study of connections, commands and technical systems and Wiener Norbert, Cybernetics or command and communication science for humans and cars Science Publisher, Bucharest, 1966. 2 Ilustrated enciclopedial dictionary , Cartier Publisher, Bucharest, 1999, p.181. 1

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living organisms control from a point of view of formal analogies (not the one of construction and functioning). Cybernetic systems3 are systems of any nature, of which main characteristic is the reverse connection (feedback). A cybernetic system is composed of a subsystems ensemble, each of these ones having an entry and an exit, so that the subsystems are joined between them, exiting a subsystem being the entry of another component subsystem. The emergent properties characterize the system as a whole (synergetic)., they do not pertain to its components, and the reverse connection, which is an essential characteristics of the cybernetic system, emphasizes the fact that in such a system not only the entry actions against the exit, like in any system, but also the reversal, the exit actions also against the entry, being the base of cybernetic system functioning autoadjustment. The reverse connection allows an automatically system to have a behavior similar to living organisms. The cybernetics systems are “closed systems” from the point of view of the matter exchange with the environment and “opened” only for information, characterized by its multilateral action towards the systems. Presently are being used also new concepts referring to cybernetics, that use the prefixes „cyb” or „cyber” to define the robotics domain (cybord) or the Internet (cyberspace). A significant expression of applying disciplines included in cybernetics, in the daily activity, constitutes the appearance of information and communication technology, a base element of informational society and actual knowledge, with special implications in socialeconomical and contemporary military development. Studied concepts of cybernetics include, but not exhaustive, the knowledge, learning, adaptation, social control, communication, efficiency, efficacy, connectivity and autoadjustement, but also other subjects from technical sciences, biological and pshichological. The cybernetics researches the most general laws of conducting complex dynamical systems with autoadjustment, autoorganization and autoinstruction. Any dynamism organized inside or everything that is developing under the control of an internal environment is cybernetics. The behavior of complex dynamical systems is connected by the information contained by them, which allows the evaluation of command as the result of an informational process which takes place in a certain general order, which pertains to the systems. In order for a system to be able to better and faster adapt to the exterior environment and to properly function, it needs as many information as possible, from its infinite multitude. The optimum leading is not only a state, but also a translation movement towards superior forms of efficiency and finally of human actions, based on applying cybernetics. Optimizing, in a cybernetics manner, of the leading system, follows to continuously assure of the connection between entries and exits, between the local state and general state, between partial indicators and the global efficacy indicator, through limiting to minimum of the actions of elements and phenomena of indetermination, of unforeseeable rule and of the disturbing ones. The antienthropical character is an important feature of the cybernetics systems, which contributes to perfecting the leading and to reducing the internal disorganization degree, by using negative entropy as order source. In order to become serious issues of the cybernetics system, the disturbing factors need to be real difficulties, which without knowing the timely information and solving them in real time, the optimum functionality is not possible. This is why, as long as the obtaining possibilities, in real time, of the information are higher and more diversified, the more the Silviu Guiaşu, Aplication of informational theory , Romanian Academy Publisher, Bucharest, 1968, pp.167-168.

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autoadjustment capacity is increasing (in order to permanently adapt the behavior) and of the system reaction. Fulfilling some functions by the system requires information with limited volume and content, and as long as the system experience is higher and more organized in fulfilling this function, the less information is necessary. So, as long as a system requires less information for functioning, that determines its passing from a state to another, the better it is organized and structured, and the command and control (leading) process is better. Any command and control process supposes systemizing and ranking the obtained (gathered) information, which is based on the existence of an optimized informationaldecisional system, and also of a general rules, restrictions and criteria’s ensemble. The command and control (management) processes, decision taking is the main moment, so that assures the selecting, from most of the possible options of organizing and behavior of the system, the one considered optimum after the situation, restrictions and criteria imposed for fulfilling the established mission (objective). An organizational decision determines the success when the respective activity is logically structured, as an ensemble ordinated by operations (actions), which imposes their optimum programing (planning) and adjustment (autoadjustment) in the execution process. The command and control process continues and it is being diversified during the action development, which supposes the existence of some secured informational links between the leading system and the execution system that close the informational loop and transforms the leading in a closed informational cycle. As a multidisciplinary scientific system, the cybernetics is based on own principles, that are applied in the performed research and have a higher utility for the practical activities from different activity domains. Under the cybernetics impact, as an interdisciplinary science, were produced important changes in the weaponry and military science that, mainly, became smarter and with high precision, changing a lot the physiognomy, the way of conducting and result of modern wars. Generally, the modern military actions proposed to reduce the level of violence and human loses, especially the collateral ones. This is why, the fight with nonlethal means greatly increases, being the result of the most modern discoveries of contemporary science and techniques. By applying cybernetics, the military technical systems considerably developed the complexity, versatility and automatization degree, they have incorporated a lot of artificial intelligence and information technology, some of them being able to function autonomous, without human intervention, they have a high collecting, transmitting, processing and disseminating information capacity. They can take decision and act based on specialized programs incorporated in own calculus devices, performing high precision and surgical coups, when their outline has been highly reduced and the traveling speed has considerably increased. The military technique cybernetisation comes away with a logical process of standardization and informatization almost total to this one, designed to efficacy increase of fight actions. The cybernetics military technique ensemble that is used in the war determines the complete automatization of the fight space. The whole development of information technology, automatics and of the other modern scientific disciplines has created the necessary premises for a multilateral approach of fight conditions and efficacy of performed actions by the combatant forces. Soldiers from the fight space and the aircraft pilots are submitted to a continuous cybernetization and electronization process, with the means to increase their action efficiency, diminish the stress to which they are submitted and to reduce human loses. 189

As an interdisciplinary science, cybernetics has a high application for realizing modern weapons systems that changed fundamentally the configuration and development of the war. The weapons that are highly automatized and based on using the systems theory, cybernetics, artificial intelligence and information and communication technology have become more present in the modern armies, contributing to reducing own human loses, along with considerably increasing the developed fight actions efficacy. Knowledges and technologies used in the cybernetics domain are top domains of contemporary science and technique, decisively contributing to the appearance and development of informational and knowledge society. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Adams James The following – the last world war, Antet Publisher, Bucharest, 1998. Apostol P. Cybernetics, knowledge, action, Politics Publisher, Bucharest, 1969. Beliş Mariana Intelligence and communications, in the volume Artificial Intelligence Systems, Romanian Academy Publisher, Bucharest, 1991. Bryant Bill Nature and culture in the Age of Cybernetic Systems, University of Iowa, Internet, 2008. Guiaşu Silviu Applications of information theory, Romanian Academy Publisher, Bucharest, 1968. Mahoney S. Michael Cybernetics and Information Technology, Routledge, Champman&Hall, New-York, 1989. Wiener Norbert Cybernetics or science of commands and communication to humans and cars, Scientific Publisher, Bucharest, 1966. Winston H. Patrick Artificial intelligence, Technical Publisher, Bucharest, 1981.

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THE QUALITY OF INFORMATION IN INTEL ANALYSIS Ion CĂLIN Professor, PhD, National Defense University ‘Carol I’, Bucharest, Romania [email protected] Abstract: The process of analysis offers possible or probable variants of development of an event which involves the development of at least as many courses of action from the behalf of the decision factors. For this reason, in stressful situations the disorders occurs; if the analyst is aware of its role, the support for the decision factors is more realistic and appropriate.

Quality is a complex concept which is the result of different mixed characteristics, perceived differently by the members which participate at making a product and also by the users even if the level of the product quality is the same, regardless of their point of view. Also, the definition of quality is different from subject to another and also within the same subject1. ISO 8402: Quality Management and Quality Assurance Vocabulary provide a definition of quality as a sum of characteristics that allow an entity to satisfy stated or implied needs. Base on this definition it is considered that information meets a certain level of quality if it satisfies the stated requirements in a specific context and the specifications reflect the implied needs of the users. As a consequence, an acceptable level of information quality is obtained if the information is in accordance with the defined specifications and the specifications reflect correctly the intended use of those. In the definition above were used notions of conformity and utility. The use of compliance indicators or utility indicators in the information analysis fulfills the ISO 8402 requirements and also the traditional references to quality in the existing literature as being in accordance with the use, the objective proposed and the customer satisfaction in accordance with the requirements. Information quality is a topic whose importance is on a growing scale for business strategies. The increasing number of information deposits (databases), the direct access of managers and users to different sources increased the necessity of a high quality of information within organizations. The information quality depends on the design and production processes involved in engendering information. To design a good quality it is necessary, first of all, to understand what quality means and how quality is measured. It is difficult to find a suitable and universal definition for information quality. Quality depends on individual perception about an item or service. There are differences both in the characteristics of quality and in the relevance of each feature. In the case of information quality it is advisable to take into consideration only the characteristics with a specified relevance, depending on the particular context in which the application is used.

Ivan, I., Noşca, Gh., Capisizu, S., Popa, M., Managementul calităţii aplicaţiilor informatice, Editura ASE, Bucureşti, 2006 pp. 8-15.

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For a better analysis of the quality characteristics, the researchers from the domain group the characteristics of quality in categories and dimensions. The dimension is a set of quality characteristics in which the most users react in a consistent way. The most important dimensions of information quality are shown in Table 1.1. Table 1.1. Categories and dimensions of information quality Categories of information quality

Dimensions of information quality

Intrinsic

Accuracy, objectivity, credibility, reputation

Accessibility

Accessibility, security of access

Contextual

Relevance, added value, opportunity, completeness, volume

Representation

Interpretability, understandable, concise representation, consistent representation

Intrinsic quality characteristics describe information in any context and represent the value dimension of quality: accuracy/precision, objectivity, credibility, reputation. Accuracy is defined based on the following model entity-characteristic-value (e,c,v) where: - Entity is an object or a phenomenon of the real world; - The characteristic of the attribute represents a relevant propriety; - The value is a quantitative or qualitative measure. An error is a difference between the real and the particular characteristics of a given entity; the real value implies the existence of a measurable objective reality. Reality is in some cases: - Unobservable; for example, historical data; - Practically impossible to see; inaccessible accounts; - Perceived differently; for example the case of subjective entities, such as the vicinity. The accuracy of a piece of information refers to the value V being close to a value V’ from the domain of characteristics, which is considered correct for entity E and characteristic A. In some cases V’ is called standard value. If the value of V coincide with the value of V’ the information is correct. In many cases it is possible to quantify the inaccuracy by calculating the difference between the actual value and the recorded value. Objectivity is the degree to which the information is unprejudiced and impartial. Credibility is given by the degree in which information is accepted or regarded as true and real. The update is a very important aspect of information quality because the value of information changes over time. The time between the moment in which a value of an information modifies and the moment of its update its inherent. The update refers to the degree to which information is up to date. Being up to date and updated are special cases of fairness and accuracy. When information is outdated this refers to a type of inaccuracy, namely, that in terms of timeline. Consistency means that two or more things are not in conflict with each other. Problems arise when two or more collections of information are overlayed. If junction attributes are not identical the collection of information are inconsistent. The inconsistency 192

occurs even at two interrelated information, for example, age and date of birth. In both cases there is a redundancy of information. A common cause of intrinsic information quality problems is the wrong combination between the same information sources. Initially, the users do not know to which source to assign the problem regarding the quality; the only thing they know is that the information is in conflict. In this way, this concern occurs as a problem of credibility. In time, the information about wrong combinations accumulates from the assessment of the accuracy of different sources, resulting in a poor reputation for less accurate sources. As the reputation for the poor quality becomes a common knowledge, these sources of information are seen as having a small value for the organization, resulting in a reduced use. Judgment or subjectivity in the process of information it is another common cause. For example, the codified information or interpreted are consider of being of a lower quality than raw, uninterpretable information. Reputation is the degree to which the information is assessed from the source point of view or their content. In the category of contextual dimensions are included those dimensions which refers to the way in which the users look at the information they are using and what expectations they have when they use the information. Most of the users do not know the contextual aspects, therefore they conduct an implied assessment in which this dimension represents a support for their applications. The most important contextual features are: relevance, added value, opportunity, completeness, volume and orthogonally. Relevance refers to the fact that the information provided is necessary to the application to which has been distributed. The added value is the degree in which information bring benefits and deliver advantages through its use. The opportunity consists in the degree in which the age of information is adequate for the work to accomplish. Volume represents the amount of information. Completeness refers to the degree in which values are present in a collection of information (databases). The category of representation characteristics contains the dimensions which refers to the shape in which information is represented for use. A representation of information is composed of two parts: the template and the physical instance of information value. The quality dimensions include: adequacy, interpretability, portability, accuracy and the flexibility of the template, the possibility to represent nulls, efficient use of the recording environment. For each physical instance of the value, the most important dimension is the consistency of the representation, so the consistency of the template. Adequacy is the most important feature of template quality. A template is suitable if it meets the requirements of the user. The adequacy of the template depends on the user and the environment used. Barcodes and graphics are suggestive representations of the idea mentioned above. Adequacy is related with the second dimension of quality, which is interpretability. Interpretability measures the degree in which a template helps the user to interpret correctly the values. Templates prevent the decrease of the utility of the information used. The recording devices have also an important role in determining the interpretability of a template. Portability refers to the use of a template in a wide range of possible situations. A good template is the one which is a universal template. The precision of the template. For example S is a sum of symbolic representations. S is precise enough to make a clear distinction between the elements of the same domain. The

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information which is stored with their maximum error or with the distribution probability of a stored value, the storage should be independent from the applications. The flexibility of the template allows that the changes that are made by the user and the changes made by the recording device to be achievable. The possibility to represent null values. Good templates provide ways of representing null values. Effective use of the recording device. A good template uses in an efficient way the use of the recording device. It is important to not compromise the adequacy degree or the interpretability just to reduce the cost of storage. The consistency of representations refers to the fact that physical values of information are on the same page with their templates. Brevity is the degree to which the information is represented in a compact and adequate volume. Brevity requires for example brief, complete and concise presentations. The ease of understanding is the degree to which information is clear and unambiguous. The sufficient quantity of information refers to the fact that the quantity or the volume of information is adequate to the purpose to which information has been collected. In the category of accessibility dimensions are included accessibility and the security of access. The accessibility of information requires that information to be available in a short time and the search algorithms to end with success, using various criteria, even including incomplete definitions of search keys. The security of access represents the degree to which the access to information is restricted and thus protected. The two characteristics are in conflict. Ensuring security raises some barriers in the way of accessibility. For this reason it is necessary to realize a balance between the two characteristics of quality. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

ANDREESCU, Anghel şi TOMA, Gheorghe – Conflictele sfârşitului de mileniu; ARĂDĂVOAICE, Gheorghe şi NIŢĂ, Dan – Zvonul: determinări, conţinut, consecinţe, Editura AISM, Bucureşti – 1995; BRZEZINSKI, Zbigniew - Parteneriatul prematur, în volumul “Europa Centrală şi de Est în ciclonul tranziţiei”, Bucureşti – 2008; DEWERPE, Alain – Spionul, Editura „NEMIRA” – 1998; GALEANO, Eduardo – Venele deschise ale AMERICII LATINE, Editura POLITICĂ, Bucureşti – 1983; GERVIN, Robert – Ipoteze ale lipsei de percepţie, Editura Militară, Bucureşti – 1992; HEUER, Richards J. Jr. – Psyhology of Intelligence Analysis – 1999; IOSIPESCU, Vasile – Războaiele locale şi panoplia zeului MARTE, Editura MILITARĂ, Bucureşti – 1985; MAIOR Cristian George, NIŢU Ionel – Provocări şi tendinţe în analiza de intelligence, Editura RAO, Bucureşti, 2013; MAIOR Cristian George – Despre inteligence, Editura RAO, Bucureşti, 2014; RADU, Gogu – Curs de analiza informaţiilor militare, Bucureşti – 2000; TRONCOTĂ, Cristian – EUGEN CRISTESCU – asul serviciilor secrete româneşti, Editura „MERIDIAN” – 1999; SUN TZU – Arta războiului – Editura „ANTET XX PRES”, Bucureşti – 1993; Colectiv de autori –Curs de pregătire psihologică”, tema „Psihologia şi activitatea ofiţerului de informaţii, Bucureşti – 2006.

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Colonel Associate Professor Lucian POPESCU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Mirela PUŞCAŞU, PhD

Defense Resource Management

THEORETICAL ASPECTS REGARDING THE EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION Lucian Dragoş POPESCU Colonel, Associate professor PhD, „CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected]

Abstract: In the given paper we have in mind the evolution of local public administration in time and space, but especially its evolution conceptually. In order to get better familiarized with the public local administration, we first need to identify its concepts and components so that, consequently, we could reach its core. Keywords: public administration, administrative framework, local public administration, decison-making bodies of local public administration

Narrowing down the concept of public administration is both of theoretical and of practical importance. The practical importance can be viewed from two perspectives: on one hand, from the perspective of those who have been victims of authorities or public institutions, and, on the other hand, from the perspective of the administartive jurisdiction. Understanding the concept of public administration presupposes detailing legal regulations that are in force in our country and the administrative law. The Romanian doctrine, from the perspective of the separation of powers, has stated that the admninistrative law encomposes rules by which the executive power works. It also stipulates the former limits as opposed to the legislative and the judicial powers. Constantin G. Dissescu (1854-1932), politician, minister, lawyer and professor of administrative and consitutional law, was the first approacher of the concept of public administration. He tried to define a theory of the public administration concept in 1891 in „The Course on Public Law” as being: a series of useful actions carried out by own authority or delegated to an institution of public interest. The author defined public administration functionally speaking, as the latter dealt with administrative issues, being completely different from governing which deals with governing issues1. Professor and lawyer Paul Negulescu (1874-1946), student of Constantin G. Dissescu, in his second edition of Treaty of Romanian Administrative Law emphasises the distinction between government and administration as well as the organic perspective on public administration. For that reason, to his mind, public administration represents „the sum of public services from the organizational, responsibilities and functional view”.2 In the same Treaty of Romanian Administrative Law, starting from the principle of separation of powers, the same author, Paul Negulescu, states that public administration is „the activity of a state that is neither legislative nor judicial, but which works under the legislation of the former”. The purpose of such public services and of their administrative activities is to meet general (common, public) interests of the society.

C. G. Dissescu, Cursul de drept public român, vol. 3, Drept administrativ, Bucureşti, Editura Socec, 1891, p. 791. 2 P. Negulescu, Tratat de drept administrativ român. Principii generale, ed. a IV-a, Bucureşti, Tipografia Gutenberg, 1934, p. 36. 1

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Anibal Teodorescu (1881-1971), lawyer and professor, considers that the state is made up of three elements, namely territory, population and public power. The professor clarifies the difference between the public power, the authority that has the power and the competence of the authority. As the clerks working in this authority are human beings, Anibal Teodorescu adds that it is completely true that state bodies are actually people and groups of people. Consequently, a state’s action, be it a law, a court order or an administrative act, is eventually a human deed or the decision made by the majority of a group.3 The professor concludes that an individual or a group of people does not necessarily need to express their will on a legislative paper which acts accordingly; they actually need to play their role as “state bodies”. Teodorescu considers the concepts of “administration” and “administrative authority” as being the same, as the latter functions through bodies made up of people or groups of people, such as ministers, prefects, counselors etc. Professor Marin Văraru also starts with the principle of separation of powers and views public administration as being part of the executive power alongside with justice4. The author considers administration as being a form of the executive power. Taking into account the existence of the three powers in a state, he focuses on the fact that each power acts by means of specific legal acts and the executive power acts through administrative acts. Public administration, being part of the executive power, is endowed with regulations, decisions and other orders; it creates and warrants all public services fin order to meet all collective interests of the state and of its subdivisions5. Constantin Rarincescu, another specialist in the administrative field, stated that the administrative function relies in providing ongoing and steady functioning of administrative public services, which, as a whole, means the administration of a state. Rarincescu defines the administrative function as being that function of the state which resides in doing individual legal acts and, practically, in acts and material operations needed for the functioning of administrative public services.6 Out of all definitions provided by Rarincescu, several key characteristics of public administration come out, such as:  Functionally speaking, it is an legal executive activity;  Organically speaking, it is carried out by authorities and public servants;  It is carried out through public services at state, county, city, town, village level;  It is carried out with the aim of meeting public general, regional or local interests. Professor E.D. Tarangul, the Dean of Law School in Cluj, also wrote a treaty of administrative law in which he highlighted not only the theoretical, but also practical importance of public administration. In the Professor’s view, public administration deals with organizing administrative authorities and with functioning of administrative public services, based on the principle of public interest and public service. The concept of public administration, as it is described in the literature of the years 1948-1965, refers to one of the fundamental forms of state activities, namely achieving state power. Organically speaking, the concept of public administration comprises the following public authorities: the President of Romania, the Government, ministries and other bodies directly subordinated to the Government, autonomous specialized central bodies, institutions A. Iorgovan, Tratat de drept administrativ, vol. I, ed. 4, Bucureşti, Editura All Beck, 2005, p. 46. D. Apostol Tofan, Drept administrativ, vol. I, Bucureşti, Editura All Beck, 2003, p. 32. 5 M. Văraru, Manual de drept administrativ, Chişinău, Imprimeria statului, 1936, p. 18. 6 C. Rarincescu, Contenciosul administrativ român, ed. a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura Universală, 1937, p. 19. 3 4

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subordinated to ministries, the prefect, local bodies subordinated to ministries and run by the prefect, autonomous local bodies (the County Council, the Local Council, the mayor) and institutions subordinated to them. Functionally speaking, public administration comprises legal acts and material operations by means of which the law gets into force, either by issuing norms, or by organizing or providing public services. Briefly speaking, public administration can be defined as the sum of activities carried out by the President of Romania, the Government, ministries and other bodies directly subordinated to the Government, autonomous specialized central bodies, institutions subordinated to ministries, the prefect, local bodies subordinated to ministries and run by the prefect, autonomous local bodies (the County Council, the Local Council, the mayor) and institutions subordinated to them, by means of which, as public power, laws are brought into force, or provide public services.7 Consequently, we can draw the following characteristics of public administration:  It is an activity carried out by executive and administrative authorities, namely by public administrative authorities;  It is an activity of getting laws into force or of effectively organizing or carrying out public services;  It is an activity which is carried out by means of prerogatives given by the Constitution and other laws that help getting the public interest, when the latter is in conflict with the particular interest. From the above mentioned we can state that public administration is part of public activity, a form of social life. Social public life is getting more and more complex. Part of it is constantly reminded through the concept of public administration. Nowadays public administration cannot be anymore considered as being the classic “executive”. Taking into account the new constitutional previsions, the doctrine employs the concept of executive to refer to public activity. Public activity is neither legislation, nor justice, being carried out with the help of authorities, of constitutional character and of political origin and that helps public administration as its management8. Public administration is not looked upon as a means of power in a state either (a fundamental activity of the state) because in the current democratic system, the state is not the only one considered a moral person. Territorial-administrative units as viewed as such also, as it are stipulated in the current regulations of our country. We can identify elements that that make the difference between central public administration and local public administration as being “the material criterion of interest”. Even by its name, public administration should have dealt with meeting public interests, but those interests are structured on several levels. This is due to the fact that public interests are tightly connected with the forms people have organized in time. As far as territorial hierarchy of a state as a pyramid is concerned, at the top of it there is the state as the main body of a nation, then, at the bottom of the pyramid, there is the village as the cell of the state9. The society we live in has been changing continuously either economically, politically, demographically, religiously, ethnically or even psychologically. The great amount of changes the society has undergone and the way it has evaluated has led to the emergence of organization, coordination and functioning of public administration locally. Administrative-territorial units (cities, towns and villages), in their perpetual development, have generated a series of administrative issues which have made possible the organization of A. Iorgovan, op.cit., p. 82. Ibidem, p. 83. 9 C. G. Dissescu, op.cit., p. 830. 7 8

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public administration at all levels of the society and the latter’s decentralization was necessary. Although certain interests have been made vocal, others than public ones, this has not been good reason enough to organize the local and regional public administration. The local public administration has emerged in time because of practical administrative needs, but also because of some historical evidence. First and foremost, towns and villages formed before the state as organic entities having their own interests, and, because of this reason, the modern state must recognize their existence and, moreover, it cannot destroy them.10 The basis of the society is the village, although it has changed in time as it is a natural organization of people. That is why, the village is the fundament if the entire political and administrative organization of the contemporary state11. In time, there were other interests which did not pertain to villages, but other larger groups of people that, although they were less known and famous historically, they were to be taken into account. Consequently, those interests needed to be admitted at an intermediary level, which was neither of the village, nor of the state, and they were called regional interests. The population started being aware of the need of a local administration in the first half of the 19th century. Back then, it was already well known the fact that local interests could be better dealt with by people who were more familiar with it than the state was. And that was because state administrative bodies were usually far away from local groups of people in order to make decisions fully aware. That was another reason why it was completely obvious the fact that it was not enough for the modern state to admit the existence of certain local interests in order to have a local public administration. It was absolutely necessary that the solving of such issues were under the responsibility of certain institutions or even local communities.12 Having the aim of solving local issues or defending the interests of the population in certain regions, the state created new political-administrative and politico-territorial entities. The state admitted the legal personality of villages. On the given basis, villages could have patrimony, rights and obligations. In the same time, the state gave villages and counties, as a privilege, the partly right to give orders and to constrain. The state had these rights naturally to exercise within its boundaries by law. Due to this power, the state, the county and the village could solve general, regional, local or village interests through certain bodies or own authorities which ran public state, regional or village services. The local public administration has been largely dealt with in most of the literature in the field. The history of the evolution of concepts and principles of organization and functioning has been a long one up to our days. The local public administration has needed a long span of time to get formed and crystallized until it is as we know it today. Looking upon the current principles of the organization of the local public administration, we could assume that the organization of the local public administration in Romania is base don a series of dominant principles in accordance with our current Constitution. These principles are the following:  Centralization;  Decentralization: - territorial, - technical, Ibidem, p. 832. P. Negulescu, R. Boilă, G. Alexianu, Codul administrativ adnotat, Bucureşti, 1930, p. 277. 12 D. Apostol Tofan, op.cit., p. 217. 10 11

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- local autonomy, - dealing with their own issues;  Devolution. Centralization and decentralization, according to the current doctrine, have not been legal concepts as they expressed the tendencies of the administrative policy concerning history, the constitutional regime or practical requirements. In the line of any tendency, they display certain degrees and means13. Applying these fundamental principles has the aim of dealing with the two main tendencies which are to be found in the governing of any state, namely unity (a centralizing tendency) and diversity (a decentralizing tendency). Centralization is characterized by the dependency of local bodies to central ones as the latter make decisions applicable locally and strictly subordinate the former. In other words, centralization comprises the sum of all administrative tasks at the level of the state and those tasks are to be carried out through hierarchal and unified administration.14 Centralization is understood as being the natural connection between the central and the local power. The opposite of the above mentioned would be the lack of connection which would be impossible. Consequently, decentralization is not the opposite of centralization, but its diminishing, the diminishing of concentration of powers15. Yet, it is said that the decentralization ratio would be necessary and the latter varies in function of the span of territory, the size of the population, of existing economic and political conditions or traditions.16 The decentralization of administration presupposes the existence of local public people, chosen by the local community, having their own responsibilities, and who directly act in the administration and solving the problems of the population in the region with the help of local autonomy. Thus, through decentralization the unity of centralization is banned, while the local population has the duty of solving their problems on their own and meeting their own interests. Devolution represents an intermediary measure in the process of decentralization and it is the transfer of responsibilities from the center to the local agents of central power, to the management of various local bodies.17 Devolution presupposes admitting certain decisionmaking abilities of the state agents from all over the country (such as prefects and external services of ministries). In the administrative doctrine, the administrative decentralization has taken two forms in time, namely territorial decentralization and technical decentralization or by means of services. Territorial decentralization presupposes the existence of certain authorities chosen at the level of administrative-territorial units and these authorities have general material competence. Technical decentralization or by means of services presupposes the existence of people who carry out public services, different from the large amount of public services carried out by the state.18 Mainly, the degree of administrative decentralization depends on:  The amount of public services pertaining to the local public authorities; C. Manda, Dreptul colectivităţilor locale, Bucureşti, Editura Lumina Lex, 2002, p. 427. D. Apostol Tofan, op.cit., p. 36. 15 T. Pavelescu, G. Moinescu, Drept administrativ roman, Bucureşti, Editura Tritonic, 2004, p. 26. 16 C. G. Dissescu, op.cit., p. 845. 17 T. Pavelescu, G. Moinescu, op.cit., p. 29. 18 I. Vida, Puterea executivă şi administraţia publică, Bucureşti, Editura Regia Autonomă ”Monitorul Oficial”, 2001, p. 195. 13 14

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 The way in which local public authorities are organized;  The rapport between local and central public authorities;  The way in which special control carried out by the central authority is carried out. The elements of decentralization are the following:  Legal personality;  Solving their own issues;  Local autonomy. The local autonomy can be explained as being the right of administrative-territorial units to meet their own interests as they consider, by the law, and without the help of the central power. The local autonomy can be considered a right, while administrative decentralization can be considered a system which presupposes the former. Autonomy should not be understood as total freedom, excluding the state intervention when it is necessary. In conclusion, decentralization cannot be present in unitary states without the presence of state control, known in the doctrine as administrative tutorship. In the Romanian system of organizing and functioning of the authorities of local public administration, such tutorship is represented by the right and the obligation the prefect has to fight under the administrative jurisdiction the norms and regulations issues by such authorities whom the former finds illegal. Keeping in mind the above mentioned, we could state that, when it comes to the competence one has to meet the public interest, local authorities at the level of towns and villages are the rightful ones to make decisions as they are the closest to the needs of citizens and they best know the interests of the communities they represent. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

C. G. Dissescu, Cursul de drept public român, vol. 3, Drept administrativ, Bucureşti, Editura Socec, 1891. P. Negulescu, Tratat de drept administrativ român. Principii generale, ed. a IV-a, Bucureşti, Tipografia Gutenberg, 1934 A. Iorgovan, Tratat de drept administrativ, vol. I, ed. 4, Bucureşti, Editura All Beck, 2005. D. Apostol Tofan, Drept administrativ, vol. I, Bucureşti, Editura All Beck, 2003. M. Văraru, Manual de drept administrativ, Chişinău, Imprimeria statului, 1936 C. Rarincescu, Contenciosul administrativ român, ed. a II-a, Bucureşti, Editura Universală, 1937. P. Negulescu, R. Boilă, G. Alexianu, Codul administrativ adnotat, Bucureşti, 1930. C. Manda, Dreptul colectivităţilor locale, Bucureşti, Editura Lumina Lex, 2002 9, T. Pavelescu, G. Moinescu, Drept administrativ roman, Bucureşti, Editura Tritonic, 2004 I. Vida, Puterea executivă şi administraţia publică, Bucureşti, Editura Regia Autonomă ”Monitorul Oficial”, 2001

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ANALYSIS METHODS OF THE EXTERNAL MARKETING ENVIRONMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Mirela PUŞCAŞU Associate Professor, PhD. CAROL I National Defence University [email protected]

Abstract: Educational institution must guide their activities on the basis of a marketing strategy that would ensure obtaining a competitive advantage over competitors. Marketing orientation requires a differentiated approach to the market, institutions that adopt specific marketing activities and implement them on a greater scale will be those that manage to differentiate. It is essential that higher education institutions analyze the impact of market orientation and the need to implement marketing in the activities in order to devise effective strategies conducive to achieving superior performance. Institution relationship with the external environment is the mechanism by which the interests of the institution for the purchase of clients is oriented towards developing and improving relations with existing customers. Strategic planning takes into account long-term relationships based on trust and mutual influence, and the institution may impose a particular type of behavior, accepted or not. Keywords: marketing, strategy, methods of analysis, marketing environment, performance

INTRODUCTION Any institution function in society based on laws, with a number of responsibilities. Political bodies, pressure groups, competition and customers from the society are the marketing environment in which the institution operates. The interface between the institution and the outside world is created by marketing, a management process that identifies, anticipates and satisfies customer requirements - effectively and profitably1. The marketing policy of an institution operates in a complex, rapidly evolving environment, and in order that it meet its performance standards, external factors influence must be constantly monitored. In fact, the external environment is a set of forces and factors that are outside the organization, influencing the onset, maintenance, block or development of exchanges of goods or services in its markets.

1

Marketing, in acceptance of the UK Institute of Marketing, is planning and execution of the conception, the pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods and services, in order to create exchange and to satisfy personal interests and achieve organizational goals.

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Marketing macro-environment

Political environment

Natural environment

Legal environment

Technologic environment

MARKETING MACROENVIRONMENT

Economic environment Social-cultural environment

Demographic developments

Higher education institutions marketing macro-environment is represented by:  Bodies and pressure groups limiting the actions of various organizations and institutions;  Natural resources and their location in the territory, environmental quality;  Economic indicators.;  Basic cultural values and future trends in the context of harmonization with the EU;  Size and growth rate of the population of different regions, repartition in ethnic and age groups category, regional demographic trends, level of education, family types, characteristics and regional developments;  Existing technology in educational institutions, the pace of technological changes; the possibilities for innovation and research budgets levels;  Legal rules and regulations regarding the quality of services, education law, consumer and environment protection, taxation, compliance with quality of education.

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Marketing micro-environment students, Master students, PhD students

Work market under all aspects Control and regulation groups

Institution's employees, beneficiaries (employers, stakeholders, graduates etc)

MARKETING MICROENVIRONMENT

Organizations, groups and individuals with significant influence on the institution's interests, by atitude, opinion or action

Material resources suppliers or stakeholders

Higher education institutions marketing micro-environment consists of:  Customers and beneficiaries, direct or indirect, that can determine the nature and purpose of education demand in the space of the Higher education institutions, the place of the educational institution depending directly on the way managers win their trust;  People who can influence potential student's, graduate studies continuation in institution;  Stakeholders or suppliers of material resources;  Public which can support actions, but also an obstacle to the smooth running of the institution, such as: civil society, government institutions, political and civic interest groups, public opinion, media, public administration;  Employers, entrepreneurs, investors, institutions responsible for continued training (future education);  Structures conferring values to the institution and quality to the educational process;  Other possibilities of influence. Institution relationship with the external environment (relationship marketing) is the mechanism by which the interests of the institution for the purchase of clients is oriented towards developing and improving relations with existing customers. Strategic planning takes into account long-term relationships based on trust and mutual influence, and the institution may impose a particular type of behavior, accepted or not. Therefore,  Relationships represent a new form of capital - successful organizations orient their strategy to create relationships with all the stakeholders;

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   

Positive results' guarantor is the long-term relationships, based on positive predictions; The most important component of the capital is represented by customers, institution's relationships with employees and partners being very important; The market value of the institution is represented, directly, by the influence of the relational capital; Basically, the institution should be concerned and lead relationships with multiple interest holders (stakeholders)2 - physical or legal persons, with voluntary or involuntary contribution, to the activities of the institution and that add to its welfare. They take risks and can be potential beneficiaries.

Analysis methods Any strategy directions are represented by scanning and monitoring external marketing environment.3 Domain specialists such as Kotler propose four levels of environment:

1. macro level environment sociological, technological, economic and political factors (STEP factors)

2. public environment Institutions governing educational activities at central and local level

3. task environment Sociological factors (S) - refers to changes occurring within society / community (social values, lifestyles, changes in the educational system, etc.)

Key actors in the education market, ie stakeholders with direct influence on the institution's activity

Technological factors (T) - are represented mainly by the rise of the Internet, which transformed the general framework

4. competitive environment Key competitors

PEST analysis (STEP) enable the institution to assess the changes that have impact on the Company's activity. Another way of analysis is the SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) or model alignment, matching the external environment - trying to combine elements of internal and external environment and the generation of strategic options to position the institution, according to the table: 2

Payne A; Frow P, A Strategic Framework for CRM, Journal of Marketing, 2005 Kermally Sultan, Maeştrii marketingului,Editura. Meteor Press, Bucureşti, 2009

3

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Internal factors

External factors

Strenghts What we are good at? What intellectual property rights we hold? What financial resources we have? What connections and alliances we have? What is our negotiating power with suppliers and intermediaries? Weaknesses Where are we weaker? What kind of training our employees lack? What is our financial position? What connections and alliances we need, but we do not have?

Positive factors

Negative factors

Opportunities What changes in the external environment can we exploit? What weaknesses can we attack in the competition? What new technology could we be successful with? What new markets could be opening? Threats What could competition do detrimental to us? What new legislation could hit our interests? What social changes could be a threat to us? How will affect us the economic cycle (boom and decline)?

SWOT analysis (situational analysis) Source: Blythe J., (2005) - Esenţialul în marketing, Bucureşti:Rentrop & Straton, p.17

SWOT analysis identifies the institution's internal and external elements corresponding to the four benchmarks and involve retention of the relevant. Using analysis are highlighted strengths and weaknesses of the institution's activity and the environment in which it operates, developing strategic and tactic recommendations that can be used to substantiate practiced strategies and policies, according to the table below, with four strategic variants:4 Strenghts Opportunities Threats

Weaknesses

Aggresive strategies (expansion - investments) Diversification strategies (prevention – ensurance, risk minimizing)

Reorientation strategies (balancing deficites, investments) Defensive strategies (measures taking – high risk tasks)

Aggressive strategies use the strengths of the institution in order to exploit market opportunities. Diversification strategies use the strengths of the institution in order to overcome the threats that the external environment generates. Reorientation strategies uses the opportunities provided by the external environment to overcome the own weaknesses. Defensive strategies have as main purpose to avoid external environmental threats while the Education Institute has many weaknesses. Analysis of the four elements was often called into question, with different approaches its sequence, affirming the necessity of treating the threats and opportunities, first, and then the strengths and weaknesses, setting the direction of analysis TOWS and not 4

Source: Băcanu, B., Management strategic, Editura Teora, 1977, București, pp. 76-77.

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SWOT. According to them is achieved the strategic assessment, presented in the figure below.

STRENGHTS

Offensive strategy

Alternative strategy

OPPORTUNITIE S

THREATS

Defensive strategy

Change strategy

WEAKNESSES

SWOT analysis - strategic assessment (own design) Analyses made in this regard are both internal (analysis of curricula, analytic programs, research projects, quality and absolute performance, income and expenses, the efficiency of use of the material base and management component - methodological, decisional, informational, organizational - performed using specific methodologies) and external, with reference to the educational supply and demand, scientific, and the evolution of certain factors of the environment, national and international (economic, technical and technological, managerial, socio-cultural, political, legal, etc.). The Boston Consulting Group (B.C.G.) model is represented by the analysis of the portfolio of activities of each faculty / department as a strategic unit with separate mission and objectives, but maintaining financial ties to the institution. Such strategic unity can benefit from its own marketing strategy to set it apart and enable it to obtain a more advantageous position. Essential characteristics of the strategic unit are the following5:  Individual work or study programs that can be planned separately from the rest of the institution;  Similar study programs with other institutions / departments / faculties who are competitors in the market;  Leader - dean, responsible for strategic planning and implementation of specific operations. 5 Kotler, Ph., Managementul marketingului, Ed. Teora, Bucureşti, 1997- ed.a II-a 2000, ed. a III-a.2003, ed. IV 2004.

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Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix has been developed by one of the most prestigious management consulting firms, namely Boston Consulting Group. In this model the size of the activity domain value is expressed by the growth rate of the activity segment and the competence of the institution by its relative market share in that segment. The rate of increase is, in BCG's conception, the determining factor of the dynamics of the activity domain, considering that only growing domains offer opportunities for significant cost reductions and enable the creation of sustainable competitive advantages. If the industry is stagnant costs and market shares can not practically change. Relative market share of the institution in the respective field of activity is determined by the relationship6: Crp=

institution ' s market share main competitor ' s market share

CONCLUSIONS Creating an organizational marketing culture in higher education institutions will support actions to be carried out for the purposes of obtaining and maintaining performance. Market orientation is a necessary factor for the proper functioning of an institution of higher education, but without implementing an appropriate marketing strategy, its effect will not be successful, something that highlights the important role marketing has as a tool for the proper implementation of a strategy. Higher education institutions face major problems such as the shift to profitability in the short term, fragmentation and specialization and lack of interdependence with other areas, therefore it may be useful reconsidering the way of operation and interaction with students and society as a whole. Considering these aspects, marketing could be a foothold in understanding of internal needs and external environment, ensuring consistence between offer and demand on the educational market. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Cercetări şi modelări de marketing, Editura Independenţa economică, Piteşti, 2010. Cruceru Anca Francisca, Tehnici promoţionale, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti, 2009. Kermally Sultan, Maeştrii marketingului, Editura Meteor Press, Bucureşti, 2009. Cercetări de marketing. Tratat, Editura Uranus, Bucureşti, 2009. Asandei Mihaela, Ciochină Iuliana, Gangone Andreea, Iordache Carmen, Pănoiu Laura, Marketingul serviciilor, Editura. Independenţa economică, Piteşti, 2009. Kotler Ph., Keller K.L., Managementul marketingului, Editura Teora - ediţia a V-a, Bucureşti, 2008. Nicolescu Ovidiu, coord., Strategia universităţii. Metodologie şi studii de caz, Editura Tribuna Economică Bucureşti , 2007.

6

Formula contains market shares in terms of value and not volume units (Ex: If institution X owns 15% of the total provision made on a specific program of studies, and the most important competitor has 30%, relative market share of institution X is 0.5, so company X has 50% of the leader market); Institutions that are market leaders are the only ones who hold relative market shares greater than 1, and strategic portfolio units who do not hold positions of leadership will share market shares lower than 1.

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8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Kotler Ph., 10 păcate capitale de marketing, semne şi soluţii, Editura. CODECS, Bucureşti, 2004. Chelcea Septimiu, Metodologia cercetării sociologice, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2001. Pop N. Al. (coord.), Marketing strategic, Editura Economică, Bucureşti, 2000. Frone F. D., Dicţionar de marketing, Editura Oscar Print, Bucureşti, 1999 Dubois P.L., Jolibert A., Marketing (teorie şi practică) trad. în limba română de Univ. Şt. Agricole Cluj-N apoca, 1994.

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THE USE OF INFORMATIZED MODELS IN RISK MANAGEMENT Cătălin BURSUC Comander (Navy) Eng. - Ph.D. Associate Professor, ”Carol I” National Defence University , Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]. Toma PLEȘANU Colonel Eng. Ph.D. Professor, ”Carol I” National Defence University , Bucharest, Romania. [email protected] Polixenia OLAR Junior Lecturer, PhD, ”Carol I” National Defence University , Bucharest, Romania. Abstract: Beside the relevance and opportunity of data at hand, the speed and capacity of processing constitute key elements in the quantitative approach to risks and in assisting decision making in contemporary organisations. The IT instruments destined to risk management become more and more numerous and more often used. The most frequently used software packages are the ones used in projects or the IT products assimilated to a number of packages destined to project management. Their effectiveness is given by the integrated analysis modalities, by the quantity of data subjected to processing and the operating ease, all doubled by reasonable costs in the expenditures / benefits relation. It is essential for any type of organization to determine the level of acceptability of risk which is willing to assume, while keeping the planned standard of performance. The correlation between the costs for the organization to approach risks and the level of fulfilment of objectives represents a balance which expresses the manner of resources expenditure in effective modalities. Keywords: risk management, military organization, methods and models;

COMPLEX IT INSTRUMENTS AS INTEGRATED SOLUTIONS FOR RISK MANAGEMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS Beside the relevance and opportunity of data available, the speed and capacity of processing are key elements in the quantitative approach to risks and in assisting decision making in contemporary organizations. The IT instruments destined to risk management become more and more numerous and more often used. The most frequently used software packages are the ones used in projects or the IT products assimilated to a number of packages destined to project management. These types of software allow for the processing of large enough blocks of data for the obtaining of valid conclusions, in case a reasonable number of variables are analyzed. In the case of destined software, the user friendly interfaces and the available graphic possibilities allow for a relatively easy use and the elaboration of easy to present products with a high degree of intelligibility. The software packages available on the market are different from one another in terms of their processing capacities, the number and complexity of variables integrated in analysis, the easiness in usage and in learning the operating elements and, last but not least, the purchasing price.

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DECISION TOOLS SUITE This suite of utilities represents an integrated software package offered by Palisade Corporation1 and it can be used in very diverse domains for risk managements. Seven softwares are available in this package: @Risk, PrecisionTree, TopRank, RiskOptimizer, BestFit şi RiskView. The above mentioned software functions as integrated option, but they can also function placed in an Excel integrated menu bar.

Figure 1 Graphic representation of the distribution of a variable and the evolution of its associated probability of occurrence, through the use of @Risk The @Risk software permits the analysis and simulation of risks in modalities of processing which function under Excel, modalities which set off from quantitative methods of risk analysis and it simulates the results of a decision under the form of a distribution of probabilities,2 While concretely operating with the @Risk utility, the following work algorithm is applied: 3 a) establishing the problem, generating a model; b) determining the uncertain variables; - all the values possible for these variables are considered, so that simulations may lead to relevant results; - by using the functions of probability distribution, a range of values that a variable can take and the probabilities associated with these is emphasized; c) evaluating the model by launching a simulation - the model is repeatedly applied in the simulation; http://www.palisade.com/risk/?gclid=CMGpytrupa8CFQhe3wodilFCYQ. Toma PLEȘANU, Cătălin BURSUC, Costel LOLOIU, Dedicated risk management software, Proceedings of the KM-09: The 9th International Conference “Knowledge Management – Project, Systems and Technologies”, Bucharest, Romania, 26-27 November 201, pp. 125-130. 3 Guide to @Risk for Project - Advanced Risk Analysis for Project Management, Palisade Corporation, 2000, p. 25. 1 2

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- each iteration uses different sets of values of the entry variables; - all the valid combinations of the entry variables are run in order to simulate the possible effects; d) interpreting the results and taking a decision - @Risk generates a distribution of possible effects and it associates the probability of occurrence; - the simulations run after establishing the mentioned levels of uncertainty can offer the following solutions: the most favourable scenario, the least favourable scenario and the average version. The supplementary options can provide to the user the simulation of probabilistic decisions, the conditioned modelling and the use of macro references. Precision Tree is an instrument for decision assisting running under Excel. The utility can generate decision trees which can be accompanied by complete statistic reports or graphics of the risk profile. The complete options have the facility of generating correlated trees, logical knots and reference knots. TopRank is the utility that runs what-if type analyses, what would be if certain variables had another direction of evolution than the planned one. The active work board can determine the variables with the highest influence and it can put them in order. The useful data have the facility of graphical presentation or under the form of statistic report. RiskOptimizer represents the simulation and optimization instrument used by Excel.

Figure 2 The RiskOptimizer option presented in a calculation board This option combines algorithmical optimization with simulations carried out through the Monte Carlo method and it assures optimal combinations of variables for achieving the intended result. THE RISICARE UTILITY This package of IT programmes is developed in France, being supplied on the market by Buc Ltd. France in a professional version or for everyday use. The Risicare software is

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delivered with a data base developed by the standard knowledge data base of Méthode Harmonisée d'Analyse de Risques Informatiques 2007.4 This software package supplies elements of decision assistance in organizations by using the Méthode Harmonisée d'Analyse de Risques Informatiques (MEHARI) method for the analysis of information and options developed from the Club de la Sécurité Informatique Français (Clusif)5 formulas. The Risicare functions simulate the action of variables in the life of the organization and they run tests and scenarios which influence the attaining of what if type objectives. In the activity of risk identification, this software makes an integrated type analysis which takes into account what is at stake and the classification of goods, the vulnerability analyses and the situations of losses in order to identify risks in accordance with the MEHARI method. The identified risks are treated by the Risicare package which supplies simulations and optimization which permit the choosing of security measures that reduce the action of essential or unacceptable risks. After each Risicare iteration it shows reports, tables and graphics which can be processed, security plans applicable for various durations. Risicare contains ISO 27001 integrating elements especially in the planning phase, having ISO 27002 in the phase of aligning the organization to all check points. The philosophy in the designing of the programme sets off from ISO 13335 which permits the aligning to ISO 27005 and the implementation of the risk reduction measures stipulated by the Basel II Accord6. The data base mentioned earlier can be adapted to the requirements if the beneficiary by the personnel of the form or by the experts in IT security by using an additional RisiBase instrument. The RisiBase module, which can be delivered together with Risicare, assures the configuration according to the particular data base requirements or the design of an additional knowledge base. The Risicare package can be used in any type of company, especially in large organizations and in administration. RISK RADAR® ENTERPRISE The software is developed by the Integrated Computer Engineering Directorate, American Systems Corporation and it is used in a large array of projects that help classify, build hierarchies, track, control and address risks. The package of programmes is available in the 4.0 version, one that permits a personalized design and the selection of data. Risk Radar® Enterprise offers managers the possibility to report the risks with the most suitable content and format for its customers. Risk Radar® Enterprise offers customers significantly improved risk reporting capacities, which consist of: - Ad Hoc Reports with data selection, Favorites and recovery from PDF or MS Word; - Customizable MS Word patterns and reports; Risk Radar® Enterprises an intuitive software and one that is easy to use through a predominantly graphical user's interface. http://www.paideiaconsulting.ro/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=21&Itemid=35H. http://www.clusif.asso.fr/fr/production/ouvrages/pdf/CLUSIF. 6 The BASEL II Accord is an international accord with requirements to fulfil in view of the financial balance of commercial banks. This accord sets flexible and advanced rules for the establishment of minimum capital requirements in case of credit risk, market risk and operational risk. 4 5

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The risk factors monitoring and reporting activity is easily conducted by operating a couple of active buttons, so that reports are automatically generated. The activity of the user no longer consists of operating time consuming calculus sheets, instead it shifted to the use of a user friendly web within which the strategic aims and organization objectives are englobed. The software is not a very complex one that would require installation support or supplementary training needs. Operators with a minimum level of IT competence can install and operate the system without difficulty. THE IQSM7 PACKAGE iQSM is a software produced by netSurity, used in running analyses of risk factors, a programme designed to set off from the standards in force in the field of risk management. The package of programmes constitutes a multi-user environment which permits risk and audit analysis. The package has the capacity to run risk analysis for the entire duration of the project, and for the identified ones it develops measures to reduce and control risks. The user interface allows for the monitoring of critical risk and audit parameters. The programme includes advanced reporting and tendency analysis characteristics.

Figure 3. iQSM8 user interface The Precise ID risk scoring models and the Knowledge IQ interactive interrogations supply modalities of risk identification in an integrated and innovative modality and fraud detection on a single platform. The combination of the two mentioned facilities offers a 7 8

http://download.cnet.com/iQSM-Total-Risk-Management/3000-2653_4-10504335.html. Ibidem.

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nuanced instrument which permits both risk management and fraud identification. These modalities allow a lot of configurations to exist in the system, but a single risk response strategy will be active for each score allocation. The facilities offered by this system include: - optimized risk strategies for certain segments of the population; - general interrogations that are not affected by the moment when they are run; - specific but flexible interrogations configurations; - questions related to financial and general aspects for the adequate description of the beneficiary; The accuracy of the information being used, the modalities of analysis used and the modalities of processing make this platform a useful and adequate instrument. PERTMASTER PROJECT RISK and PERTMASTER RISK EXPERT Pertmaster is a company specialized in the development and implementation of software dedicated to risk management. This software comprises two solutions with different performance levels and costs: Pertmaster Project Risk and Pertmaster Risk Expert. Pertmaster Risk Expert permits risk analysis in projects and it uses a set of reporting instruments in the form of tables and graphics. This software can run independently or under Microsoft Project and permits the use of macros for data import, automated reporting and the use of decision trees. The programme integrates elements of risk management in the planning system of the organization, which makes results more adequate and quicker to obtain. Pertmaster Risk Expert constitutes a quantitatively and qualitatively superior version, being an integrated solution of risk management. Compared to the previous version, this one covers technical risks very well, having the following additional instruments: - Risk categories represent an option which permits the identification of risks and their association with activities in which they occur. Three percentage values are associated to risks, which represent their impact upon the organization. - Risk registry, the probability-impact pairs being known for each risk, we can quantify the effect on the entire project. - the existence of options to create, edit and distribute macros using Visual Basic. The enumerated aspects recommend the second version for use within an integrated system of risk management, but at a higher acquisition price. PRIMAVERA RISK ANALYSIS It is a package of programmes destined to risk management offered by Oracle which supplies during the entire life cycle of the project a wide range of planning and risk analysis instruments and easy techniques for the determination of the imminence and risk response measure in a high degree of trust which may determine the attainment of the planned objectives.

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Figure 4 The risk register of Primavera Risk Analysis9 This software can be integrated in the project management package and it offers accessible reporting modalities with the assurance of an adequate level of security. The programme offers reporting facilities for risk analysis in different formats that contain data which can be reported in the risk response plans. The Risk Analysis Guide option offers facilities to model and run risk analyses. Each iteration to validate variables, to develop risk models, to analyze risks, to revise results, to constitute the stages of a complete process. The Risk Register Wizard option constitutes a facility that permits the creation of a new register by attributing scores, by using qualitative descriptors which characterize risk response and risk mapping in the calendar of activities. The flexible reporting modalities are possible in different formats which can emphasize: - graphics that can emphasize the distributions of frequencies correlated with the evolution of variables in time; - the distribution of probabilities of risk occurrence and their emphasis through tables and graphics; - comparison of scenarios and analysis of distributions in histograms or in the form of tables which create the foundation of the measures to address risks. Due to the instruments provided, this package of programmes constitutes a complex variant in functioning and performance, but one that is easy to use and that offers analyses and solutions directly applicable in risk response plans. FINAL DISCUSSIONS OVER THE SITUATION IN THE MILITARY ORGANIZATION In order to carry out risk control and especially to reduce their effects at the time of their occurrence, it is necessary to manage risks at all the levels of those involved in the 9

https://www.oracle.com/applications/primavera/products/risk-analysis.html.

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running of projects, starting from the drafting of project plans, so that they are clearly emphasized in cases of decision making. Each structure participating in the implementation of level of risk analysis must be capable of emphasizing the main risk factors which can occur during the project; it is necessary for them to be trained in this field in order to be aware of the importance of this activity. At the same time, risk management can not be achieved without the allocation of specialized human resources, financial, energy, informational and IT resources, as well as the assurance of the environment propitious to this activity. Risk management is a field in full development which requires a concentration of forces, means and energies in order to manage and reduce risks. In the armed forces, as in any other organization, performance is judged by results. The level of attainment of objectives and the appreciation of results are improved as risks are controlled and reduced. The full elimination of risks represents a utopia, as formal logic establishes, keeping in mind that within the military organization people work with dangerous materials and they carry out specific high risk activities (activities involving embarkations on and disembarkations from ships, jumps and dives, shootings with different categories of armaments and destructions etc). A risk evaluated as minor can generate a major impact if it is under-evaluated and this, in the context described above, can lead to injuries, invalidity, death, destruction and damage of equipment. The management of the organization, the command personnel of military units must promote risk management within structures, select and train personnel in the management of risks, have strategies and plans in place regarding risk management that they can apply effectively and opportunely. The identification of objective and implicitly of risks, their evaluation and prioritization, followed by management and monitoring - are as important, and the management of an organization must keep them in mind, promoting a more effective cooperation between the internal structures of the structure. Establishing the critical level, up to which the risk is appreciated as being within the area of tolerance, is the attribute of the decision maker at the highest level of the organization and who founds his success on his managerial experience, as well as on the lessons learned following similar incidents and events that occurred in similar circumstances. This emphasizes the fact that, in real conditions, risk and uncertainty are composed in different proportions and interact in a complex manner. Concretely, uncertainty can not be determined through the simple identification of risks. The chain of unpredictable events can cause deviations that can fundamentally change the configuration of the IT schemes used in planning and decision making. Thus, uncertainty becomes a potential source of risk when it is derived from incomplete information, defective processing or appeal to often irrelevant and uncertain sources. The elements addressed in this article provide methodology issues that are necessary in the analysis of major risk factors which will permit their opportune identification. The informatized instruments that we analyzed provide the methodological part of organizational research and they give our endeavour a praxeological character. Within the content of this article we analyze a number of aspects related to facilities in adopting and implementing decision for an adequate action, planning the necessary activities in view of risk identification within the Ministry of National Defence, as well as risk management within the organization and the reduction of uncertainty in decision making.

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In the widest conceptual framework, the identification of risks and of response opportunities are emphasized according to standards which permit the transformation of uncertainty, re-found in a certain context of occurrence and objectivization, in explicit and measurable descriptions whose effects can be countered or reduced. At present, the effects of risks are accepted in the area of tolerance, where their monitoring takes place or the attitude toward them can be one of acceptance, the possible effects being considered negligible. In the military organization the designing of programmes of risk management is required to foresee actions of proportional value with the level and intensity of risks, which need to be prioritized and oriented toward the risks with the highest degree of danger, toward the ones that are hardest to control. Through planning it is necessary to develop consistent measures, with the application of the same methods for similar situations, thus generalizing the positive experience, the success in the activity of the organization and the good practices. The situations of instability at regional or global level, that are characteristic to periods of generalized economic crisis, require even more concrete and adequate analyses and measures for the integrated management of risks in any type of organization. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

BROOKS J. David, Security risk management: A psychometric map of expert knowledge structure, in Risk Management, Volume 13, Issue 1-2, 2011, Publisher Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke - United Kingdom, pp. 17-41; Toma PLESANU, Cătălin BURSUC, Costel LOLOIU, Dedicated risk management software, Proceedings of the KM-09: The 9th International Conference “Knowledge Management – Project, Systems and Technologies”,Bucharest, Romania, 26-27 November 201,pp. 125-130; Guide to @Risk for Project - Advanced Risk Analysis for Project Management, Palisade Corporation, 200 p. 25. http://www.palisade.com/risk/?gclid=CMGpytrupa8CFQhe3wodilFCYQ. Standardul ISO 31000 / 2009 Managementul riscului. Principii şi linii directoare, în http://www.consultantacertificare.ro/stiri/standardul-pentru-managementul-risculuiiso-31000.html; http://www.clusif.asso.fr/fr/production/ouvrages/pdf/CLUSIF. https://www.oracle.com/applications/primavera/products/risk-analysis.html. http://download.cnet.com/iQSM-Total-Risk-Management/3000-2653_410504335.html. http://www.paideiaconsulting.ro/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory &id=21&Itemid=35H. http://www.consultanta-certificare.ro/stiri/iso-31010.html;

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ESTIMATE OF THE LIFE CYCLE COSTS OF COMPLEX WEAPON SYSTEMS Nicolae-Alin PLEŞANU Ph.D. candidate, ”Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania Codrin MUNTEANU Ph.D., ”Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania Polixenia OLAR Junior Lecturer, PhD, ”Carol I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania Abstract: The process of analysis of the life cycle cost can be used as an aid in solving a large variety of problems. In essence, an analysis of a life cycle cost can be done using a single sheet of paper in only a couple of minutes or we can go into depth with data manipulation. The results of such an analysis must be at an adequate depth, opportune and sensible to the designer / manager involved in the decision making process. The important problem here is to think economically and to think in terns of life cycle, the former being the context of the latter. The paper analyzes the complexity of life cycle cost estimates of complex weapon systems. Keywords: management, process, cost, Life-Cycle Cost Analysis, system complex, acquisition strategy;

In the NATO conception, within the process of transformation of the alliance, the endowment component represents the dynamic element which involves human, technoeconomical and financial resources with the purpose of putting into practice the researchdevelopment programmes, setting off from the necessity to maintain a high combat capacity. For this reason, a rigorous and effective management of programming and coherent planning is needed, because the endowment with combat equipment must be done in an organized manner, within specific programmes carried out according to a verified procedure, with well defined processes, often over long periods of time and it requires budgetary allocations over several financial exercises. The high costs incurred by these programmes require, in most cases, governmental or parliamentarian approval. Due to the complexity of the aspects related to the compatibility of military technical systems, but also for financial reasons, some states opt for modernizing programmes of their existing systems. The modernization of equipment at NATO standards represents a complex process, both from the point of view of the acquisition of armaments and equipments, but also from the point of view of their corresponding integrated logistic support, in order to ensure the operationalization of forces. These require: - the modernization of the existing equipment with the participation of the local industry, for the attainment of NATO standards and force objectives; - the acquisition of military equipment through imports and the integration of modern technologies within the local ones; - the acquisition through imports of certain military equipment which can not be or are to expensive to be manufactured in the country. The policy of the Ministry of National Defence in the field of armaments and endowment is determined by the necessity to provide to the services of the army, as well as to the other structures of the ministry, the equipment and weapon systems that they need in a timely manner and at the best cost / performance (quality) ratio. In this context, the dialogue 220


at all levels and a partnership with the defence industry are essential in order to obtain the best results within the management of defence resources and products. This cooperation with the industry is in itself an important aspect of the national industrial policy, which will continue to exist as long as the industry is and can still be involved in assuring the products and services required at the standards demanded by the military factors. In principle, the process of endowment and modernization of the army is influenced by the phenomenon of globalization, which involves the multitude of interdependencies of a political, military, economic, cultural and social nature, which are established on a growing scale among the states of the world in the economic, political and military environments. Strictly from the point of view of defence, the process of transformation of the military capabilities requires profound efficiency and effectiveness analyses and evaluations that will lead to coherent decisions regarding the possible material alternatives, mainly referring to the quick shift toward a new generation of technologies and systems more capable to cope with the challenges of the future, or to the allocation of important resources for the protection of personnel and resources, for the maintenance, operation and modernization of the existing equipment, which sometimes goes obsolete at an accelerated rate. In these conditions the industry must become capable to adapt to the evolving political, military, economic and technological environment and exploit more its own capacity to adapt to the new "rules" specific to the market economy, to the more and more fierce competition for markets, as well as to the existing tendencies at European and international levels in the field of research development, production and trade of armaments and combat equipment. For the conducting of acquisition and modernization of military equipment activities, there are provisions in place within the Ministry of National Defence for the conducting of development projects and major programmes for creation, training and modernization, as well as programmes of acquisition of major systems, which envisage the transformation of a number of military capabilities through:  the modernization of endowment in close connection with the operational requirements and the national interest;  the modernization of the endowment of the army, correlated with the operationalization of the units included in the new force structures;  the attainment of a credible combat capacity by raising the technological level and performance of the combat equipment;  the attainment of the defence capabilities and the interoperability of the combat equipment with that of the NATO and EU member states;  the attainment of the international objectives assumed by Romania. Having in mind these comprehensive transformations, renewals and modernizations which require outstanding costs and important engagements of public funds, it is important that these activities be carefully considered, especially when they affect the already designed and engaged capabilities, the on-going processes, procedures, projects, programmes and contracts, with future implications at the levels of costs, performance and risks. A higher and higher professionalism is necessary, in other words, there is a growing need for military experts, researchers, engineers, economists, legal advisors, various specialists, as well as managers, not only military commanders and leaders. In these teams of experts, the economists must be capable of making an analysis of system effectiveness and of the cost. The relations between the effectiveness of the system and the life cycle costs are analyzed in order to:  determine the influences of performance over costs;  understand the added value as a cost function;  support the identification of performance objectives and requirements; 221


 support the allocation of performance to functions. The analyses of the effectiveness of the system and cost are carried out for the processes within the life cycle (manufacturing, testing, distribution, operation, support, training and removal from use) for the following purposes:  to support the inclusion of quality factors in the projects of the product;  to support the defining of the functional and performance requirements for the processes within the life cycle. The results of these analyses are used in the evaluation of the alternatives of the economic/commercial study and for the evaluation of the effectiveness of the system. The acquisition strategy of a complex military products details the requirements, objectives and modality of application of a programme of attainment of a system. The development of the strategy departs from the results of the acquisition decision making process. The decision is supported both by the study of the preliminary analyses and operating and support requirements and also by the results of the market investigation. The strategy is developed on a structure formed of the decision to make the acquisition, the system engineering attached to it and the other requirements of the programme of activities specific to the type of acquisition, requirements defined departing from the necessities and constraints formulated and recognized as early as the preliminary phase. The compatibility and interoperability between the armament systems of our country and those of NATO begin with the similitude of practices in the field of acquisitions (policies, strategies, regulations and standards). These are in fact the basis for the development of a new concept of acquisitions, one of the major objectives of the Ministry of National Defence. Leading the acquisition process in a correct direction needs transparency and clear regulations, in order to ensure, on the one hand, that the tax payers' money is spend in optimum conditions for the endowment of the army and, on the other hand, in order to offer equal treatment to all companies wishing to become suppliers of the army. The Order of the minister of national defence no. M33/08.04.1999 approved the compulsory application of the Series 1000 Instructions regarding the integrated management system of acquisitions for defence (SIMAPA), revised and updated in 2001. Thus, the Ministry of National Defence disposes of a well defined and modern system of management of acquisitions, the first of its kind used by the state administration, similar with the systems existing in the armies of the NATO member countries, systems which were considered during the development of the own system. In general, by military acquisitions we understand an entire complex system composed of: research, development, testing and evaluation, production, instalment of a weapon system at operative units and assurance of an integrated logistic support for it, adequate for the entire duration of exploitation, until it is removed from use. When initiating major acquisition programmes, we look to hiring national specialized companies in partnership with specialized firms from abroad for the manufacturing, integration and life cycle maintenance of military equipment and systems. These programmes are preferably run with specialized entities from the defence industry, either as main contractor, integrator or, at least, for the local support of maintenance activities at higher levels. The objectives of the acquisitions through major programmes envisage the necessities of modernization of the NATO standard equipment and the filling of the need for equipment imposed by the assurance with necessary capabilities for attaining the objectives assumed by Romania within the NATO alliance and the EU. In advanced countries like Great Britain and the USA the topic of life cycle costs, as a component element of acquisition management, is treated with great attention. The activity of cost estimates, for a complex and long life equipment (as it is the case with army equipment), 222


is a difficult process due to its complexity and required amount of work. Consequently, errors can easily occur in appreciating the entry parameters, in choosing the estimate methods and, not lastly, the manner in which these costs are calculated. Estimate errors, especially if they occur in the early stages of the programme, can have grave consequences. That is why it is very important that the cost estimate activity not be carried out by a single person, regardless of his/her experience in this field. Team work is essential. The work team involved in the activity to determine costs must be formed of highly experienced specialists in this field, it must use a vast and as complete as possible data base and be endowed with adequate work instruments. By adequate work instruments we understand one ore more computers specialized in the issue of determining costs and, of course, dedicated software. The process of system development is to be adapted in order to completely answer the operational requirements formulated by the end user and it begins with the analysis and disciplined transposition of these requirements at each level of the system, on the basis of technical specifications that will ensure traceability. This process of system development has a pluridisciplinary character, and during its application tests are carried out at the level of each element and level of the programme, as well as final tests of integration with the system in its complete definition. The synchronization of all parts (disciplines) involved in the process of system development is conducted by the management of the programme, within the team integrated by the programme, at each phase or at pre-established decision points. The stages of system development are followed by a process of approval and freezing of configuration corresponding to the attained matureness and the satisfaction of the established utility for each part separately and it ends with the freezing of the system configuration in its entirety. A successful activity of system integration requires procedures, planning and support as early as the initial stages and it can not be separated from other activities, such as the development of requirements, system design and risk reduction. Any system acquisition, be it existent or modernized, must be from the very beginning planned and integrated in the development process of the entire higher system, in order to ensure an optimum balance between the characteristic performances of the system, the initial resource needs, system effectiveness and, finally, life cycle cost. The key to success in an integrating activity is constituted by the existence of an integrated programme team, well led by a programme director and supported by a coherent planning process. The reason for the existence of an endowment programme is to satisfy certain operational needs. By observing strict rules founded on well defined phases, the running of a system acquisition programme is characterized by the use of the highest technologies and the complexity of its organization, on the basis of a methodology presented below. 1. Analysis of the mission domain. It is the stage during which the requirement and conditions of achievement of a new military capability are studied, taking into account the threats, operational scenarios, doctrine, missions, new technologies, interoperability objectives, standardization and financial support possibilities of a new project / programme and a military need for mission accomplishment is decided upon (for example, an integrated ballistic system on an existing combat aircraft). 2. Decision Point „0” – Approval for the study of the concept. On the basis of DNM and DCO documents transmitted by the Requirement Surveillance Council and the Decision Authority - Acquisition Council, the opportunity of the drafting of the concept study is analyzed. After the drafting of the study, phase "0" is initiated. A person in charge with the preparation of the documents for "DP 1" is appointed (The structure of the programme and the achievement chart, the Strategy of acquisition, the Estimates regarding the costs for the duration of the system development, the Estimates of life cycle costs, the Risk analysis, the 223


Report of evaluation of the threats to the system, the Integrated logistic support plan, the Analysis regarding the protection of the environment, the Possibilities for international cooperation and so on). 3. Phase „0” – Study and selection of the concept. During this phase the initial DNM and DCO requirements are studied in depth under the form of one or more concepts, design versions and technological solutions, which will ensure their achievement. The critical design characteristics and the preliminary capacities for the ballistic system concepts are defined. The advantages and disadvantages of alternative concepts are evaluated. The needs of achievement of prototypes, of initial experiments and operational evaluations for risk reductions are analyzed, so that technology, production and financial risks be controlled before reaching the Decision Point. The initial evaluation of the industrial capacity to support the programme is evaluated and the initial consequences on the environment are identified. During this phase an estimate of the life cycle costs of the product and the annual needs for funds, of the cost / performance ratio and interoperability requirements is conducted, and various acquisition strategies are proposed, which will also include analyses related to the development of the necessary software. The model of system conceptual architecture and the necessary interfaces are established. The concept study has a compulsory format and is drafted according to established procedures by the technical authority of the regulating authority in the field of acquisitions. After the drafting, the concept study is analyzed by the end used, who opts for one of the versions proposed by the study. On the basis of these versions, the DCO is updated. 4. Decision Point „1” – Approval of the initiation of the programme. At this decision point the acquisition strategy is analyzed, on the basis of the acquisition programme, the estimates of the life cycle costs, inclusion of the programme in the acquisition category and the Programme Director and the integrated programme team are appointed. If the endowment with the ballistic system is approved by the "Defence Planning Council" and has resources planned in the "Defence Planning Directive", the move to Phase "1" is approved. PHASES OF ACQUISITION AND POINTS OF DECISION IN THE INTEGRATED ACQUISITION MANAGEMENT PROCESS Number of years 0-2 2-4 4-7 2-8 Phases Activities Phase 0 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 preliminary Study and System Technological Production to phase 0 selection of (Project) Development and concept Definition instalment at units Purpose of Evaluation Exploration Definition of Translation of the the phase of the of alternative project most favourable validated concepts characteristics project Establishment threat and developed in of an efficient Definition of capabilities Phase 1 and stable Technical mission production feasibility concept Elaboration Validation of the and of a studies of the technology of the support basis Risk information production Drafting of identification necessary for process Attainment of the mission decision the needs Elaboration support Testing of the operational document of the during phase capabilities of the capacity acquisition 2 system Analysis strategy and Monitoring of through of the Establishment the alternative objectives of of the basis performance means cost, for the of the system

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10 - 50 Phase 4 Operation and support

Ensuring support at units Identification of deficiencies Modifications and modernizations upon request


deadlines and performance

Points of Decision

acquisition programme

PD 0 Approval of the study of the concept

PD 1 Approval of the Beginning of the Project

PD 2 Approval of development

MA (CA) DMN

MA (CA) DOR

MA (CA) SIP

MA

- Memorandum of Acquisitions

CA

- Council of Acquisitions

PD 3 Approval of Production

PD 4 Approval of modifications Phase 5 Removal from use

PD 3A Small scale initial production

MA (CA) SIP

DMN - Document with the Mission Needs DOR - Document with the Operational Requirements

MA (CA) SIP

SIP - Summary of the Integrated Programme PD - Point of Decision

Source: Instruction I.1000.2-01 of MoND regarding the Management of Acquisitions for Defence 5. Phase „1” – System Definition. This phase is focused on the research of possible solutions and their evaluation according to the degree in which they permit the attainment of the operational requirements. In order to trace the limits of the operational needs, to formulate the possible technical solutions and to draft the first studies of evaluation of the life cycle costs, the programme team uses the functional analysis. It comprises: the value analysis, the risk evaluation and the definition of the acquisition strategy. All the data necessary about the existing systems and the tendencies in the field are studied. A detailed definition of the states of the system, the modes of operation, commands and displays, the missions and tasks of each element is carried out, as well as the definition of algorithms and mathematical models and software algorithms etc. The preliminary model of system architecture is defined. The development programme is development, the cost structure of the forecast cycle and the annual needs for funds are evaluated, the acquisition strategy is revised and the information necessary for "DP 2" are established. 6. Decision Point „2” - Approval of the development. The purpose of DP2 is to establish whether the results in phase 1 guarantee the continuation of the programme and to approve the beginning of phase 2, "Technological Development". Within this decision point the strategy for the attainment of the small series initial production (SSIP) is considered. During DP2 the updated documents of the programme, the main testing and evaluation plan, the operational and cost effectiveness, the updated DCO, the evaluation of initial operational capability, the propositions for SSIP, the criteria of exit from phase 2 are analyzed. The following are approved by the Decision Authority: the acquisition strategy, the objective values and the threshold values regarding costs, the basis of the acquisition programme, the quantities for the small scale initial production (SSIP), the criteria of exit from phase 2. 7. Phase „2” – Technological development (industrial prototype). The main objective of this phase consists of: the achievement of a secure project that will respect the operational and interoperability requirements and which can be efficiently manufactured and maintained, the validation of the manufacturing process and the demonstration of the operational capacities of the system through testing and operational evaluation. The detailed model of system architecture is drafted. During this phase it is possible, on a case by case process, to achieve SSIP, depending on the results of tests run on the industrial prototype and by incorporating the improvements brought to the project. 225


In this phase the following activities are carried out: translation of the most promising project developed in phase "1" into a stable, reproducible and efficient system project; validation of constructive solutions and production process; demonstration through testing that the system is capable of satisfying the specification required through the contract, the mission needs and the minimum acceptable operational performance requirements; effective testing, whose results must demonstrate the operational capability of the system; establish a production planning that will include updated cost programmes, deadlines and performance objectives; small scale initial production with the purpose to check the stability of the production system and a real estimate of the production and acquisition costs; evaluation of the capacity of the defence industry to support the programme; establishing a directing line of system configuration; identification of possible consequences on the environment and measure to combat it; update the life cycle costs and annual needs for funds; programming of adequate resources to support production, instalment and support; establish the criteria for entering phase 3. The documents that must be approved at Decision Point 3 are prepared: the updated documents of the programme; updated testing, evaluation and operational development plans; the report regarding the preliminary series; the development testing report; the initial operational testing report; the report regarding the live munitions firing test; the production plan; the call for production offers. 8. Decision Point „3” - Approval of production and instalment. The purpose of this decision point is to authorize the entering into production of the integrated ballistic system. The production launching file marks the passage to the production phase. It contains the updated operational data and technical characteristics. It also specifies the modalities of integration of the new programme at the level of the forces, with an accent on overall operational coherence, logistic support, user training and directions in which evaluations and experimentations are to be oriented. Finally, the documents evaluate and yearly allocate the financial resources necessary for the production phase. At this decision point the updated documents of the programme, the testing reports drafted during the previous phase and criteria of exit from phase "3" are analyzed. The Decision Authority will approve the acquisition strategy, the basis of the acquisition programme and the criteria of exit from phase 3, if it is the case. 9. Phase „3” - Production and Instalment. The main objective is to achieve the operational capacity that will satisfy the needs of the mission. The deficiencies observed during the activities of testing and evaluation development, of testing and initial operational development and live munitions firing testing are solved and the necessary modifications will be done. In this phase the ballistic system and the support equipment are conceived in detail, adjusted, evaluated, qualified, experimented and manufactured. The programme director is tasked to carry out evaluations and technical-operational experimentations and to propose indispensable modifications. During the installation of the system and of the entire operational support, supplementary modifications of the ballistic system may emerge. During this phase the following activities will be executed: establishing an efficient and stable production and an adequate support base; attaining the operational capacities that will satisfy the needs of the mission; confirmation through production testing and operational testing of the quality and performance and correction of deficiencies; updating the basic line of the system configuration; execution of the operational support plans in transition to the user; identification of operation and/or support problems in order to ensure an integrated logistic support.

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10. Decision Point „4” - Approval of modifications. Any modification appeared during the programme or during the use of the product is reported and is treated according to the procedures established by the Instructions series I.1000 of the Ministry of National Defence and the specific dispositions of the Decision Authority. Each year or whenever necessary, the programme team establishes in conformity with the stage of achievement a document of tracking the programme, the programme chart. This chart has the purpose to emphasize the differences between the initial forecast mentioned in the strategy and in the basis of the acquisition programme and the actual situation. The document presents the results obtained from its previous issue and drafts a summary of the actions carried out to solve the difficult problems. It also names the actions carried out to optimize the costs and the most important meetings for the following year, as well as the main decisions that must be taken. 11. Phase „4” - Operation and Support. The objectives of this activity are to create a support programme that will satisfy the threshold performance requirements and their support, so that to ensure the cost efficiency of the exploitation cycle. As it is the case, a programme of later operational testing will be elaborated, which will evaluate the performance and quality of the system, its compatibility and interoperability and will identify deficiencies. This activity will also include, if necessary, the drafting of the operational support plans in order to make the transition from the contractor to the logistic support organization. 12. Downgrading, disassembling, disposal/capitalization. Having in mind its life cycle (10-40 years), the system may become physically or morally obsolete and require adaptation to the new missions. These diverse situations imply special studies and repeating more or less completely - the activities in the preparation and conception phases. At the end of the period of useful exploitation moral obsolescence, the weapon system will be downgraded, disassembled and disposed of. During disassembling and disposal, the programme director must ensure the verification of the material and the supervise its destruction, in order for this to be genuinely carried out with the observance of the standing financial and accounting, environmental, health and safety regulations. There are many and different design and management decisions that can be taken and that can have a significant impact on the life cycle cost. In particular, these early decisions taken during the conceptual and preliminary design phases will significantly impact on the activities and associated costs of system operation, maintenance and support, withdrawal and disposal of the material. Thus, it is essential that designers, support personnel, managers and others involved in decision making keep in mind the impact of their daily activities on the total cost of the life cycle. In other words, the greatest benefits can be obtained if the problems of savings and costs have been addressed from the very beginning in the design and development of new systems. At the same time, a lot of benefits can be obtained by applying the methods of establishing the life cycle cost in the evaluation and later improvement of the systems that are already on the inventory and in operational use. The identification of the factors contributing to high costs and the later modifications or improvements of the system (achieving a reduction of the forecast life cycle costs), implemented on a repetitive or continuous basis, can lead to a lot of benefits nowadays, when resources are limited and there is strong international competition. Success in this domain is strongly dependent on the availability of correct historic data that will have the required visibility for the implementation of a capacity of continuous improvement of the product/process. With regard to visibility, the life cycle cost provides the answer to the following questions:

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   

for a given system, can the factors contributing to high costs be identified in a functional perspective? What does cost estimate represent for the attainment of certain critical functions in the life cycle? can the causes of the high risk areas be identified? Which elements of the system or segments of the process "guide" these costs? what are the relations between the high cost area and the critical functions for the accomplishment of the missions of the system? which are the high cost areas? CONCLUSIONS

The process of life cycle cost analysis can be used as an aid in solving a large variety of problems. In essence, an analysis can be made of the cost per life cycle on a single sheet of paper in only a few minutes or it can go into depth with data manipulation. The results of such an analysis must be at a corresponding depth, they must be opportune and must be sensible to the designer/manager involved in the decision making process. The important problem here is to think economically and to think in terms of life cycle, the former being in the context of the latter. Although the benefits are numerous, there are also a couple of major impediments. Our current thinking process, accounting practices, budgetary cycles, organizational objectives and activities controlled by the politicians are rather short term oriented. Furthermore, the visibility in an analysis of the life cycle cost is not often desired for fear of accountability for one reason or another. In order to be successful in this field, an adequate organizational environment must be established which will let success happen. Then, there must be a top to bottom commitment to "life cycle thinking "; correct data must be gathered and be available; the analyst must have direct access to all the applicable areas of activity. These given, becoming "involved" by understanding the process is important, application to a known entity and the evaluation of results and the establishment of cost estimating relations which can be applied in analyses of the future life cycle cost. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Maloş, G., Sandu, I., E., Năstăsescu, V., (2002), Ingineria sistemelor pentru apărare, Editura Academiei Tehnice Militare, Bucureşti. Pleşanu, T., (2005), Managementul sistemelor de achiziţii, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare “Carol I”, Bucureşti Puşcaşu, M. (2009), Apărarea naţională şi managementul resurselor pentru apărare, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare “Carol I”, Bucureşti. *** - Ministry of Defence Instruction no. 1000.1. – “Regulamentul de emitere a cerinţelor” *** - Ministry of Defence Instruction no. 1000.2. – “Managementul achiziţiilor pentru apărare” *** - Cost Analysis Manual, U.S. Army Cost & Economic Analysis Center, 1997. *** - Operating and Support Cost-Estimating Guide, Department of Defence, 1992.

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MANAGEMENT OF HEALTHCARE FINANCING Gabriel COJOCARU Colonel, PhD candidate, National Defense University "Carol I" [email protected] Abstract: The intensity of development of a society applies for the state administration and it referred to the continuous changes of the defense systems, of the way of organization and management of defense policies and forms of material support and, especially, financial support. Any activity in health domain, particularly the health of military personnel requires, in addition to human resources, a significant financial resource. Keywords: financial management, resources, strategy, healthcare.

INTRODUCTION The financial resources management is the basis for many managerial powers, because this activity involves political and military leaders' capability to allocate money, time, equipment, workforce and space based on a defense strategy. The need for modernization and development of defense systems and hence assurance of financial resources are determined by the rhythm and dynamics of society’s changes. Moreover, the management of financial resources represents a segment of the overall management and fulfills the following functions: financial forecasting, financial organization, financial distribution, financial communication and financial control. They can be applied to the financial component of the military health system, with the main objective of maximizing the value of military structures through the ratio security provider - security risk. The Romanian military environment changes showed a few years ago that "it is necessary to use with maximum efficiency the material, financial, human and, not at least, the political resources and the support from the civil society"1.The transformation as a result of the development of a modern army, involves "adopting and implementing technology specific to the technical-military revolution the restructuring of the armed forces in accordance with the requirements of the informational era (combat units numerically reduced, with high degree of independence and strike power ) the flexibility of the chain of command, putting emphasis on the ability to conduct operations in the network and not on combat platforms, interoperability of different types of forces "2. The changes in the last two decades in the global political-military environment have caused significant developments of the doctrines and strategies for security and defense. It is clear to most military specialists that in the army these changes have generated new conceptual modalities and approaches to conflicts and crises with the involvement of military forces. Thus, at the beginning of the third millennium, the rapid transformations of the battle space, in conjunction with the applicability of new military techniques and technologies have succeeded in producing changes in the gearing of sources and the resources necessary for the development of a modern army. Inability to accurately assess potential sources and resources 1

Planul strategic al Ministerului Apărării Naţionale 2010-2013, p. 3, www.mapn.ro/despre _mapn/informatii_generale/documente/plan_2009.pdf, accesat la data de 10.02.2016. 2 * * * Strategia de transformare a Armatei României, Bucureşti, 2007, p. 6.

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of a possible aggressor of how to use / access to certain military techniques and technologies is one reason for the analysis of the design and development of a modern army. Moreover, the current evolution of the crisis in Ukraine is conducted in the context of the recrudescence of some political-military ambitions, building on the control of sources and natural resources in certain areas / areas of interest and restoring influence of "empires". MANAGEMENT OF MILITARY HEALTHCARE RESOURCES Next, we will try to capture the theoretical foundations for engaging the sources and the resources in the Romanian Army. In the conception of the American specialists, they address three fundamental fields of action, namely technological, doctrinal-operational and organizational3, fields that interact with each other and support on the economic and financial power and scientific development of a state/organization. Broadly, the sources are "places where they are produced, where they can be found or where something spreads, its premise or the origin of certain things"4. In the military sense, we believe that the sources represent political and military places and environments that can emanate news or information necessary for the development of a modern army. In our opinion, these would be political-military administrations/leading councils, the relevant ministries (defense, public order and national security), operational commandments and major states of the categories of armed forces, also commandments of international organizations, operational multinationals commandments and, not least, the deployment areas of military training or actual actions, national territory and in operating theaters. Through resources, in a broad sense, we mean "sources of means or reserves likely to be exploited at some point"5. From our point of view, the Romanian Army’s necessary resources are represented by the possibilities of efficient use of human resources, natural resources, financial resources, technological resources and material resources. Most often, new technologies have applicability first of all in the military domain, afterwards being extended to the commercial sphere. The use of new technologies in the military domain represented a series of technical knowledge for design, manufacturing, testing/approval, use and subsequently marketing of some products in areas that exceed the military field. These have been and will continue to be possible through some valuable human resources, subject to adequate financial and material resources. These three types of basic resources are indissoluble and they interact permanently. All of these lead us to conclude that the development of military technology is no longer the prerogative of a single state. The circulation of information, the relatively easy access to new technologies, the human and financial investments in military scientific research have led to the apparition and development of new power centers with large economic resources and demographics6. Considering the impact that it has on the production capacity of the workforce as well as the human resources in defense, health is considered an investment, appreciating that the disease can affect productivity and national security. Due to the fact that most times the state focuses on productive sectors - industry, agriculture - maintaining the health workforce is

3

Gl.(r.)dr. Eugen Bădălan, gl.(r.)dr. Valentin Arsenie, gl.bg.(r.)dr. Gheorghe Văduva, Strategie militară contemporană, Editura CTEA, Bucuresti, 2004, p. 92. 4 Dexonline.ro/definitie/sursă (DEX 2009), accesat la data de 11.02.2016. 5 Dexonline.ro/definitie/resursă (DEX 2009), accesat la data de 11.02.2016. 6 Am.(r)prof.univ.dr.ing. Ion-Alexandru Plăviciosu, Impactul tehnologiilor asupra strategiei militare, Revista de ştiinţe militare nr.1/2010, p. 131.

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directly proportional to the increase of the production on one hand, and with lower costs for payment of sickness benefit on the other7. FINANCING THE HEALTH SYSTEM In the Romanian health system, the National Health Strategy 2014-2020 is part of the objective of restructuring the health system started in the last decade. This starts by identifying the priority problems existing and outlines methods to approach and intervene, which, under a consistent and appropriate implementation, will ensure better outcomes for the health system performance and health status of the population, including the case of limited resources. Funding is one of the main factors that ensure the sustainable functioning of the health system and create favorable conditions for meeting the needs and demands of military personnel with sufficient medical services and quality. The opportunity of research that will be developed is motivated by the fact that in the Romanian Military there is required the intelligent use of financial resources, especially during this period of financial crisis and of increased risks and threats to national and international security. The Romanian Military requires the intelligent use of financial resources allocated to the health system in order to maintain the health and by default increase the welfare of personnel, especially the one engaged in missions. The financial resources for the development of a modern army have always been a subject of discord between the leaders/governments of states and the military experts, to own political and military responsibilities and achieve the capabilities needed to fulfill their missions to NATO standards. The financial resources not provided at the right time or postponing granting amounts for the acquisition of equipment may create malfunctions in the development of a modern army, experienced after the recent financial and economic crisis. Providing financial resources at an optimum and appropriate level leads to obtaining necessary material resources to achieve objectives specific to modern armies. Public expenditures on health alongside those for education are estimated to be the cost of investment in human capital and are sized according to the factors influencing both public health and protecting health for each individual, also the environment, the education levels, the physical and psychic effort to which individuals are subjected to in the course of work as well as labor safety measures. Within the public expenditure in the social sectors, public spending on health has as a characteristic their differentiation based on the age of the beneficiaries and the mobile pursued by healthcare, elements that determines the period of time between when the investment in human capital and that of capitalizing it. The financing of healthcare in Romania is provided mainly from the National Fund for Health Insurance allocating at the same time the amounts from the state budget and the revenues of the Ministry of Public Health of the so-called "vice tax", from the fund for accidents at work and occupational diseases, and to a small extent from local budgets. An analysis of the legal regime of public health expenditure leads primarily to an analysis of expenditure made from National Fund for Health Insurance, given that it constitutes the main source of financing of the health system. The main source of health care of the population financing, however, is the National Fund for social health insurances, which provides medical services purchase and settlement in case of ordinary illness or accident. These services are available to people who fulfill their obligation to pay contributions to the National Fund for social health insurances, and for 7

http://www.unibuc.ro/studies/Doctorate2009Aprilie/Secareanu%20Liliana%20Maria%20%20Regimul%20Juridic%20al%20Cheltuielilor%20Publice%20Pentru%20Sanatate/Rezumatul%20tezei%20de%2 0doctorat.pdf, accesat la data de 21.02.2016

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people who do not prove such payments are insured services only for emergencies, surgical and diseases with an endemic epidemiological impact. In the system of social health insurance, rights and obligations of policyholders and the health insurance houses are determined by law and embodied by the insurance contract signed in this regard, and to achieve the rights of policyholders, health insurance houses conclude contracts for the supply of medical services with the providers of such services. The right of policyholders to receive medical services, medicines and medical devices in the system of social health insurances is born along with the payment of the contribution of social health insurances to the National Fund for social health insurances, provided that the person paying the contribution is a Romanian citizen residing in the country or foreign citizens residing or long stay right in Romania. The social health insurances are a useful mechanism for using financial resources in priority fields with increased efficiency and they improve provision of healthcare. Based on the concept of the social health insurances and in view of its purpose, objectives are defined as follows: a) universal and equitable access to a package of medical services in case of illness; b) freedom of choices for consumers and health care providers; c) efficient use of available funds and control of the cost of health care. Given the cost of medical services, the social health insurance system from Romania has been designed to be governed by the principle of solidarity. According to this principle on the one hand, establishing the contribution to social health insurances is performed in accordance with the income of each individual and not according to individual risks associated - vertical equity, on the other hand, medical services are provided according to the need of such service and independent of the contribution paid - horizontal equity. This principle is applied in different ways at European level and transposed in applying the objective of access to health care regardless of the individual's health or financial status of the individual, a goal supported by all Member States of the European Union. CONCLUSIONS In conclusion, we consider that the management of the sources and resources in the design and development of a modern military must resolve first of all the managerial mechanism ensuring the financial resources to support ongoing real and typology of these armies. A good state of health is a value and a real source of economic and social stability. This is a key factor for poverty reduction, an element that contributes to sustainable development, every citizen having to benefit. Most important is the fact that indicators of good health are no longer the result of a single sector: sustainable improvement of the health of the population respecting the principle of social equity is actually a product of effective policies promoted at all levels of government and some collaborative efforts submitted by all segments of society. Unfortunately, approaches on efficiency and effectiveness of health consider often the medical work in the private sector, the public sector emphasis being more on the request coverage and less on how to use the resources. Current crises in Ukraine and the Middle East remind us that it is necessary to keep an increased interest in maintaining investments in military equipment and health but also in staff training. Our premise must be that, despite the limited economic resources available for defense, they are not irreconcilable demands. To satisfy them, the way healthcare is fundamental must be rethought, given its impact on the defense budget. Medical assistance should be seen as an important component of national security.

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We consider it a priority to monitor the amounts allocated to the military health system in order to be used effectively. For this it is necessary to identify and monitor the risks that may negatively influence the effectiveness of the financing mechanism of health services that may generate situations where major objectives of health facilities may remain unrealized, and would have a negative impact on quality of life of the military personnel. Making the financing mechanism more efficient for military medical institutions helps to optimize the overall system health status and financial resources will be used appropriately, leading to a decrease in mortality, disability and increased quality of life of the military personnel. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6. 7.

Deficitul de resurse umane din sănătate şi mobilitatea internaţională a personalului medical în Uniunea Europeană, Bucureşti, 10 martie 2014, material a fost elaborat în cadrul proiectului „Personal medical pentru toţi, toţi pentru personalul medical” DCINSAED/2011/106, proiect realizat cu susţinerea financiară a Uniunii Europene. Conţinutul materialului cade în responsabilitatea partenerilor proiectului şi nu poate fi privit în nici o circumstanţă ca reflectând poziţia oficială a Uniunii Europene; Strategia Naţională de Sănătate 2014-2020; PROGRAMUL DE GUVERNARE 2013-2016 (http://media.hotnews.ro/media_server1/document-2012-12-20-13852506-0programul-guvernare-usl-2013-2016.pdf); Ordonanţa de urgenţă nr. 2/2014 pentru modificarea şi completarea Legii nr. 95/2006 privind reforma în domeniul sănătăţii, precum şi pentru modificarea şi completarea unor acte normative (http://lege5.ro/Gratuit/gm4tamrvhe/ordonanta-de-urgenta-nr-22014-pentru-modificarea-si-completarea-legii-nr-95-2006-privind-reforma-indomeniul-sanatatii-precum-si-pentru-modificarea-si-completarea-unor-actenormative); Radu P. - “Finanţarea serviciilor de sănătate”, Editura Universitară „Carol Davila", Bucureşti, 2008 ; Zegreanu I., - Costin D. “Politicile sociale de sănătate în Uniunea Europeană” În revista: Clujul Medical, 2010, vol. LXXXIII – Supliment 1; Murgea M.N. - “Modalităţi de finanţare a sistemelor de sănătate”, Editura Universitară „Carol Davila", Bucureşti 2008

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THE PROJECT TEAM MANAGEMENT Lucian Dragoş POPESCU Colonel, Associate professor PhD, „CAROL I” National Defense University [email protected] Abstract: The given paper focuses on the factor which plays a major role in the adequate functioning of organizations and in the running and ending a project, and that is the human resources that are the most important part of a project. People represent the main resource of any organization as well as the most costly and the safest resource. Keywords: project management, project team, organizational planning

The project concept is a non-repetitive process which accomplishes a new, welldefined quantity within a specialized organization. „The project is a unique specific action, made up of a logical succession of coordinated and controlled component activities, of diverse nature and of innovative character, achieved methodically and gradually, with limited timelines, resources and expenditures, and having the aim of successfully obtaining complex results, needed in meeting well defined objectives.”1 Thus, we can run a project for any enterprise we may envision. On a daily basis, we can call a project planning a wedding, an event (for instance, the Prom), a holiday. We need to define project management in order to understand what project team management means and how important the former is. In this respect, project management is “a planning, coordinating, achieving and control tool of modern industrial, commercial, social, cultural and political structures2. As we well know, the human resource is essential in any organization and in any project. Human resources are valuable, rare and relatively difficult to be replaced. In this respect, we have in mind the following excerpt: “The human being, through their structure, feelings, mentality, culture, motivation, wishes and, especially, through their conscience, is the greatest mystery of any system, being capable of diminishing, or, on the contrary, increasing any action, process or activity”3. The team represents a group whose members influence each other in order to meet the organization goals. Teams help solve complex issues, they are learning environments as their members teach themselves and learn from each other, value the resource of each member, promote loyalty.4 Human resource management refers to the on-going improvement of the activity of all employees with the aim of meeting organizational objectives. Managing human resources successfully implies the existence of a performance evaluation system, as well as of a motivation and reward giving system for employees. The human resource management Constantin Opran, Sergiu Stan, Managementul proiectelor, Ed.Comunicare.ro, 2008. p.91. Idem, p.9 3 Viorel Cornescu, Management – de la teorie la practica, curs in format electronic la adresa: http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/StiinteADM/cornescu/cap12.htm#48, accesat la data de 25.01.2016 4 Alecsandrina Deaconu, Simona Podgoreanu,Lavinia Rasca, Factorul uman si performantele organizaţiei, curs în format electronic la adresa: http://www.biblioteca-digitala.ase.ro/biblioteca/carte2.asp?id=370&idb=, accesat la data de 21.11.2015 1 2

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comprises all management and practice decisions that influence or affect people directly, and that is the human resources that work within an organization5. The project team management is defined as being “a continuous and systematic process of analyzing the human resources required depending on the envisioned goals and the prediction of the latter development in accordance with the medium and long term policy of the project, with the organization through projects, project partners and the parties involved in the project”6. The team management is based on a set of techniques and tools which can be used both proactively and reactively in function of the team needs. The project team management implies “monitoring performance, giving feedback on performance, solving personnel issues”7. Given the economic situation we are facing, as well as the fact that we live through globalization, the workplace has become very stressful, while the organization objectives are getting more and more difficult to be met because of the fact that the personnel does not function in motivating working conditions. Thus, the manager plays a fundamental role within the organization and projects and has “one of their goals reaching the project team members’ maximum potential”8. The manager need have leadership qualities, apply motivation principles with the human resources and the project team, support the competitiveness of the project structures organization and keep the latter adaptability in difficult and crisis situations. Having leadership qualities means being able to lead, influence people’s behavior through psycho-social tools (motivation, implication, meeting objectives, and satisfaction) so that the latter act in accordance with the project performance goals.9 We need to mention the fact that the concept of manager is not the same as leader, who is the main person of leadership. In this respect, we could say that managers are more rigid, bureaucratic, less creative, unlike leaders who tend to act differently that managers do, they get novel results, with certain efficiency, without neglecting the human resource. The leader is type of evolved manager who makes use of the power they have been given with wisdom. The difference between the manager and the leader lies in the way each influences the members of the project team. On one hand, management is seen as an action taken from downwards upwards; it refers to the project team members exclusively and is supported by management functions. On the other hand, leadership “is achieved beyond hierarchic borders and responsibilities and it focuses an all relations with project team members, collaborators, other managers and partners within the project consortium, clients, beneficiaries, users etc”10. The project manager is responsible for defining the activity area of the project, planning activities and establishing the resource needs, organizing resource allocation, accomplishing all the necessary phases of the project and managing possible difficult or crisis situations11. Thinking proactively is essential in crisis situations, as well as managing them correctly. In a crisis, the project manager has the role of monitoring risks and developing answering procedures. The project manager and their team will define a new strategy of running the project that allows an active and successful re-launching of project activities. It is essential that the manager and their team be able to understand the reasons that led to the Stanciu Ştefan, Ionescu Mihaela, Managementul resurselor umane, ed. Comunicare.ro, 2009. p.41 Constantin Opran, Sergiu Stan, op.cit, p. 119 7 http://www.tenstep.ro/MetodologiileTenStep/ProjectManagementProcess/8ManagementulEchipei/814Managem entulEchipeideProiect.aspx, accesat la data de 25.01.2016 8 Constantin Opran, Sergiu Stan, op.cit, p. 120. 9 Idem, p.121. 10 Ibidem. p.121. 11 http://www.fondurile-structurale.com/blog/2010/08/25/fonduri-europene-nerambursabile/ce-inseamnamanager-de-proiect-pe-fonduri-europene-nerambursabile/, accesat la data de 19.11.2015 5 6

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crisis in order to manage it correctly. During a crisis, the project manager should have “financial expertise, emotional intelligence and efficient communication skills”12. The project team management comprises the necessary processes for optimizing project activities. Within the project team management certain interdependent steps need to be followed13: organization planning: identifying, researching and allotting roles in the project, responsibilities and interdependent relations; personnel recruiting that means getting the human resources necessary for achieving the project; team development which presupposes individual and team skills development in order to improve the project performance. Having in mind the fact that a project is a temporary process, it means that both personal and organizational relations of the parties involved in the project are temporary and novel. The management team must pay special attention to techniques that are close this type of relations. In function of the project phase, the effect of such techniques differs respectively and that means that the team involved in the project management need find the best solutions to ensure the efficiency of the team and the expected outcome. In order to understand how project activity optimization processes work, we will be expanding on the phases presented above with the team management. 1. Organizational Planning refers to identifying, researching and allotting roles, responsibilities and establishing relations in the project. The latter can be allotted individually or to a group. What is needed in the organizational planning is the project interface that can be included in one of the following categories: the organizational interface (formally and informally reports the interdependence relations among various elements of the organization), the technical interface (formally and informally reports the interdependent relations among various technical subject matters), the interpersonal interface (formally and informally reports interdependence relations among the people working in the project)14. Identifying roles and responsibilities of each individual represents the effect of the techniques employed in the planning process. Most roles and responsibilities pertain to the decisional committee involved in the project, to the project manager and to other members of the management team. Naturally, projecting roles and responsibilities need be correlated with the purpose of the project. The personnel management plan represents another element obtained following planning and it describes when and how human resources move to and out of the project team. Such a plan can be formal or informal, detailed or drafted, based on the project needs. 2. Personnel recruitment involves hunting the human resources necessary to work in the project. In this respect, a recruitment plan is required with the entire personnel needed in the project. In the case when the management team is capable of influencing personnel recruitment, the peculiarities of potential employees need to be taken into account such as: former work experience of the candidate, personnel interests, personnel characteristics, availability, competences and skills. Recruiting personnel can be achieved in several ways, such as external negotiation and recruitment. As far as negotiation is concerned, the project management team might negotiate with the manager responsible functionally in order to make sure that the project will get the Constantin Opran, Sergiu Stan, op.cit, p. 122. Idem, p.123. 14 Idem, p.125. 12 13

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appropriate personnel in due time or with other management teams of the project within the current organization in order to find and allot external specialized resources in accordance with the requirements15. The other method, namely external recruitment can be employed to hire individuals or groups for achieving project activities. This type of recruiting is used when there are personnel gaps within the organization and personnel are needed for running the project.16 3. Team development means “intensifying the abilities of the decision-making committee to contribute as individuals, and intensifying team abilities to work as a team”17. Individual development is essential in developing the entire team so that project objectives can be met successfully. Inputs in developing the project team18: - Personnel projecting – implicitly defines available individual and group competences that will be essential in running the project. - The project plan – describes the technical context within which the team works. - The personnel management plan – the human resources strategy with the interdependence among project team members and the tasks allotted to each of them, in accordance with the project requirements. - Performance reporting – offers the answer to the project team regarding the performance of the project plan - External reporting (feedback) – the project team needs to report back periodically to the expectations of those outside the project. Outputs in the project team development refer to improving performances that can affect several domains of the project such as: improving individual performance (it allows an individual to carry out their tasks more effectively), improving the team behavior (it allows the team members to allot more time of their efforts to technical activities), improving individually or as a group competences that help identify and develop better means of working within the project19. Individual development starts with individual motivation that is essential in any project, in any organization in order for the given person to carry out their goals which, implicitly, lead to meeting the project objectives. Motivation is the amount of inner and outer impulses that initiate and drive human behavior toward a purpose. Once the latter is met, it will generate meeting another need. CONCLUSIONS In any organization, motivating human resources should be both extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation refers to income, bonuses, while intrinsic motivation refers to motivation from within the individual; it is “a natural tendency to search and to be challenged (in the way of employing abilities) with the aim of meeting one’s individual interest”20. When intrinsically motivated, one does not need outer incentives. Motivation is essential in getting excellence and that is why people should be motivated both extrinsically and intrinsically.

Idem, pp.127-128. Ibidem. p.128 17 Ibidem, p.129 18 Ibidem. p.129 19 Ibidem. p.129 20 Cace Corina, Psihologia educaţiei, Teorie, metodologie şi practică, , ed.ASE, Bucureşti, 2007 p.86 15

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

2. 3. 4.

5. 6.

7.

Alecsandrina Deaconu, Simona Podgoreanu,Lavinia Rasca, Factorul uman si performantele organizaţiei, curs în format electronic la adresa: http://www.bibliotecadigitala.ase.ro/biblioteca/carte2.asp?id=370&idb= accesat la data de 21.11.2015. Cace Corina, Psihologia educaţiei, Teorie, metodologie şi practică, Ed. ASE, Bucureşti, 2007 Constantin Opran, Sergiu Stan, Managementul proiectelor, Ed.Comunicare.ro, 2008. Viorel Cornescu, Management – de la teorie la practica, curs in format electronic la adresa: http://ebooks.unibuc.ro/StiinteADM/cornescu/cap12.htm#48 accesat la data de 11.01.2016. Stanciu Ştefan, Ionescu Mihaela, Managementul resurselor umane, Ed. Comunicare.ro, 2009 http://www.fondurile-structurale.com/blog/2010/08/25/fonduri-europenenerambursabile/ce-inseamna-manager-de-proiect-pe-fonduri-europenenerambursabile/, accessed on 19.11.2015. http://www.tenstep.ro/MetodologiileTenStep/ProjectManagementProcess/8Manageme ntul Echipei/814ManagementulEchipeideProiect.aspx, accesat la data de 25.01.2016.

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COST MANAGEMENT - SUPPORT FOR AN EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT Mirela PUŞCAŞU Associate Professor, PhD., CAROL I National Defence University [email protected] Abstract: Work on cost management is based on consideration of factors such as the size of the organization, objectives aimed by the management through administration accounting etc. and involves identifying cost bearers and calculation units, determining the costs, documents system, record forms necessary for identifying, collecting and acquiring data on expenditures and reporting deviations in budgetary control. Full cost calculation can act as an alert indicator, unit fixed costs are prone to substantial fluctuations from one period to another. Management decisions cause the highlighting of the fluctuated quantities and resort to calculation of the unit cost for quantifying the consequences of their own decisions. Classification of costs as fixed costs and variable costs, in order to take into account the influence of variations in quantity, lends itself to optimization calculations and is a tool for making overall policy decisions. Management would lack the necessary information which might help in decision making whether at the organizational level, it would not make use of the costs specific methods, and now in the current conditions it is necessary to pay more attention to this field in order to reduce and rationalize costs. An accurate estimate of costs provides a solid basis for the control and management decisions. Cost estimates establish a tool to support decision making on goals with the available resources. Keywords: costs, management, resources, project, organization

INTRODUCTION A complex process, cost management involves contractual management and also commercial (payment terms of the contract, cash management, relations with contractors, etc). Cost analysis tasks usually fall under the direct control of the management team. Costs can be described in many ways, some of them with obvious meaning, without feeling the need to explain (the cost of materials, labor costs, etc), but also some for which are used less frequently met terms. The total estimated cost base - the base investment cost – is made of various items of expenditure called exceptional costs or costs below the line (provisions relating to fluctuations in the exchange rate, increased inflationary costs and other contingencies). The increase of any cost element due to inflationary pressures on prices of supplied materials and equipment and salary increases, is called inflationary increase costs, expressed typically as an annual percentage rate. Direct costs are those costs directly attributable to any operations or tasks (time consumption of a person engaged in a particular activity can be classified as direct consumption, because its cost can be identified, registered and assigned directly to execution or costs of materials, components and services that can be directly attributed to a particular activity). Variable costs are those costs that vary directly with the volume of work effectively executed (using a larger volume of resources leads to an increase in the activity rate, by default appears a different rate of variable costs). Any economic activity (execution activity management, general administration, personnel management and social and medical protection, office space, facilities and services, 239


managerial accounting, designated areas for production and services of professional training, heating, lighting and maintenance), record costs. The organization formed specifically for the purpose of execution of a certain activity faces general costs which may not be distributed, usually, directly on a single operation or a single project, such costs being called overhead costs, even if the costs are indirect. Fixed costs are those costs that remain almost unchanged, being recorded regardless of the volume of activity (Illustration: managerial staff salaries indirectly involved in the execution or production). It can not be excluded that most indirect costs are likely to be also fixed costs. Rules-based costing or standard cost method is a system in which cost data are calculated with the help of standard consumer rules for materials and workmanship. These standard rules are average values approximated for working conditions considered to be normal (cost of the work of people with the name identical functions within an organization could invariably be calculated at the same hourly rate, even if individually, some are paid much more and some much less than normal rates). Usually, standard costs are used for estimates, budgets and tabulation of the day's costs, thus eliminating intention to take into account fluctuations from day to day in differences in salary for the assigned personnel with the same trade or profession or in prices of materials. From time to time cost data recorded in the current organization are analyzed and compared with the current norms, any differences resulting in deviations. Deviation is any difference from a planned or budgeted amount and the actual amount recorded after production operation or planned event. But even if the deviation is a term relating to costs, it can also refer to a deviation from the course of execution of the project. If deviations are significant, then it is necessary to introduce new cost rules. Negative deviations are very important, detected and reported early enough they support, especially as time, taking corrective action. Besides, detecting, analyzing and reporting misconducts respect the principle of management by exception. The activity itself is preceded naturally by a cost management that understood and applied to according to the principles, takes effect on costs already incurred or budget committed. In another sense it is only a chronological accounting of costs incurred and which exercised too late no longer will have any effect. "Indirect costs are a real burden on the costs of a project and have to be supported for each and every active day in the life cycle of the project"1. Therefore, minimizing such costs is a necessary measure to be considered, especially in situations in which the limits are surpassed, because almost inevitable the indirect costs record exceeding directly proportional to prolongation of the execution. The size of the indirect costs of an organization depends on how it is structured and managed, because when it comes to overcoming the usual average, the organization is at a disadvantage against competitors in a market sensitive to prices, reaching to seek customers or new contracts. Example of ways to minimize indirect costs:  Reclassification of certain indirect costs in the direct category. Costs may be defined differently from one organization to another, depending on their economic activity, so the same cost can be considered direct in an organization and indirect in another (the cost of office supplies and prints are considered typically indirect costs, but prints and requisites specific for a given project could be accepted by the beneficiary as a direct expense. The beneficiary treats certain expenses, such as travel expenses, costs of 1

Dennis LOCK, Manual Gower de management de proiect, Editura Codecs, 2004, p. 279.

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international calls and other administrative expenses associated with a particular project, so that they can be recorded and charged to his account. But for these costs to be accepted for settlement, negotiation activity takes place when the contract is concluded. And even if individually these costs don't have a justifiable value, the total can record significant savings.  Revision of costs and indirect salary expenses. The intention is to reduce indirect costs by eliminating levels of management and administrative posts with resources consuming and no results, objective applicable to all types of organizations in many ways, not only in the case of project management. In this respect special attention must be given to all managers and administrative staff. Effective management of other assets, and eliminating waste can control the other forms of expenditure.  Completing the work on time or ahead of schedule. The works completed on time, assume indirect costs within budget, but for any time delay to occur additional indirect costs appear, that must be absorbed. Measures to reduce costs: o Drastic management actions not agreed by subordinates or with fewer ill effects. o Monitoring of costs involved by buying equipment and materials. Materials and equipment have usually quite a large share in total project costs, so cost planning and reporting systems must use data based on costs incurred, ie budgeted cost and actual cost of each purchase. Amount paid over the budgeted impose cost accounting system to record the cost of these purchases revealing any overrun of budgeted expenditures. o It is very important that the procedures include appropriate quality control on materials and equipment specifications for accuracy and precision, without being subject to possible ambiguities. Also, rigorous procurement methods are very important, taking into account that they include competitive tendering and careful consideration of competing bids. Clear procedures for authorizing purchases should not be neglected so that each payment is carefully checked before being approved and signed. o Setting data sources for the budget through: - carefully checking the smallest details, the base for the calculation of the budget and actual costs calculation base. In case of any discrepancy, you can not make a fair comparison, which is quite true in the choice of tasks or categories of activities, but also moments of time for which costs are calculated. - rapid collection of data from data sources for effective costs during the life cycle of the project. Any unfavorable trend can be detected so, in time, correction measures can be taken. As for the direct labor costs, they must be considered following the analysis of the time sheets at one stage. Based on these records, accounting system establishes costs, without exceeding limits on data processing, if effective use of such data is desired. Budgeting payment statements expected from contractors and subcontractors is properly planned according to the timing of their receipt, data that can be calculated by comparing the relevant tasks of the timetable for the project and payment terms agreed for contracts. Cost effective data collection for such payment cases is possible at any time, totaling payments with payment statements received but not paid. If payment statements by some contractors are delayed, provisioning expenses are added, ie preliminary costs, above the actual costs to avoid any errors of omission. For the supply of materials and equipment, acquisitions must be budgeted to coincide with the planned dates for the orders. It is advisable to collect and add up the costs incurred under orders, not actually invoiced costs, ie adding value to all purchase orders as they are issued. Bills are determining the final actual costs, but the possibility exists that billing data is not available quickly enough to control costs decisions. There is the possibility that in such cases, invoices for payment arrive long after completing the activity, generating financial management problems. 241


Considering the above it is very clear that the existence, for each organization, is required of a strategy of cost estimation and resource allocation for a permanent improvement with a coherent multi-annual program and an order of priorities. To put into practice are taken into account the cost estimation and cost calculation, which are different notions. Costing calculation is an activity after the fact, based on data recorded in the books, and finds its way in the implementation of the budget and accounting expenses cost carriers. In costing calculation monetary units are used. Estimated costs ante factum is an activity based on a set of principles and methods set out above. The activity in itself uses data established by activity costing, finding their place in the estimation of resources costs. In the process of costing estimation are used multiples of the monetary division. Reported at the time of costing, we can identify two types of costs: effective cost, calculated after consuming the processes or activities - costing calculation and cost defaults or forecast, calculated prior to the processes or activities implementation that require estimating resource consumption, established based on technical and economic studies, ie a cost estimate. CONCLUSIONS Good cost management is one of the basic requirements ensuring the successful management of an organization. Moreover, the results obtained by it after analyzing the cost have significant share in the effectiveness of achieving organizational objectives. Resource allocation and efficient use link their total costs to the produced benefits. Multiple needs, to be covered with few resources, bring greater attention to the choice of methods of costs forecasting and implementation of measures for efficient allocation and use of financial resources. In case of emergence of budget constraints targets must be prioritized, according to the possibilities, which implies a system for estimating costs which is viable and scientifically designed. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Ovidiu, Nicolescu, Ion, Metodologii manageriale, Editura Universitară, 2008 Ovidiu, Nicolescu, Ion, Verboncu, Fundamentele managementului organizatiei, Editura Universitară, 2008 Aurelian Simionescu, Florian Buşe, Nicolae Bud, Managementul proiectelor, Ed. Economică, 2008 Dennis LOCK, Manual Gower de management de proiect, Editura Codecs 2004 Nicolescu Ovidiu, Strategii manageriale de firmă, Bucureşti, Editura Economică, 1998 Păun, M., Analiza sistemelor economice, Editura All, Bucureşti, 1997 J. Bremond, A. Geledon, Dicţionar economic şi social, Editura Expert, Bucureşti, România, 1995 Ivanciu Nicolae – Văleanu, Istoria gândirii economice, Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1992

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THE ROLE AND PLACE OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE IN THE PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CAREER OF MILITARY PERSONNEL Iliuta VLAD Colonel, Military Technical Academy, [email protected] Abstract: The intensive way of foreign language study- military operations language, lasting a minimum of 60 hours in courses of career officers and NCOs , which runs in applications schools for weapons constitutes a breakthrough in language learning . Bibliographical material for these modules are allocated by the American and British partners; Using invited military associates intructors in foreign language centers module for specialist military terminology in the English language intensive courses for basic and advanced, are limited to 60 hours / year school / instructor. Keywords: foreign language, career development, military personnel, Forces Structure, capabilities, operational

LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE, AN ASSET FOR CAREER PROMOTION In any modern army at the beginning of the millennium, it is a sine qua non condition that the entire military personnel and others, know at least one foreign language. And we're not talking only about senior management or central structures. Natural order of conducting military actions today "compels us" to get into contact with people of different nationalities and cultures. The statistics resulting from the execution of this kind are very clear: candidates with a proficient or advanced command of various languages have priority to occupy leadership positions that constitute the obligatory points of passage for evolution in his military career, and evolves much better than their less "gifted" in terms of language skills. Quality education provided by education systems military relies on innovation and diversification promoted by teachers, leaders educational respects individual autonomy and is based on institutional autonomy, being oriented dialogue and partnerships towards achieving good results, involving educational participation of all stakeholders, internal and external, highly professionalized ensure valuing human resources and structures adapted to the needs of future defense and national security information. 1 At present, the most requested languages are English (though it can now be called business language instead of language) , German and French. Italian can also be assigned an important place. There is no correlation between job and foreign language so as participating in multinational operations between the structure and the foreign language or geographical area of operations between served and foreign language. For example , anyone wishing to participate in international missions should speak the foreign language used in that situation very well. The necessity of foreign language learning in military institutions The professional serviceman is a highly-qualified person, characterized by competence; responsibility and team spirit. Over the past years, however, English knowlege has become such a common element that it does not stand for an advantage when filling in a position but for mandatory Col.O. STĂNICĂ, PhD– “ Global success of europe 2020 – remodelling traditional and military education systems?”, accessed on http://www.spodas.ro/revista/index.php/revista/article/viewFile/7/8, p.3 1

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requirement. Therefore, mastering internationally-acknowledged foreign languages such as German or French is a strong point for a candidate’s profile. A candidate who has not mastered any foreign language has poor chances of employment or rising military career . In many areas, despite the strong technical or professional compatibility , ignorance of foreign languages may result in a failure to engage in the advantage of a weaker candidate prepared professionally but with better linguistic knowledge . Ability professional military expertise is the result of appropriate theoretical training in various specialized institutions and a long experience in the field. In other words, the professional is a recognized authority in its field. Its expertise underpins the objective standards of professional competence, professional rig used for the tie. Intellectual content of the military profession asks the person concerned to devote much of his professional life for their own training and development. Ability training time required varies in relation to the position in the hierarchical structure of the military, the specific function (job) technique employed and the complexity of the Army. Ability military features gained through the training and development is universal in the sense that its essence is not affected by changes in space-time. 2 Romanian Army's current transformations are imposed by clear changes triggered at the beginning of the millennium and century on the main dimensions of the human resources remain the fundamental excellence. From this perspective, it is absolutely necessary to be aware that whatever weapon and specialty military, it will not be able to join the military organization to which it belongs, with her thorough knowledge of at least two languages, and that in addition to acquiring practical skills enforcement of fire with all types of weapons, and learning techniques under immediate riposte speed or temporary isolation, all amid exceptional training. Constituting the basis on which the whole process of preparation for battle , language education is a component of the educational process . This process capitalizes on all forms of individual and collective activity taking place to train , develop and maintain communication skills after the four skills of military personnel . Throughout the existence of humanity, armed conflicts have requested military involved a complex set of linguistic communication skills , expertise manifestation driving habits and skills and practical military base acquired in training and education . All these skills , knowledge and skills are acquired by a process -oriented training to achieve objectives. Language learning by soldiers in military educational institutions Language learning is an activity deliberately established and run mainly to improve linguistic communication development. Language learning is work and military who organized or carried out independently contribute to achieving physical comfort of those who practice them, establish civilized social relations and lead to achieving good results in activities at any level. For this activity constituted as a distinct and material curricular area equipped with hours for the common core curriculum and differentiated benefits, especially students of military academies. Language learning in military educational institutions compulsory category is provided in the curricula, which takes place systematically and continuously throughout the period of the educational process and is driven by military and civilian personnel with specialized training. It should not escape one’s notice that the XXI century military students are connected and multifunctional, autonomous. They learn a lot of new things, just by accessing the Internet. Download and upload files, browsing and online conversations, public and create almost any international language. In education, they impose a pedagogical paradigm shift Dr. Petre Duţu ş.a. (coord), Profesionalizarea Armatei României în contextul integrării în N.A.T.O. accessed on http://www.armyacademy.ro/reviste/2_2004/r26.pdf, p.6

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from a teacher-centered approach based on training to a student-centered interactive one. The present-day generation thinks it is "cool" to be smart. The question is "What motivational factors guide this generation?" Obviously, they want freedom in everything they do! Led scientifically sound and conducted systematically and continuously, language learning is the basis on which the whole process of preparing for participation in military actions in theaters, pivot the other components of education. Its scope determined by the magnitude of the educational process includes multiple teaching learning, consolidation and improvement of language skills on the four skills, acultare, speaking, reading, writing, which are fundamental to the formation of specific qualities. At the same time, language learning is a lifelong activity, built and deployed in line with previous cognitive peculiarities specific to various weapons and military specialties or with the specific venue. Including related disciplines by purpose and objectives differentiated structures and methodologies, subsystem "military terminology" integral part of learning foreign languages, as the compliance requirements, as character prospective and dynamic in line with the educational ideal, with general trends of development of society and the army, closely related to social order and military, with the current state of the army. You also need to ensure superior performance targeted by an ascending line for the younger generation and active military personnel, the performance of the original purpose for Romanian military personnel and professionalisation final. However, the role of language learning in career development military must be subordinate to the overall design of preparation for battle, but also the principles, methods and means specific military education, to form modern fighters, using unique content and a specific area of activity. Rank language education in career planning military On the other hand, career, word that comes from the French, Romanian language is understood as a profession, occupation, and by extension whether good situation, either position in society. It differs from careerism, perceived as a tendency to arrive at any cost and by any means. English dictionary defines as a human resources job for which you were trained and you expect to do all my life. Current meaning of the concept of career is linked to the idea of evolution or advancement of an individual in a particular field in order to get more money, more responsibility, more prestige and more power. 3 Term military career is assigned by different authors, multiple meanings: seen in terms of mobility, the rise in military organization, career is seen as "progress"; regarded as occupation, it is estimated that some occupations considered a career (military, teachers, military commanders), while other occupations are "designed" as positions (manager, driver, cook, etc.); In another vision, a military career is perceived as "a succession of life-long" or a "sequence of functions" in ascending order of prestige by passing soldier in an orderly, rules established after. In our view , career and career management must be addressed in the light of progress made in human resource management and integral part of individual career management . Human resources - the skills, creativity and spirit of engagement - have become the cornerstone of competitiveness, both at organizational level and at national level. We believe that , with regard to military career development , English language should be a "must do" whatever category of staff, for several reasons , including: a. English is widely spoken by NATO servicemen. Team workers with different mother tongues who deploy use English as a lingua franca on their missions; b. Nowadays English does not stand only for a mere target language, but it turned out to become a “business” language. 3

E. Merce – “Managementul carierei”, accessed on http://www.armyacademy.ro/reviste/2_2004/r26.pdf, p.2

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c. US technical innovations are leading military and economic development, so English is a "must"; d. Among all NATO countries that have English as the official language, English knowledge may trigger one’s immediate opportunities in the near future; e. Finally, English knowledge gives you the chance to study abroad and thus the possibility to develop various skills unlike those who never leave their home countries. An analysis of these data leads naturally to the following conclusions: - Our country is involved at different levels in the theaters; participation is diverse in that it employed both men and combat equipment; - Romanian troops acting under different commands (Greek, Belgian etc.) which means both appropriate military training and an adequate level of English, used as a means of communication within these multinational forces; - Romanian military structures participate in military missions (eg in Afghanistan); - There is a commitment from our country to operational theater missions. This proves our country consistency in systematic and active involvement in solving the tense situation and conflict in different parts of the world. In addition to all these, one should mention the actual availability of Romania to act, together with other countries in a multinational coalition to fight international terrorism. Romania also developed and keeps developing bilateral military relations, both with NATO members and other states. On the other hand, with regard to language learning, researcher A.W. Bates stated some time ago that "Newer technologies, such as computers and video-conferencing are not necessarily better (or worse) for teaching and learning compared to older technologies ... they are just different. .. the choice of technology must not take into account novelty, but learners’ needs and interests as well as the context in which they work."4 . Nowadays teacher’s and trainer’s difficulty lies in choosing the appropriate technology for the target group. Technology is the tool to dodge the usual social constraints such as office workers and freedom of the search tool to change job, to build his own way and to express themselves. All this is possible in military educational institutions and foreign language centers, where the average number of hours per academic year is 60 hours for an instructor. The American and British partners provide bibliographic resources for linguistic module training. In conclusion beside English, Romanian servicemen speak other foreign languages too, so they are able to communicate with other military states participating in international missions. Moreover, they are able to understand the orders and tasks they have to carry out; having appropriate military training (complying with NATO principles, rules, standards and procedures); and specialist training in accordance with NATO standards.

A.W. Bates - “Technology, open learning and distance education; London; Routledge, 1995, accessed on http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08109029808629309, p.1

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1.

Col.dr. O. STĂNICĂ– “ Global success of europe 2020 – remodelling traditional and military education systems?”, accessed on http://www.spodas.ro/revista/index.php/revista/article/viewFile/7/8, p.3 2. E. Merce – “Career Management”, accessed on http://www.armyacademy.ro/reviste/2_2004/r26.pdf, p.2 3. “Technology, open learning and distance education; London; Routledge, 1995, accessed on http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08109029808629309, p.1 Sava, Nicu-Ionel ş.a. (coord), Army and society, Collection of texts, Bucharest, Publisher Info-Team, 1998, pp. 240-250 Dr. Petre Duţu ş.a. (coord), Romanian Army professionalization in the context of integration in N.A.T.O. accessed on http://www.armyacademy.ro/reviste/2_2004/r26.pdf, p.6 4. www.nato.int 5. www.act.nato.int

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PREPARATION TERRITORY FOR DEFENSE, CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE OF NATIONAL Bebe I. DIACONU Lieutenant colonel engineer PhD student, National Defence University "Carol I" [email protected] Abstract: Preparing for defense of the national territory is essential to security and national security , vital functions of a company's existence . Infrastructure used to defend national territorial, based on criteria established in this regard, critical infrastructure is of interest to national defense system. It owns a number of vulnerabilities, resulting mainly from human action. Critical infrastructure protection is the result of appropriate measures to manage the hazards and threats to their adopted through a national strategy in this regard. Keywords: infrastructure, territory, defense, critical, national.

INTRODUCTION National security environment is the result of interaction and interdependence of its components (economic, military, social, political, informational, cultural, diplomatic and environmental). This environment can be in one of the following stages: normal condition, critical condition or state of crisis. Preparing territorial defense "component of the national security"1 of Romania involves itself very complex and lengthy incumbent state authorities, the relevant institutions, economic operators, as well as some of the institutions with responsibilities in the area to be determined and is performed in peacetime to support the effort of defense in case of emergency or war. This paper aims to examine the doctrinal point of view, the work of preparing the territory for defense, by analogy with other components of the national security system, in order to define objectives, to avoid overlapping them and to streamline processes and concepts that govern them. This scientific approach starts by defining some terms so that later we can analyze the degree of similarity between them. Therefore, in accordance with Law no. 477/2003 on preparing the national economy and territory for defense, as amended by Law 329/2009, this activity is defined as " ...  whole set of measures and actions for achieving the necessary strategic and operative serving the needs of the national forces defense and to protect people and goods, including those belonging to national heritage against the effects of the destructive actions of the aggressor executed by classical and nuclear, biological and chemical."2 On the other hand, according to Law no. 45 of 1 July 1994 (updated on 6 May 2011), Romania's national defense, territorial infrastructure, is: " ...  assembly works and

Law no. 477/2003 on preparing the national economy and territory for defense, as amended by Law 329/2009, art. 1; 2 Ibid art. 34, paragraph ( 1); 1

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development that can be used for national defense purposes. Preparing land for national defense is ensured in accordance with the law."3 Cognitive method we identified national legislative framework governing the establishment and work of national critical infrastructure protection. Document splash of this activity is the Government Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010 (the Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010) regarding the identification, designation and protection of critical infrastructures. According to GEO no. 98/2010: " ...  national critical infrastructure (hereinafter ICN) is an asset, system or part thereof located on national territory, which is essential for maintaining vital functions of society, health, safety, security welfare economic times and people whose disruption or destruction would have a significant impact nationally because of the failure to maintain those functions".4 To achieve the objective of this scientific approach, we analyze the analogy terms defined, based on the following hypothesis: if the preparation of the national territory for defense or territorial infrastructure used for national defense purposes, is essential for maintaining one of the vital functions of society in this case safety or national security, then they can be classified as national critical infrastructures. Using the method of induction logic, this hypothesis is confirmed considering the provisions of Law no. 477 of 12 November 2003 on the preparation of the national economy and territory for defense, as amended by Law 329/2009, according to which: "Preparing the national economy and territory for defense is part of national security and is based on the Constitution".5 To determine the actual proportions of territorial infrastructure used the report to defend and protect national critical infrastructure facilities will be described below under the laws incidents in the field, the criteria by which they can be established. According to GEO no. 98/2010, national critical infrastructure targets (ICN) and European (ICE), are set by state public authorities, on the basis of proceedings, and crosssector criteria and The list of sectors under national critical infrastructure sectors / Critical Infrastructure European (ICN / ICE).6 The sectoral criteria and critical thresholds relating to national critical infrastructure, have been established under Joint Order no. M.37 / 111 / 10,216 / 150 / 107,101 / 13,026 / 20117, for all the sectoral ministries and were specified by GEO no. 98/2010, as follows: " ...  (3) cross-cutting criteria underlying the identification ICN / ICE are: a) criterion victims, assessed in terms of the potential number of fatalities or injuries; b) economic effects criterion assessed according to the extent of economic loss and / or degradation of products or services, including any effects on the environment; c) the criterion of the effect on the population, assessed in terms of its impact on confidence, physical suffering and disruption of daily life, including the loss of essential services. (4) cross-cutting criteria are not cumulative to identify ICN / ICE. "8 Law no. 45 of 1 July 1994 (updated on 6 May 2011), the National Defense of Romania, art. 20; Government Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010 concerning the identification, designation and protection of critical infrastructures , art. 3, letter a); 5 Law no. 477/2003 on preparing the national economy and territory for defense, as amended by Law 329/2009, art. 1, par. ( 1); 6 Government Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010 concerning the identification, designation and protection of critical infrastructure, annex. 1; 7 Order no . M.37 / 111 / 10,216 / 150 / 107,101 / 13,026 published in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no. 510 of 19.07.2011; 3 4

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Based on these specifications, each ministry establishes its critical national infrastructures, according to Government Decision no. 1.198 / 2012 on the designation of Critical National Infrastructure, as amended and supplemented by Government Decision no. 639/2015, detailed objectives that can not be public, which are confidential in accordance with the National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection.9 Infrastructure upgrade territorial responsibility objectives / critical interest to the national defense system falls to the institutions of defense, national security and public order. After obtaining the opinion of the General Staff of the Romanian Army ANRSPS record these goals in The catalog territorial infrastructure objects of importance to national defense system. Based Catalogue - framework, approved by the Supreme Council of National Defence no. 15/1999, updated Situation territorial infrastructure objects important for national defense system, which is managed by ministries and local authorities. Considering this scientific endeavor ended, we go through further coordinates the direction of research towards addressing the territorial infrastructure critical national level, in terms of other vital functions of society that the health and safety of persons and property of any kind, which may be threatened by the destructive effects of an aggressor be equipped with conventional weapons or type nuclear, biological or chemical. Another fundamental document of national affecting critical infrastructure, National Defense Strategy of the Country for the period 2015 - 2019, considers a domestic perspective, the need to provide security objectives such as: " ...  - strengthening the capacity of national defense designed to ensure the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Romania and the Romanian people's security; ... - Ensuring the effectiveness of national prevention and crisis management, internal and external, military or civilian; ... ... - Strengthening security and protection of critical infrastructure - energy, transport and cyber and food security and the environment; "10 As seen in semantic terms, the country's National Defense Strategy, has the strands deterring and combating hazards caused by internal or external aggressors and protect critical infrastructure. The latter course of action, is found in The National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection, in 2011, that a " ...  climate of stability and security is subject to the proper functioning of the networks of critical infrastructure protection necessary for their being an essential to avoid serious disruption to society. "11 Critical infrastructure protection activities at national level is achieved through a set of management measures "hazards and threats to critical infrastructure, which could be grouped as follows: - cosmic dangers and threats, climatic and geophysical studies; - dangers and threats resulting from human activity; - dangers and threats against critical infrastructures in cyberspace. "12 Ibid art. 9 par. ( 1) - (4 ); National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection , pt. 5. Aim and strategic objectives to achieve critical infrastructure protection principles; 10National Defense Strategy of the country for the period 2015 - 2019 , pt. 22; 11 National Critical Infrastructure Protection Strategy, approved by H. G. no. 718 of 13 July 2011, published in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no. 555 / 4.VIII.2011, p.11 ; 12 A., Vilciu, I., Chiuta, E. Anghel, critical power systems infrastructure management, Electra Publishing House, Bucharest, 2009 , p.64 ; 8 9

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These measures are transposed into National Strategy On Critical Infrastructure Protection, in 2011, as four strategic objectives, listed as follows: 1. "ensuring the uniformity of procedures for the identification, designation and protection of critical infrastructures national and European 2. setting up and operationalization of the national early warning networks by integrating all existing organizational and informational capabilities; 3. correct assessment of the level of vulnerability of critical infrastructures and identifying the measures required for preventive intervention and its reduction; 4. further cooperation of national, regional and international level in the field of critical infrastructure protection. "13 However, at national level it has been established Coordination Centre for Critical Infrastructure Protection (the Center) pursuant to Directive 2008/114 / EC of the Council on the identification and designation of European Critical Infrastructure and the assessment of the need to improve their protection and GEO no. 98/2010. The Centre operates under the Ministry of Interior, is responsible for implementing Government Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010 and providing points of contact with Member States, European Commission, NATO and other international structures. Also for Critical Infrastructure Protection in the EU countries was put into service in 2005, Network Critical Infrastructure Warning Warning Information Network (CIWIN)14. According to the theory supported by the National Defense Strategy of the country, for the period 2015 - 2019, " ...  National security can not be achieved individually by any State, the new challenges of the security environment requiring effective collaboration and efficiency in the mechanisms and formats international cooperation."15 Therefore, membership of international organizations such as NATO, gives Romania additional security involving and solidarity actions rejection of armed conflict or peacekeeping in certain areas unstable political, economic, social, military, religious, etc. NATO, through geographical position bordering the east with countries in conflict politico-military Russian Federation is interested in stationing of forces and means in our country to strengthen the capacity of national defense and deter aggressors to disrupt peace in the area. Preparing for territorial defense, assumed in this case, targets that take into account both its own military potential and that of our partners in NATO to conduct joint military actions in our country. So far, our country were carried out a series of objectives of territorial infrastructure, to ensure capabilities necessary to conduct missions with NATO partners, among them the most important, as follows:  international air base in Mihail Kogalniceanu, Constanta, sorting operations intended for American soldiers in Afghanistan theater of operations;  polygon with infantry training at Babadag, Tulcea;  port of Agigea - South Constanta bridgehead for ensuring NATO to the Black Sea;  missile shield at Deveselu, Olt, consisting of three batteries of interceptor missile SM-3 IB (Standard Missile 3 Block IB type), which will act to defend the South - Eastern Europe;  Integration units of NATO Forces and NATO Force Integration Unit (NFIU) and Multinational Division Headquarters in Bucharest Garrison;

National Strategy for Critical Infrastructure Protection, pt. 5. Aim and strategic objectives; G. Alexandrescu, G., Widow, Critical infrastructures. Threats, threats to them. Protection systems. Publisher National Defence University "Carol I" , Bucharest, 2006, pp. 38-39; 15 Ibidem, pt. 8. 13 14

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 air base Feteşti, Ialomita, the menus, program NATO Security Investment (NSIP - NATO Security Investment Programme), designed to fulfill military facilities over to support missions commands NATO's strategy and investment program Infrastructure Air Base, financed by national funds through multi-role aircraft of the Air Force program aimed at achieving the operational area, airfield and facilities necessary to operate the F-16. Preparing the territory for defense believe that we must take into account that certain targets of interest for the National Defense System, such as communication routes by road, rail, water and air supply lines of electricity, gas and power insurance drinking water infrastructure objectives interact with national and European territorial. As is well known "national defense system comprises: driving forces, resources and infrastructure planning"16, which further demonstrates that the infrastructure territorial defense is one of the most complex infrastructures, but that is marked by a series vulnerabilities, resulting mainly from human action. These vulnerabilities infrastructure territorial defense are hard to avoid, some of which are inherent and others unpredictable, the most important of which we will enumerate below, as follows:  wearing out prematurely due to prolonged exposure to factors such as aggressive without protection or insufficient protection;  obsolescence due to technological change, a new state, which is common for example in telecommunications through the use of optical fiber;  systemic dysfunctions caused by untimely destruction of components by elements of terrorist or organized crime;  economic and social actions with potentially disruptive to the normal functioning of these goals, such as economic crises, strikes and social conflicts due to violation of human rights;  revolutionary leap high technology (high-tech), recognized mainly in the fields of artificial intelligence, aerospace, armament, biotechnology, automation, computer science, nuclear physics, robotics, semiconductors and telecommunications;  development of high-class weapons;  sudden variations in the operation and unexpected change in the initial conditions through the action of disturbing factors unpredictable. Therefore, to manage the hazards and threats to territorial defense infrastructure are required to implement a series of measures, as follows: a) infrastructure of road, rail, water and air includes both military infrastructure and civilian national role to serve the strategic interests of the country and civil society and to link both between areas of the country, and with other Places from abroad. Necessary measures to restore the transport infrastructure and align them with EU standards regarding:  parameters of performance and comfort, speed, safety and environmental protection movement;  connecting the national transport system with the European one;  modernization of railway lines to enable travel speeds in excess of 140 km / h;  rehabilitation of national and local roads;  construction of highways for streamlining and transport streamlining;  modernization of ports and bridges;  extension of the subway etc. b) telecommunications infrastructure, the backbone of the economic sector, its development is a prerequisite for progress of a nation. The telecommunications network is 16

Law no. 45 of 1 July 1994 (updated on 6 May 2011), the National Defense of Romania , art. 6;

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designed to provide secure remote transmission of information (sounds, images, texts, data, multimedia, etc.) between different geographical areas, using electrical or optical signals. To improve telecommunications, certain measures are necessary to recall some of the main ones, as follows:  implementation of a national network, fiber optic cables and regenerative and equipment type SDH "Synchronous Digital Hierarchy"17, to provide backup links between localities;  connecting connections between local regional centers;  use of centers to provide a system of backup communications;  providing access direct-connect communications centers at national fiber-optic network. In terms of infrastructure for territorial defense, intended management processes, protection and logistic mobilization or war, must meet the following minimum conditions, such as:  ensure capacity building of national defense military and civilian personnel, as well as intimidation and rejecting any aggressive actions against our country;  be able to support multinational operations in cooperation with partner countries in the alliance. All these objectives by modernizing the infrastructure used for the defense of national territory can be made as follows:  attracting European Structural and Investment Funds allocated for the period 2014 - 202018, according to the Partnership Agreement between the European Commission and Romania approved on 06/08/2014;  investments made through " ...  NSIP - The NATO Security Investment, to finance objectives and facilities necessary to support the activities of the NATO strategic commands, recognized as exceeding the demands national defense of each member country of NATO"19 and that that " ...  Romania it produces and manages them as the host nation";20  The Major Programs21 that are elaborated in the Ministry of National Defense, under Directive defense planning. It should be noted that nationally, another component of the national security system is the Civil Protection, defined as " ...  an integrated set of specific measures and tasks of organizational, technical, operational, humanitarian and public information, planned, organized and conducted under this law to prevent and reduce the risks of disasters, to protect people, property and the environment against adverse effects of emergencies, armed conflicts and eliminating operational their aftermath and ensure the conditions necessary for survival people affected. "22 To support the activity of Civil Protection, public administration and local, must ensure " ...  capacities intervention specialist, appropriate types of risks facing the territory and population, the response time, regardless of where and when an emergency occurs."23 Communities Commission Decision Europene of number C (2007) 845 of 16.03.2007 laying down the network requirements for the Schengen Information System of the second generation - (SIS II ) (first pillar), section 4.2.; 18 http://fonduri-structurale.ro/Document_Files//Stiri/00016149/odl0q_Bilant%20absorbtie%20FS&C.pdf, accesat la data de 18.02.2016; 19 Law no. 294/2007 on the progress of funded projects in Romania NATO Security Investment Programme, as amended by Law 10/2014, art. 2 lit. a); 20 Law 10/2014 amending and supplementing Law no. 294/2007 on the progress in Romania to projects funded under the NATO Security Investment, art. 2 lit. f ); 21 Law no. 203 / 07.27.2015 on defense planning, art. 9 par. (2 ) lit. b ); 22 Law no. 481/2004 , republished and updated on 29 June 2009, Civil Protection , art. 1 paragraph (1); 23Ibidem, art. 6, paragraph (1); 17

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Type organizational measures to prepare civil protection activities are permanent and are applied gradually in relation to the scale and complexity of the emergency and " ...  intensifies the establishment of the curfew and the declaration of mobilization or war time."24 Civil protection, coordination and control is provided by the General Inspectorate for Emergency Situations of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and at the local level by county inspectorates Inspectorate Bucharest respectively. Objectives and civil protection measures are planned and organized in accordance with normative acts implementing plans and programs approved by CSAT, programs and specialized agencies of the United Nations (UN), NATO and the EU. Planning at the national level the preparation of the territory for defense, is achieved through The Program with the Objectives of Operative Preparation of the Territory for Defense (The Training Program of the Territory), covering the objectives necessary to meet the needs of strategic and operative peacetime with set deadlines and resources to achieve them. The Training Program of the Territory, is the document which is done in peacetime, for a period of four years and includes objectives that are required to meet in case of mobilization or war. The Training Program of the Territory, is compiled by ANRSPS and updated annually based on proposals from the institutions responsible for defense, national security and public order, with the approval of the General Staff. Draft The Training Program of the Territory is submitted to the Government for approval by the Supreme Council of National Defence (CSAT), after which it is attached to The National Economy Mobilization Plan for Defense. The objectives of the training program approved by the territory are included as a priority in their investment programs of central and local public administration authorities and the institutions responsible for defense, national security and public order. CONCLUSIONS Regarding the responsibilities regarding the management of the infrastructure used for territorial defense, they are the responsibility of ministries, the central and local public administration authorities and economic operators, the nature and role of these objectives. Given that national legislation preparatory work territory for defense, territorial infrastructure used for national defense and national critical infrastructure are defined as serving the same purpose, there is a need to harmonize legislation incidents on the phrases used to avoiding duplication of attributions and some misinterpretation. Also, regarding the components of the national security system, on-line training territory for defense and civil protection legislation governing the two activities, it gives us common goals regarding how to protect the population and property of any thus, taking place simultaneously in critical conditions or crisis (emergency, disaster, mobilization or war). These issues, in our view can cause large gaps in the functioning of the two components of the national security system, which will ensure disaster, emergency, mobilization or war, a comprehensive protection of people and property, because their objectives are limited in time and space that are not designed on the basis of methodology and calculations with statistical data that have as reference values , population, capacities goods importance classes etc. As regards , national critical infrastructure , we believe that the strategic level have implemented a concept targeting , implementing the objectives of the national security system

24

Ibidem, art. 6, paragraph (2);

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, to guarantee law "  ...  to life and the right to physical and mental integrity ..." 25 to public and private and public property, according to the Romanian Constitution . BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 25

Constitution , Official Gazette of Romania , Part I , no. 767, Bucharest, 2003; Law no. 45 of 1 July 1994 (updated on 6 May 2011), Romania's national defense; Law no. 477/2003 on preparing the national economy and territory for defense, as amended by Law 329/2009; Law no. 481/2004 , republished and updated on 29 June 2009, on civil protection; Law no. 203 / 07.27.2015 on defense planning , art. 9 para. (2 ) lit. b ); Government Decision no. 370/2004 approving the Methodological Norms for the application of Law no. Republished 477/2003 on the preparation of the national economy and territory for defense; Government Emergency Ordinance no. 98/2010 concerning the identification, designation and protection of critical infrastructures. Transformation Strategy of the Romanian Armed Forces General Staff, Bucharest, 2007; National Critical Infrastructure Protection Strategy , approved by H. G. no. 718 of 13 July 2011 , published in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no. 555 / 4.VIII.2011; National Defense Strategy of the country for the period 2015-2019 , adopted by Parliament Decision no. 33 of 23 June 2015; Order no . M.37 / 111 / 10,216 / 150 / 107,101 / 13,026 published in the Official Gazette of Romania, Part I, no. 510 of 19.07.2011; Decision of the European Commission document C (2007) 845 of 16.03.2007, laying down the network requirements for the Schengen Information System of the second generation - (SIS II) (first pillar); Europe 2020 strategy and implementation status in Romania, European Institute of Romania, Bucharest 2014; C., Stoileşti, Gh., Florea, History of Civil Defense, Ed Porto Franco, 1993; S., Boncu, "European security in change. Challenges and Solutions "Amco Press Publishing House, Bucharest, 1995; A., Cernaianu, territorial infrastructure and military actions, University National Defence "Carol I", Bucharest, 2003; G. Alexandrescu, G., Widow, critical infrastructures. Threats, threats to them. Protection systems. Publisher National Defence University "Carol I", Bucharest, 2006; A., VILCIU, I., Chiuta, E. Anghel, critical power systems infrastructure management, Electra Publishing House, Bucharest, 2009; D. Held, A. Mc. , Grew , D. Goldblatt , J. , Perraton , Global Transformations . Politics, economics and culture, Polirom, Iasi , 2004; H. Mintzberg , The Rise and decline of strategic planning , Publisher Publish, Bucharest, 2008 ; J. , S. Nye , future power , Polirom , Iaşi, 2012; H. Arendt , The Origins of Totalitarianism , Humanitas , Bucharest, 2014; http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2007/issue3/romanian/art3.html; http://www.mae.ro/node/28465; http://2011.europa.md/subpagina/arata/33/Combaterea%20crimei%20organizate; [email protected];

Romanian Constitution, republished , art. 22 , paragraph (1);

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http://fonduri-structurale.ro/Document_Files//Stiri/00016149/odl0q_Bilant%20 absorption % 20FS & C . pdf, accessed on 18.02.2016; Romanian Military Thinking collection from 2007-2015; Bulletin National Defence University "Carol I" collection from 2006-2015; C., Onişor " critical military infrastructure ," published in the Journal of Military Sciences no.1 / 2008; Land Forces journal collection from 2007-2015; Strategic Impact magazine collection in 2007-2015; NATO Review Magazine from 2007-2015. Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian language, Academy Press, edition II, Bucharest, 1996. Universal Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol . I - XVI , Litera , Bucharest, 2010; Encyclopedia political and military - World 2011 Technical Centre Publishing Editorial Army, Bucharest, 2011; Encyclopedia political and military - World 2013 , Rao Publishing House, Bucharest, 2013.

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A TASK-BASED APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING AND ASSESSING Diana IONIŢĂ Associate Professor PhD, Head of Modern Languages Department, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures, University of Bucharest [email protected] Lorena MIHĂEŞ Assistant PhD, Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures, University of Bucharest [email protected] Abstract: The purpose of this article is to find a link between teaching and assessing foreign languages, emphasizing a task-based approach on both levels. Starting from a project coordinated by Dr. Johann Fischer, at the European Modern Languages Center, having as output the guidelines for task-based university language testing, we will provide two case-studies with a view to creating a model of teaching on the one hand, and assessing English, on the other hand, in an authentic environment, with authentic materials and integrated tasks, targeting at two types of learners (students from the Faculty of History and students from the Applied Modern Languages Department). The benefits of such an approach rely on the emphasis on language for specific purposes meeting the learners’ needs for their future profession, by putting them in real-life learning situations. Besides acquiring language competence, students are stimulated to develop interpersonal and integrated communication skills. Keywords: authenticity, integrated skills, flexibility, motivation, involvement

INTRODUCTION The theoretical background for this study is provided by a project developed by the European Center for Modern Languages, named Guidelines for Task-Based LSP Testing at University (G.U.L.T., 2009-2011), coordinated by Dr. Johann Fischer. We will show two case-studies in order to prove the validity of this approach for language teaching, learning and assessing, both at the level of regular exams and for BA diploma paper for students from Sciences, Technology and Humanities, other than Foreign Languages faculties. Task-Based Approach Revisited Guidelines for task-based university language testing (Johann Fischer et al., 2011)1, as the project output, introduces a new perspective on the task-based method, involving several specific tasks based on the five integrated skills (reading, listening, writing, speaking and spoken interaction), using real-life situations meant to train students for their future profession. The aim is to develop a framework to languages for specific purposes, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (B2-C1 level).2 One appropriate key-term – holistic – describes this approach perfectly, since this method matches the receptive skills – in a preliminary stage – with the productive skills, Johann Fischer, Catherine Chouissa, Stefania Dugovicova, and Anu Virkkunen-Fullenwider. Guidelines for task-based university language testing. European Centre for Modern Languages / Council of Europe Publishing: 2011 2 “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment,” Council of Europe, 2011, accessed February, 02, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Cadre1_en.asp. 1

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individual with co-operative learning and assessment processes. The complexity of this new model relies on combining a set of specific tasks – where the learning component prevails, – which underlie an overall task – where the assessment component prevails. The second key-term is authentic. In spite of the fact that language teaching, learning and assessing occur in a university environment, the teacher is supposed to assign authentic tasks and provide authentic teaching materials, taken from real-life professional situations. The novelty of this new perspective on task-based method is that it takes the communicative approach further on, focusing on the students’ communicative needs for their future career. The new teaching model puts the learner in real-life situations, using real-life teaching materials for reading and listening, assessing a real-life overall task for writing and speaking. The Scenario The new approach suggests several steps: Introducing the topic Receptive skills: listening and reading comprehension Productive skills: writing (portfolio) and speaking (oral presentation) The entire scenario depends on the teacher’s ability to assign the appropriate topic, to select the most authentic materials and to design a detailed assessment grid. We present two case-studies: the first one applies the above-mentioned approach for an end-of-course BA exam (for students from the Faculty of History), the second one takes the approach to an upper level, showing the way task-based method can be efficient for BA graduation exam (for students from the Applied Modern Languages Department).   

CASE-STUDY 1: THE ENGLISH COURSE AT THE FACULTY OF HISTORY At the Faculty of History, students take a four-semester English course for both History and International Relations specialisations. Although other languages are available (French and German), for reasons that are not worth mentioning here, most students enrol in English. The course is meant to introduce students to the terminology of their field of study, with the view to preparing them for their future workplace or/and to facilitating their access to international mobilities such as Erasmus, or to masters’ degrees that are entirely taught in English. As the beginning-of-course diagnostic test typically reveals it, students come with heterogeneous competency levels, from lower-intermediate to more advanced users of general English. Most of them are not conversant with the discipline-specific vocabulary and a part of them are unable to communicate in English, although they score well enough in writing, reading and listening skills. At the end of the course, students should reach a B2 level (ideally C1, but this is the case only with a small number of students, usually from the International Relations), as described in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages, on all tested skills. Time constraints and different initial competency levels make the teacher’s job not an easy one, hence the need for an effective pedagogical method, in terms of both teaching and assessing what the student has managed to acquire. At the same time, the course being centered on a particular type of discourse (history and international relations), the emphasis should be on the tasks that the graduates will need to be able to perform in real life, in the aforementioned contexts. A Task-Based Approach to Language Teaching at the Faculty of History Therefore, a task-based approach, as described in the theoretical section of the present paper, best fits our learner’s needs. This student-centered method allows the students to make the best of the task performance, by making him involve actively and choose freely the

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linguistic form of the written or spoken discourse, while the teacher’s role is downplayed to providing the stimulus for the task and motivating students to engage in natural language use. In order to do that, during the in-class activities, students are presented with various authentic texts, usually articles on important historical events taken from leading historical magazines such as History, or articles on recent political events in the international arena, taken from various British and American broadsheets and weekly newspapers, such as The Economist. Students are then asked to perform various tasks on the texts, like answering questions using their own words or commenting upon certain statements or ideas connected to the text. Thusly, the situational-embedded task prompts the students to make functional use of the English language, by simultaneously activating grammar rules and discipline-specific vocabulary. One task is built upon another, in a sequential cascade that leads the student from reception to production. This principle is valid for both reading and listening activities, as illustrated bellow. For the listening comprehension part, the main source is represented by the Internet, from where short excerpts from various talks and debates on historical or political events by native English speakers are downloaded and listened to during the course. After having listened to the recording or watched the video, usually twice, the students are asked to perform different tasks based on these authentic materials. Their comprehension is checked by a series of questions regarding what they have just listened to. As a rule, meaning and content prevail over grammar, style or spelling. Only if a student continues to make a serious mistake is he corrected by the course instructor. Otherwise, students are encouraged to speak freely. Peer interaction is also encouraged and, whenever necessary, other students are invited to step in and present their point of view on the topic. Speaking activities are also embedded in a task and are stimulated by case study work or case analysis. Students work in pairs or small groups and have to solve a certain problem proposed by the task. In order to complete the assignment, they have to do their own research of authentic materials connected to the task, by searching on the Internet or in the library. In many cases, the task is announced in advance and students have time to prepare it in detail. Writing is connected to the assignment in the speaking section, more often than not. Students are asked to put down on a sheet of paper the solutions they favour most and the conclusions they have reached. Besides enhancing students’ second language acquisition, this type of approach adds a social dimension to the learning process, by developing their critical thinking, interpersonal and integrated communicative skills, problem-solving and presentation skills, to mention just a few. The acquisition and enhancement of these skills will ease their path to employment once they have graduated, as, according to a report released by the European Commission, employers regard professional expertise and interpersonal skills as tipping the balance in selecting a graduate for recruitment.3 A Task-Based Approach to Language Assessment at the Faculty of History The end-of-course testing is done in accordance with the G.U.L.T. framework.4 The exam covers all five skills: listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production and writing. Like with the majority of university language exams, each skill is tested and assessed separately, but the distinct tasks are part of an overall task embedded in a specific authentic situation, connected to the testees’ field of study.

“The employability of higher education graduates: the employers’ perspective,” European Commission, 2013, page 50, accessed February, 12, 2016, http://www.dges.mctes.pt/NR/rdonlyres/658FB04A-909D-4D52-A83D21A2AC4F2D38/8096/employabilitystudy_final.pdf 4 GULT. Guidelines for University Language Testing, accessed February, 12, 2016, http://gult.ecml.at/ 3

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The first step in designing a task-based language test is setting up a scenario that corresponds to an authentic situation students might encounter at their future workplace, for example. This is the framework into which various tasks will be embedded afterwards. For instance, students in History are presented with the following scenario: they work in a museum and are part of an international team which organizes ancient art exhibitions. They have to host an exhibition in their museum, but before that, they have to read a series of documents about display methods, security, environmental concerns of the exhibition space, etc. The overall situation is clearly described on the exam sheet so that students might concentrate on the relevant information. The receptive skills (listening and reading) are checked first. Both skills are assessed using as input the overall task, namely organizing an ancient art exhibition in a museum, but each part of the assessment refers to different aspects of the input. The listening part for the present scenario may be a video recording of a professor’s lecture on the proper display conditions of ancient art exhibits, and a news report concerning the organisation of a successful art exhibition. The recordings are played twice and will not be longer than 5 minutes in total (10 minutes if the competency level is C1). Students will have to answer a set of questions, keeping in mind the overall task announced at the beginning of the exam. Meaning and content will prevail over grammar and style. Reading comprehension consists of a text taken from History, on an exhibition organized by the British Museum, displaying ancient Egyptian art. As this is a longer text, there is no need for a second text, but in most cases the course instructor opts for two different excerpts related to the overall task. However, the text is split in two parts so that students may concentrate on various aspects in each fragment. The suggested total number of characters is set at approximately 9000 for B2 level, according to G.U.L.T. approach. The exam instructions are similar to those for the listening part – the test takers are expected to answer a series of questions based on the text. The next step assesses spoken interaction. Students are grouped in pairs or in small teams and are asked to debate a certain issue or come up with a solution to a problem. In the present case scenario, they are asked to present the potential difficulties in hosting an exhibition of ancient decorations. Students may use their imagination at will, but they are also allowed access to different resources, such as dictionaries or the Internet. The latter, especially, provides a wealth of authentic resources, which once again link the in-class activities with real-life situations. Another advantage of this type of practice – this is also done during the course activities – is that students develop critical e-literacy skills, learning how to look for and choose reliable electronic sources for reference. However, if the course instructor considers that competency level of the examined students is closer to B2 rather than C1, this section of the examination will not be carried out. The next part of the assessment focuses on the test-takers’ productive skills, namely writing and speaking. In some cases, because the speaking part lasts longer, especially in the cases when the number of students in the group is bigger, the speaking section takes place on a different day. For the writing part, which is individual work, students are asked to write a report in which they will detail the difficulties they may encounter when making preparations for the ancient art exhibition and the solutions they can think of to surmount them. Although this section of the assessment checks different aspects than the previous ones, the task-based approach allows students to use the notes and the dossier from the spoken interaction part. The papers will be graded on content, style and vocabulary. For the speaking exam, students will work together with their partner(s) again. Prior to the exam, they are handed out a photocopy of their written exam paper and are asked to prepare the structure of the presentation with their partner(s) beforehand. As oral exams usually come with a lot of stress, allowing students to organise their ideas in advance will ease the tension, the testees will concentrate better on their tasks and will usually perform 262

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better than in regular exams. The oral examination consists in dwelling on the ideas expressed in the written report, by bringing arguments in favour of the solutions they have proposed. The students will also have to answer questions and defend their ideas. They will be discouraged to read directly from their written report, and will be allowed to use only short notes instead. As shown, the exam puts the students in a real-life authentic situation, one they may encounter at their future workplace. An overall task is presented in the beginning, with smaller tasks embedded in it, one or two for each tested competence. The aim is to predict the accuracy of the test taker’s future language performance in real-life contexts. As with any type of assessment, the goal is to evaluate the language sample obtained as objectively as possible. It is obvious that the receptive skills (reading and listening comprehension) can be more objectively measured than the productive skills (speaking and writing). The test takers should be informed about the evaluation criteria before the test administration. For the receptive skills, the course instructor prepares a sheet with answer keys which can be handed out to testees at the end of the examination. The scoring grids for the productive skills should be distributed to students together with the instructions, at the beginning of the exam. This will not only ensure transparency and objectivity, but it will also guide students in their accomplishment of the tasks, by making them focus on the essential assessed aspects. The scoring grids as proposed by Johann Fischer et al. (2011) are in line with the Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages5 and the Manual for Language Test Development and Examining6, both developed by the Council of Europe. This is very important, especially because, following the end-of-course exam, students will receive a certificate of linguistic competence. Therefore, a valid and reliable assessment grid is needed. The evaluation criteria for writing, level B2, include text content (25% of the final grade), pragmatic competence (25% of the final grade), and linguistic competence (50% of the final grade). The evaluation of the content includes task accomplishment, correctness and relevance of content, and originality. The pragmatic competence is assessed according to the functionality of the text produced by the test taker, its organization and coherence. The linguistic competence for writing includes language accuracy in terms of grammar, vocabulary and spelling, and variability of linguistic devices (grammar, vocabulary, style and register). The criteria for the assessment of speaking incorporate the following parameters: the evaluation of content and pragmatic competence (30%), the evaluation of the ability to debate (20%), linguistic competence (40%), and paralinguistic aspects and presentation techniques (10%). Each criterion assesses different aspects. The content of the presentation and the pragmatic competence take into account the accomplishment of the task, the correctness and coherence of the presentation. The ability to debate is assessed according to the testees’ ability to scrutinise their peers’ opinions and to defend their personal points of view. The linguistic competence follows the same assessment lines with writing, but it also evaluates phonetics and fluency. Paralinguistic aspects and presentation techniques include gestures, body language, presentation techniques and the use of visual aids if the exam allows that.

“Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages,” Council of Europe, 2011, Strasbourg: Council of Europe (Language Policy Division), accessed February, 10, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/ManualRevision-proofread-FINAL_en.pdf 6 “Manual for Language Test Development and Examining. For use with the CEFR. Produced by the Members of ALTE on behalf of the Language Policy Division,” Council of Europe, 2011, Strasbourg: Council of Europe (Language Policy Division), accessed February, 10, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ManualtLangageTestAlte2011_EN.pdf. 5

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After having taken the end-of-course English exam, students receive a blue certificate of linguistic competence, based on their results. The certificate is issued by the Faculty of Foreign Languages and bears the signature of the examiner, the head of the Modern Languages Department and the dean. In order for students to receive this certificate, they must be found to have an acceptable level on all tested skills. All five competences (listening, reading, spoken interaction, spoken production, writing) are distinctively mentioned on the certificate, with scores ranging from A1 to C2, in accordance with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages. This certificate allows them to apply for a master’s degree, in Romania or abroad, and, later on, for a PhD. The above-described type of assessment is taken by second-year students, at the end of the fourth semester. Students in the first year, however, are asked to develop a portfolio throughout the course, based on an overall task that fits their field of study. The portfolio may include different types of letters, reports on a case study, etc. Certain competences may be tested during the in-class activities, as they present their project progress and debate various aspects with their peers. Others, such as writing, are assessed in a final exam. The approach remains the same, as students are prompted to see language as a tool for communication and, therefore, use it spontaneously and flexibly in an as authentic context as possible, rather than see language as a collection of words and grammar rules that have to be acquired in a void. The course instructors, too, may benefit from this task-based approach to teaching and assessing, as they will actively improve their professional proficiency in providing authentic course materials and developing tests based on them, which assess the functional use of second language in a specialized context. CASE-STUDY 2: TASK-BASED APPROACH FOR ASSESSING BA DIPLOMA PAPER The Scenario After having participated in two workshops as well as in the conference regarding the European project named Guidelines for task-based LSP testing system (GULT Testing System), my contribution (D. Ionita) consists in transferring the GULT principles onto an upper level, assessing the BA graduation paper for the students from the Applied Modern Languages Department, University of Bucharest. These students study two foreign languages (English in combination with Spanish, French, German, Italian, Russian, Polish, Serbian, Slovakian, Croatian, Check) for specialised fields (marketing, advertising, IT, law, management, PR relations, market research, etc.), and their diploma paper consists in a specialised terminology glossary on a specific domain: psychology, dentistry, mechanics, economics, agriculture, religion, IT, music, sports, technology etc.). GULT scenario

Our scenario

Introducing the topic

Introducing the topic: description of a specialised domain and bilingual terminology glossary (always with Romanian as the second language)

Receptive skills: listening (about 30 Receptive skills: listening and reading minutes) and reading comprehension comprehension: authentic materials (about 60 minutes) connected to the topic (throughout the fifth semester) 264

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GULT scenario

Our scenario

Productive skills: writing (portfolio -about Productive skills: writing (the diploma 1,15 hours) and speaking (oral paper: a) description of the domain, key presentation- 10-15 minutes) concepts; b) methods and procedures; c) terminology glossary; d) concept map; a parallel between the terms in the foreign language and Romanian; e). Conclusions =-throughout the sixth semester and speaking (oral presentation) - 15 minutes +spoken interaction - 5 minutes (PPt presentation in front of an academic panel) One can notice the differences not only in the tasks length, but also in the amplitude of those tasks. BA diploma paper consists of a bilingual terminology glossary on a specific domain, such as: dentistry, management, fashion, marketing, advertising, medicine, medicinal plants, sports, art, cinema, photography, transport, aircrafts, engineering, religion, legal systems, etc. The students decide upon the domain for their glossary after a discussion with their university coordinator. Actually, the team is made of three people: the student, the university teacher and a Romanian expert in that domain who can contribute for the Romanian terms equivalence. The scientific coordinator decides – together with the students – upon the most appropriate materials: dictionaries, books, video-tapes, listening files, specialised articles. They hand in the paper 15 days before the defence for a scientific board to check whether they have observed the copy-right rules. The students deliver a PPt presentation and they are assessed by a panel made up of three people from the language department plus the Romanian expert in the domain tackled by the student. In the first semester, the student is advised by the language teacher, who approves of the topic, recommends authentic materials for that respective domain; the student’s receptive skills are evaluated checking the way the student has selected the most appropriate articles, dictionaries, websites, etc., as reflected in the first part of the paper. The teacher corrects and discusses the main issues twice a week. In addition to the authentic materials regarding the selected domain, the student is supposed to use appropriate bibliography on terminology, Language for Specific Purposes, semantic and lexical studies. The scientific advisor recommends the most appropriate materials and asks the student to apply them when drawing up the terminology glossary, which is his/her main task during the second semester. Writing, as the productive skill, is assessed when the student hands in the final paper according to a very detailed assessment grid, which includes 10 criteria, ranked from 1 to 10, as follows: importance of the topic, theoretical input, cohesion, selection and interpretation of resources, critical interpretation, problem-solving skills, case-studies, originality and creativity, style (fluency, accuracy, coherence), correct syntax structures and specialised vocabulary. Speaking and spoken interaction (receptive skills) are assessed during the final oral presentation (the defence): the PPT presentation + discussion when the student interacts with the panel.

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Task-Based Assessment at the Level of BA Graduation Exam The following case-study is aimed at providing a model of transferring the task-based approach onto an upper stage. We present a graduation paper belonging to one of my students - Andreea Luminita Stan (2011), having as topic: An English-Romanian Terminology Glossary on Strategic Management Consulting. The student had to solve two tasks: firstly, to describe the domain, using the main key-concepts of that domain as well as finding solutions for the transfer of the English concepts to the Romanian economic situation; secondly, to provide a bilingual terminology glossary as a reliable tool for the experts in that domain. Both tasks were extremely difficult since in Romania this field is one of the latestestablished disciplines of study. Its terminology is, hence, very poorly documented, with many terms borrowed from English and lacking Romanian equivalence. That is why the topic was accepted as being an original endeavour, which fills in a gap regarding the Romanian specialised references. The student followed the above-stated main stages. The authentic materials were selected by the student together with the language advisor and the Romanian expert in the field. The receptive skills were evaluated throughout the second semester during the discussion sessions (twice a week) and according to the way the student succeeded in using the materials in Romanian real-life situations. The documents included main books, articles, audio-files, dictionaries, terminology studies. The structure of the paper was established by the student: she divided the strategy consulting field into three subfields (Consultancies and Consultants, Consulting Tools, Consulting Process). It is worth mentioning that the students’ creativity is stimulated by letting them free to make their own choices regarding the selection of references, the structure of the paper, and the selection of terms. Writing, as a productive skill, was evaluated regarding the way the student was able to analyze and synthesize the entire information materials, to select the terms (75 in English and 75 in Romanian). The scientific advisor took into account the above-stated assessment grid. The terms were analyzed according to the following lexical and semantic fields: ID language, ID country, Source, Standard Definition, Definition Source, Romanian correspondent, Nota Bene, Grammatical category, Generic concept, Synonyms, Antonyms, Hyperonyms, Hyponyms, Context/ Collocation, Use area, Designation status, as in the example below: Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) (Stan, A, 2011: 81)  I.D. LANGUAGE: English  I.D. COUNTRY: USA, UK  SOURCE: Wickham, Philip A., Management consulting: Delivering an Effective Project, Pearson Education LTD. 2005  STANDARD DEFINITION: A set of quantifiable measures used to gauge or compare performance across industries and companies in terms of meeting their strategic and operational goals.  NOTA BENE: KPIs vary between companies and industries, depending on their priorities or performance criteria.  ROMANIAN CORRESPONDENT: Indicatori cheie de performanţă  DEFINITION SOURCE: www.investopedia.com  GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY: Noun phrase  GENERIC CONCEPT: Consulting indicators  HYPERONYM: Performance indicators  HYPONYM: Quantitative KPIs  SYNONYM: Key success indicators

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

  

CONTEXT: “In practice, monitoring some Key Performance Indicators can prove expensive or difficult for some organizations. For example, staff morale may be impossible to quantify with a number. Often, a business with a similar background is used as a benchmark to compare targets or standards for KPIs.” (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_performance_indicators) USE AREA: Strategic Management Consulting; Strategic management COMMENTARY: The abbreviation “KPIs” is more commonly used than the actual term DESIGNATION STATUS: Official

The oral presentation (speaking and spoken interaction skills - productive skills) focused mainly on the Concept Map which included the most representative terms on which the entire glossary was constructed. STRATEGY CONSULTING

CONSULTANCIES & CONSULTANTS

Types of consultancies

CONSULTING TOOLS

Consultantspeak and lifestyle

Analysis tools

Models

Indicators

CONSULTING PROCESSES

Consultoing project management

M&A Consulting

Charts

Company and market strategies

Matrixes

Client-side management

Consulting products and added value

In the end, the student provided a parallel between the terms in the two languages outlining the way she succeeded in finding solutions for the terms which did not exist in Romanian using either a paraphrase or emphasizing the fact that the English term was used by the Romanian experts as such, outlining main etymologies, alongside with solutions for adjusting the key concepts of this relatively new domain to the Romanian reality. The final mark (¾ writing , ¼ oral presentation) is given by the panel. Since these diploma papers – bilingual glossaries in a foreign language and Romanian – refer to domains that are poorly represented in Romanian libraries or bookshops and are extremely necessary for the Romanian experts, the RO+ Excellency Network of Experts, coordinated by the European Commission (General Department of Translations), decided to use those glossaries as a robust source of information for the Romanian translators when dealing with specific socio-economic domains. Furthermore, since this scenario is the same for all the languages in the curriculum, the department members wish to construct an online platform including multilingual terminology glossaries as a virtual resource center.

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CONCLUSIONS The two case-studies underlie the validity of the updated Task-Based approach, both at micro and macro level, i.e. end-of-course evaluation and BA graduation exam. Such an approach stimulates the students’ creativity, making them find solutions for real-life problems, gather relevant materials to make up a portfolio or write reports that may occur in their future profession. Therefore, the novelty of this model is that it focuses on specialised terminology, emphasizing the productive skills, using authentic teaching materials and tasks, within a holistic framework. Being already adopted by several European universities, this approach uses the communicative approach in order to put the learners in an authentic situation within a socioeconomic context. The originality of this study relies on adapting the Guidelines for task-based university language testing, (Johann Fischer et al., 2011), not only to end-of-course or endof-unit exams, but also on the upper level of BA graduation exam. This new method stimulates the teacher’s creativity in designing the real-life situations, in providing authentic materials and constructing appropriate assessment grids. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

Johann Fischer, Catherine Chouissa, Stefania Dugovicova, and Anu VirkkunenFullenwider. Guidelines for task-based university language testing. European Centre for Modern Languages / Council of Europe Publishing: 2011. “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment,” Council of Europe, 2011, accessed February, 02, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Cadre1_en.asp. “The employability of higher education graduates: the employers’ perspective,” European Commission, 2013, page 50, accessed February, 12, 2016, http://www.dges.mctes.pt/NR/rdonlyres/658FB04A-909D-4D52-A83D21A2AC4F2D38/8096/employabilitystudy_final.pdf GULT. Guidelines for University Language Testing, accessed February, 12, 2016, http://gult.ecml.at/ “Manual for Relating Language Examinations to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages,” Council of Europe, 2011, Strasbourg: Council of Europe (Language Policy Division), accessed February, 10, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/ManualRevision-proofread-FINAL_en.pdf “Manual for Language Test Development and Examining. For use with the CEFR. Produced by the Members of ALTE on behalf of the Language Policy Division,” Council of Europe, 2011, Strasbourg: Council of Europe (Language Policy Division), accessed February, 10, 2016, http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/ManualtLangageTestAlte2011_EN.pdf.

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70/20/10. A FRAMEWORK FOR MULTILEVEL SKILL DEVELOPMENT. TWO CASE STUDIES Alin BODESCU

(Lecturer), Action Officer, EU Military Staff [email protected] Abstract: Over the recent years, we have been witnessing a multidirectional pressure exercised on the employee, coming from various sources, amplified by the modern communication technologies, to absorb and transfer a huge amount of knowledge into operable skills. This new operating environment has labelled the traditional classroom training as a reminiscence of industrial era. Reportedly, many organisations continue to invest blind confidence and important budgets in training their personnel or even enforce a minimum number of training days per year, but pay insufficient attention to the informal learning dimension of skill development. The 70/20/10 learning model – although not widely acknowledged and accepted – warns on the limited value of formal training, at the expense of social and experiential learning. This paper examines two cases of developing skills through a multilevel approach to learning and proposes a model for developing staff-work skills in military headquarters, which underlines the critical role of organisation’s leadership. Keywords: Formal learning; informal learning;70/20/10.

INTRODUCTION How much do people forget after completion of a formal classroom training session? It depends, some argue. Anyway, 1-2 days after the heat of congratulations for completing the course and the nice exchange of appreciation of attending “the best course, ever”, the students may forget from 0 to 73% of what they learned1. In a conference on “Supporting breakthrough performance with 70:20:10”2, Charles Jennings, a learning and performance consultant shared with the audience an anecdote about some college students preparing their last year exam by memorising lots of information, just before the examination period. In the middle of final exam, a power cut prompted the examination board to interrupt it and postpone it for 2 weeks. Having their answers in the exam disregarded, students were exchanging views and reflecting on the way ahead when one of the them made the point on the perishable nature of the knowledge (improperly) learned, saying : “Hey guys, do you realise that we have to start over and learn for this exam from scratch?” What do these stories tell us? First, beyond the human nature of forgetting, some people learn better than others and hence the retention rate differs. And second, that the retention rate might be heavily influenced by the training/ teaching and the learning method. Learning something by heart on the eve of exam may help, but a lot of the so acquired knowledge will fly away from one’s mind the very next day. If it is human nature to forget, and we can anticipate the consequences of the forgetting curve, then what should organisations and learning professionals do and how can they overcome these limitations? A possible answer to the above questions might be that the employer should see the employee’s skill development as a multilevel and long term approach, an investment of time and money not only in formal learning but in other forms of learning as a well. Yet, the Will Thalheimer, How Much Do People Forget? (2010, April), accessed February 28, 2016, http://www.worklearning.com/catalog.html. 2 Charles Jennings, Supporting breakthrough performance with 70:20:10 (paper presented at the conference “Learning Week” organised by the European Commission, Brussels, June 1 - 5, 2015. 1

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reality shows that companies tend to invest more in formal learning at the expense of informal learning. An expert in organisational learning, Jay Cross observed in one of his writings3 that spending for formal training and the volume of professional learning through informal means are inversely proportional (spending/ outcomes paradox). Moreover, factual data prove that most of firms do not have adequate human resource management strategies to optimize informal learning in the workplace4. Learning is a continuous process, and it happens only when the learner experience enriches by acquiring a new piece of information, a skill or an attitude which positively influence his/ her life or work experience. By extension from individuals to organizations (accepting that organisations can learn), a good example is the formal military lessons learnt process In this approach, a lesson is considered learnt not when an observation is recorded, the organisation acknowledges a deficiency or a failure and declares the so called observation a lesson. The organisation will “learn” the lesson only when a remedial action will have been implemented as to make sure that the deficiency is solved or the failure will never happen again. The outcome of learning in this case is a changed and developed organisation. Formal, institutionalised schools or training centres are no longer the only accepted education and training providers. Learning moves from the traditional and sometimes rigid, slow adapting environment to the life or work itself. The focus moves from the educators and trainers, long time regarded as the centre of the learner’s universe, the holders of the truth, to the learners themselves with parents, mentors or coaches, facilitating the learning process. When it comes to education, although contested by traditionalists, home-schooling or unschooling are forms that emphasise the power of informal, individually tailored learning towards developing competencies needed in a fast moving information era. Making use of two case studies, this paper highlights that skill development could be a lengthy and incremental process, making recourse to different learning environments and methods. Without minimising the value of formal learning which is mostly achieved through traditional education and training, this paper argues that the bulk of the skills are formed in an informal learning environment. But, before facing the reality, we should briefly understand the context and impact of formal and informal learning on the skill development. FORMAL VS. INFORMAL LEARNING – 70/20/10 MODEL The formal - informal dimensions of learning is a long time accepted dichotomy among the learning and development community. Without proposing to analyse the plethora of definitions of all forms of learning, we will recall for the purpose of our study the definitions used by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which makes reference to the concepts of formal, informal, and non-formal learning. Consensually, the community of interest in OECD5, agrees that what makes the difference between formal and informal learning is their position with regard to the learner’s intention, learning expected outcome and recognition of their value through a qualification or a diploma/ certificate. If in the case of formal learning, the institution or even learner himself/ herself allocate time, resources and set expectations/ learning objectives, when it comes to informal learning none of these characteristics are identified; learning flows even from the Jay Cross, preface to Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance, Pfeiffer Essential Resources for Training and HR Professionals. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, 2007. 4 Andries De Grip, The importance of informal learning at work (2015, June), page 7, accessed February 20, 2016, http://wol.iza.org/articles/importance-of-informal-learning-at-work. 5 Patrick Werquin, Recognition of non-formal and informal learning in OECD countries: A very good idea in jeopardy?” Lifelong Learning in Europe 3 (2008), accessed February 21, 2016, http://www.oecd.org/edu/skillsbeyond-school/41851819.pdf. 3

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daily or work routine, in background. To reach a compromise between the formal and informal, the specialists identified a third form, non-formal to include that type of learning, which without being formal, might be organised and have learning objectives, although not that detailed like in the case of formal learning. It is within this context that the 70/20/10 model has consolidated over the last decades. The literature identifies the origin of the 70/20/10 model, or at least the core idea in the 1968 Allen Tough’s study “Why Adults Learn”, who subsequently elaborated the concept, observing that “most learning occurs as part of the workflow and not in away-from-work training situations”. But this model is mostly attributed to Morgan McCall, Michael Lombardo and Robert Eichinger at the Center for Creative Leadership in North Carolina. 6 According to this model, 70% of our learning comes from experience. This is also known by the literature as learning by doing, on–the job training or informal workplace learning. It has been observed that 70% of our learning comes from challenging assignments and on-the job experiences (e.g. staff officers being assigned projects, reading through and providing advice on topics assigned to the department he/ she belongs, covering decision meetings on behalf of section head, writing notes for department head etc.). Moreover, 20% of our development derives from our relationships with other people, our networks and the feedback we receive (e.g. feedback from superior, clear guidance for developing a project, a conversation among colleagues on a specific topic etc.). This form of social learning also emerges out of mentoring and coaching experiences, social networking, and individual reading or even from knowledge spill overs from more experienced peers in the workplace7. And finally, only 10% of our learning is derived from formal training, such as residential courses, e-learning, blended learning or the required reading for a homework. Without being dogmatic, the 70/20/10 percentages suggest a ratio among various types of distributed or self-learning or the level of effort (man-day trainer and learner) and resources (money and material) that an organization should be prepared to invest in the development of their employees. For example, in order for a staff officer in a military headquarters to acquire the necessary skills and be capable to conduct effective staff work specific to that environment, he/ she may spend 6 hours of formal training (receiving lectures, discussing case studies, analysing templates and real documents, reading HQ SOPs, internal aide memoires etc.), the equivalent of 2 man-days of social learning (focused discussions and feedback with the section head, attending various specific internal meetings of the HQ battle rhythm etc.) and the equivalent of 7 man-days of practicing staff skills in real projects (managing taskers, covering meetings, researching a topic etc.). How is this ratio followed in reality? In reality, the ratio may vary and go sometimes close to 30/30/30, which is an alternate perspective defined by Dan Pontefract as the 3:33 model of pervasive learning8. To what extent are organisations interested, how much do they invest in various forms of learning and how do they measure progress of informal learning (if they do any measurement)? Trying to shed some light on these research questions, in the next chapter I will make use of two personal cases of developing specific skills.

Stef Scott and Owen Ferguson, New Perspectives on 70:20:10. A Good Practice Research Paper, accessed February 29, 2016, http://www.goodpractice.com/ld-resources/new-perspectives-on-70-20-10/. 7 Andries De Grip, The importance of informal learning at work (2015, June), page 7, accessed February 20, 2016, http://wol.iza.org/articles/importance-of-informal-learning-at-work. 8 Stef Scott and Owen Ferguson, New Perspectives on 70:20:10. A Good Practice Research Paper, accessed February 29, 2016, http://www.goodpractice.com/ld-resources/new-perspectives-on-70-20-10/. 6

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TWO CASE STUDIES In this chapter, I will make recourse to two cases of developing skills from a multilevel approach perspective in order to highlight how learner moves along the learning spectrum from formal to informal and how time and resources are allocated in reality to each of these types of learning. In the first case I will expose the development of the planning skills at the political-strategic level in the EU Military Staff (EUMS)9, whereas in the second case, I will analyse the European Commission’s approach to developing project management skills using its own methodology. If in the first case the instructional designers used a fictitious scenario as an environment for applying theoretical knowledge, the second case required the use of real project as a basis of transferring the knowledge into practice. In both cases, the participants join the programme after proving preliminary learning has been taken (prerequisites). Although the programmes extend over long periods of time (2 - 5 months), their modularity offers a certain degree of flexibility to allow learners to easily switch between their real-life daily routine to a fictitious or fragmented-reality learning environment. Finally, both programmes acknowledge that formal training intermingles with informal learning, even though the informal one is not necessarily gauged. CASE 1. DEVELOPING THE PLANNING SKILLS AT THE POLITICALSTRATEGIC LEVEL IN THE EUMS Skills Background and Rationale According to the “EU Concept for Military Planning at the Political and Strategic Level”, military strategic planning is an iterative process which needs to analyse all relevant factors to determine the military mission in the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) context. At the political and strategic level this will include analysis of the implications of political objectives, desired end state, restraints and constraints as well as an analysis of the capabilities needed, in order to develop potential military options balanced against those capabilities that are offered or potentially available. Military strategic planning in response to a given crisis encompasses those activities that may lead to the decision to launch an operation, to the monitoring of its implementation and to its termination phase. At the political-strategic level, military planners and functional experts (e.g. intelligence, logistics, communication) in the EUMS are constituted in teams (Crisis Planning Teams - CPT) designed to develop a consolidated military contribution to shaping decisions at this level (through the “Political Framework to Crisis Approach”) and to the initiating documents for planning at the political-strategic level (through “Crisis Management Concept”), and at the military strategic level (through “Military Strategic Options” and “Initiating Military Directive”). Therefore, the main skills for this process are the abilities to assess the nature of a crisis, its actors and possible impact on EU interests and values, to define the potential role and availability of the military CSDP instrument, as part of EU comprehensive response to a crisis and to design broad military options and objectives in support to an EU CSDP military operation.

EU Military Staff is the source of military expertise within the European External Action Service (EEAS). The EUMS role is to provide early warning, situation assessment, strategic planning, Communications and Information Systems, concept development, training & education, and support of partnerships, http://www.eeas.europa.eu/csdp/structures-instruments-agencies/eu-military-staff/.

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Formal learning The main formal learning for these skills is a blended learning experience: “Military (EUMS) Contribution to Planning at the Political-Strategic Level Course”, with the aim to improve the staff work skills of the EUMS personnel eligible to be part of a CPT, in order to enable them to contribute to the crisis response planning at the political-strategic level. The course requires participants to have a good knowledge of the planning tools and operational art in order for them to focus on the practical application of theory in a scenariobased learning. The course duration is 2 months, but the course director may adjust the elearning sequences to fit the EUMS agenda or even the level of training audience. During these 2 months, the contact time is 3 residential days, which are each anticipated by a 2 week e-learning period (time participants spend to study the theory and solve some scenario-based planning aspects on an individual basis). A mentoring team composed of 2-5 planning and functional mentors (full-time real life planners and functional experts in EUMS) is available throughout the course, but their main role is during the residential days to provide feedback on the practical work and prompt participants to get involved into real-life situations. In terms of methodology the course commences with a 2 hour residential session aimed at refreshing the participants' knowledge of the EU Crisis Management Procedures and providing them with the initial necessary administrative and technical guidance. On their own time and pace, participants then take three e-learning sequences, alternated with three 1 day residential sessions. E-learning modules provide the learners with relevant information, examples and templates so that they are able to complete short practical tasks (e.g. fill in the main section of the partly-filled planning documents), on an individual basis, regardless of their specialization. In residential sessions, learners consolidate the knowledge and skills by discussing critical issues, practicing relevant skills and getting the necessary feedback and potential solutions from the mentoring team. Collaborative learning will be achieved via the course forum embedded into the e-learning platform on an asynchronous manner. A course coordinator monitors learning progress and ensures the overall coordination. Successful participants will be certified, providing they meet the following criteria: complete the e-learning sessions; attend all residential days, and complete and submit all written requirements by the deadlines. A series of required reading materials would consolidate the knowledge basis for the skill to be mastered (e.g. EU Crisis Management Procedures and EUMS Crisis Management Manual). Social Learning Social learning could be exploited either during the blended course described above (e.g. joining and contributing to topics open on the course forum embedded on the e-learning ILIAS platform or preparing the required paper work in small groups where the more experienced staff pass to the less experienced their know-how). A new joiner selected to reinforce a CPT can be exposed from his/ her very arrival in EUMS to various non-formal learning experiences, even before taking the formal course. Examples include attending (in background initially) real–life CPT or Mission Monitoring Teams (team that takes over the responsibility for the mission from the CPT, as soon as the mission/ operation is launched based on an agreed OPLAN) and observing the interaction within the team, real-life planning, monitoring and assessment behaviours of the more experienced officers. Other social experiences in support of planning skills could be attending the conflict analysis seminars organised periodically by the European External Action Service (EEAS) on specific crisis areas, joining various groups on the European Commission’s Directorate-General for

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International Cooperation and Development (DG DEVCO)’s platform “Capacity4 Dev” 10 or joining and contributing to relevant groups on LinkedIn (e.g. Comprehensive Approach, Security Sector Reform, European Defence Conference), which may facilitate the understanding of the big and complex picture of the security environment in which CSDP military planners might be required to operate. Recommended reading materials provide a good basis for enhancing a broader understanding of the crisis planning environment (e.g. Guidance note on the use of Conflict Analysis in support of EU external action, Conflict Analysis Handbook or NATO Comprehensive Operations Planning Directive, Chapter 3). Experiential Learning The personnel trained to join a CPT, if need arises, continue to do their main, daily duties, but the planning skills should be maintained and improved through participation in an exercise, where such a team is tested, either during a Multi-Layer (ML) exercise, where the focus and audience range from the political-strategic to the operational level or through a Military Exercise (MILEX), in which case the objectives would be limited at the military strategic and operational levels.

Figure 1 Learning for Planning As depicted in figure 1, the learning for developing planning skills at the politicalstrategic level in the EUMS is split among formal (23%), social (34%) and experiential (43%). If for the formal and part of the experiential learning, the EUMS training coordinator established learning objectives, social learning remains largely an informal learning, at the learners’ discretion (the figures for social learning in the table having an indicative value). The residential days and practical activity embedded in the formal course have an experiential dimension, being reflected accordingly in the table at figure 1.

“Capacity 4 Dev” enables interaction in public groups and allows access to closed collaboration spaces. CSDP Planners will not plan in isolation, on the contrary, given the imperatives of the development-security nexus, their interaction with the development experts will be of a paramount importance, http://capacity4dev.ec.europa.eu/. 10

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CASE 2. DEVELOPING PROJECT EUROPEAN COMMISSION PROJECTS

MANAGEMENT

SKILLS

FOR

Skills Background and Rationale The European Commission (EC) is a huge bureaucratic institution, composed of a multitude of departments or directorates-general (DG) and agencies, which manages a significant amount of resources. Given the inherent cross-directorates co-operation and the mobility of its personnel, the EC developed its own Project Management Methodology, called PM²11, aimed at facilitating the management of the complete lifecycle of EC projects. With effect from 2009, the EC has been implementing a certification program (PM² CertiPro) targeting project managers. PM² CertiPro, organised by 2 levels, is designed as a knowledge (PM² Certified) and experience (PM² Practitioner) based project management certification for EC staff involved in project related work.12 Formal Learning Level 1 – “PM² Certified” learning program is open to EC personnel having a role in in projects. The objectives of this certification is to provide project staff with the knowledge and tools necessary to contribute and operate effectively within a project environment. At the end of the modules composing this 5 day programme, participants should be able to describe different roles in projects, apply basic project management tools and techniques and discuss the risk management fundamentals. It is composed of several stand-alone modules that can be taken in a flexible manner, but preferably in the following order: 1. PM C1 - Project Management Essentials: (1 day) 2. PM C2 - PM² in practice – Artefacts, Tools and Techniques (2 days) 3. PM C3 – Managing Risks (1 day) 4. PM C4 – Managing Requirements & Stakeholders (1 day) 5. PM CE Exam - PM² Certified Exam The required reading for this level is the “PM² Project Management Methodology Guide” but there is a plethora of recommended materials, such as course notes, PM² templates and artefacts, available on the PM² Wiki. The registration to the last module (exam) is permitted only to participants who successfully completed the modules PM C1-C4, described above. Passing the exam would grant the graduate a “PM² Certified” certificate. Social Learning Course participants have access to a PM² Wiki where they can find relevant resources for the PM² (presentations, recordings of events, guides, templates etc.) and they can enrol to the community of practice network. This community is managed by the EC officials who regularly organise seminars, conferences or even brown-bag lunches, excellent opportunities for PM² newbies to receive real-life stories, learn tips, share best practices and meet project managers from across the EC. Experiential Learning Level 2 – “PM² Practitioner” is available to project managers, who have successfully completed the first level (PM² Certified). The objectives of this level is to ensure that project managers are able to demonstrate the application of the core elements of the PM² PM², where “P” stands for “Project” and “M²” stands for “management methodology”, incorporates elements from a wide range of globally accepted project management best practices, described in standards and methodologies such as PMBOK, PRINCE2, IPMA-ICB, CMMi or TEMPO. 12 Athanasios Maraslis and Nicos Kourunakis, “PM²@EC, Certification Exam Preparation”, presentation for PM2 exam, October 10, 2013, Brussels. 11

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methodology in real projects. This program, which stretches over 4-5 months of practicing the methodology, is composed of a series of steps, as follows: 1. Complete three complementary theoretical modules: a. PM P1 – Applied Project Management (2 days) b. PM P2 – The People Side of Project Management (2 days) c. PM P3 – Managing Organisational Change in Projects (1 day) 2. PM² Practitioner Preparation Workshop (3 hrs). The aim of this workshop is to inform the selected participants on the approach, requirements and deadlines for the main part of “PM² Practitioner” programme – developing a real life project. During this workshop, participants meet the mentoring team that is available throughout the programme to offer assistance. 3. Case assignment. Each participant in this programme has to propose a real life project; either an already completed one or one at which he/ she works. The requirement is to “translate” the selected topic in an EC PM² format and produce the main project artefacts. 4. Acceptance of proposal. The proposal is analysed by the mentor assigned to each participant who provides guidance and corrective measures and agrees the proposal. 5. Acceptance of Case artefacts (Plans). Participants work on an individual basis and submit to the assigned mentor, one by one, a first draft of the artefacts described below: a. Project Initiation Request (PIR); b. Business Case (BC); c. Project Charter (PC); d. Business Implementation Plan (BIM); e. Project Work Plan (PWP); f. PWP Scheduling and Resource Usage. The mentor analyses each draft and provides feedback and guidance to the participant over a web-based platform (Blackboard). Once the revised draft is amended by the participant and formally submitted for acceptance, the mentor grades the work and clears him/ her to start working at the next artefact. A collaborative forum is available on Blackboard with participants interacting and exchanging opinions. Each artefact requires between 2 days and 1 week of workload for the iterative drafting under mentor’s supervision. 6. PM² Case assessment. As each artefact is individually reviewed and changes may occur throughout the programme, the overall project has to be revisited by the participant and submitted as a coherent pack for subsequent mentor’s acceptance. The successful acceptance of the submitted case concludes with a “PM² Practitioner” certificate. In support of developing the required artefacts, participants are provided with artefacts templates, with detailed explanations on how to complete each project element and a model Study Case (theme: Rolling out of PM² within Organisation XX).

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Figure 2 Learning for Project Management As depicted in figure 2, the learning for developing project management skills for EC projects is shared among formal (22%), social (23%) and experiential (55%). The same observation made for case 1 with regard to measuring social learning through assigning and evaluating learning objectives is valid for case 2 as well. Although three theoretical modules (PM P 1 to PM P3) have been taken as part of the “PM² Practitioner”, which was regarded as an experiential learning, they have been recorded in the table at figure 2 as formal learning. The case used during “PM² Practitioner”, was a real project and not a generic one, which not only connected the learner with a very familiar environment, but it had an immediate impact on the job; a real task carried out with expert support (coaching). Conclusions for the case studies A series of conclusions could be drawn from the two cases presented above. First, from the irregular repartition of the types of learning, we can derive that 70/20/10” is an indicative model, an ideal view of how learning should be approached. Second, formal, social and experiential learning are not to be viewed or taken in a sequential manner, but rather they should be alternated. We socialise the learning continuously (it is true, in peaks and troughs), we might achieve an awareness level of the problem through formal training but then we practice the targeted skills, while keep reading and accumulating knowledge. Third, trainers’ background changes as the learner progresses along the path towards complete skill development. If initially, the learner might be self-sufficient taking an interactive e-learning, subsequently he/she might need a professional assistance from a trainer with a global understanding of the issue, to finalise with more experienced colleagues, bosses or professional mentors with years of real-life experience in the area. Finally, as Charles Jennings observed, citing Henry Mintzberg, one of the renowned academic in business and management, experiential learning needs to be built upon real cases rather than simulating on a given case13.

Charles Jennings, From Courses to Campaigns: using the 70:20:10 approach, accessed February 29, 2016, http://charles-jennings.blogspot.be/.

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Using fictitious, impersonal case studies to learn is useful, but as the learner has nothing “at stake”, not being “emotionally” involved, he/ she will have difficulties to “improvise” solutions and will end up making recourse to prefabricated options or even to the “teacher’s solution”. One of the objective limitations on both cases was the difficulty to integrate as much informal learning into a structured development plan. The human resources/ training department traditionally plans and monitors progress for formal learning, leaving the informal one entirely at the latitude of the learner, assuming a certain degree of motivation and/ or responsibility to learn the job. A MODEL OF DEVELOPING STAFF-WORK SKILLS IN MILITARY HEADQUARTERS Structured learning and development of staff competencies in military headquarters are mainly addressed through formal training, function that is enforced and monitored by the human resources department - a PUSH approach. The irregular rotation of staff officers in headquarters, coupled sometimes with a limited internal training capability may impose a low frequency training scheme that may achieve tardive results in preparing staff officers for their specific duties. However, staff skills in headquarters do develop on a continuous basis, through informal sharing of knowledge, promotion of good practices at the department level or through staff officers’ self-directed learning of how to do their job – a PULL approach. The spill over effect of formal training should not be underestimated. In military headquarters, for example, some functions have twin positions, in which case, due to the limitations of the training budget, the approval of attending courses could be given only to one of the two posts, assuming that the other one would indirectly benefit from the transfer of knowledge passed by the post attending the formal training. It remains that relevant department ensures transfer takes place, although in an adult environment this is entirely an informal process with no explicit measurement of this process. The proposed model described in the table 1 below is based on the 70/20/10 model approach in developing staff skills of staff officers in military headquarters, to ensure they reach the required level of competence in a relatively short period of time. This model requires not only a combination of formal training and informal learning that put emphasis on the former, but also a large involvement of several layers of leadership in that specific headquarters, by creating an all-round shared responsibility for performance. Table 1 - A proposed model for staff-work skill development 10% 20% Formal Training Coaching and Support NLT 1 month NLT 2 months from arrival from arrival  ½ day Staff  Talks to director, section Training for head and experienced staff Newcomers officers  Check lists  Scheduled visits of headquarters coordination  Library – meetings, command templates, groups, coordinating models working level meetings,  Reading list etc.  Written feedback to 278

70% On-the-job Application NLT 3 months from arrival 

 

Prepare a folder on a specific topic composed of a note to director for decision/ information, a tasker and an internal order Cover 1-2 HQ coordinating meeting (similar) and report back (bullet report) Prepare an advice on a given topic

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10%

20% section head  Storytelling Human Resources Department/ J Branch Department/ Training Section Internal HQ Newcomers assigned Training Plan mentors Mentoring Plan

70% Department/ J Branch to On-the-job Learning Plan

Figure 3 is a graphical representation of the weight and type of learning of effort in acquiring the necessary skills for the proposed model. The types of learning should not be necessarily seen in that order, as the learner may embark on informal learning on his/ her own initiative, even before the organisation sends him/ her to a course. Moreover, as Charles Jennings put it14, the best approach is to start with 70 and plan for 100, assuming that the best learning environment is the daily job, with its real conditions, limitations and feedback received on the spot.

Figure 3 Multilevel skill development model CONCLUSIONS 70/20/10 is a learning and development model that does not minimise formal learning (10), but emphasises the importance of social learning (20) and experiential learning (70) and accepts a multitude of ways for acquiring knowledge and develop skills. How long does it take to develop a skill? Seen from the formal learning perspective, 1 hour spent in training should be augmented with and complemented by 9 hours of informal learning through Charles Jennings, Start with the 70. Plan for the 100, accessed February 29, 2016, http://charlesjennings.blogspot.be/2015/12/start-with-70-plan-for-100.html.

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practicing or socialising a specific skill. In the case of project management, the skills have been crystallised over 4-5 months but the expert level was far from being reached at the end of the programme and it might require a lot of socialising and learning from others’ mistakes or views (Wiki) to master stable ability to manage a project. 70, 20 or 10 are only numbers and not a prescribed ratio for success. As demonstrated in the two cases described by this paper, the ratio may vary and what is important is that learning does not remain a case closed at the end of the formal course. 70/20/10 has more of a PULL rather than a PUSH approach. Pulling is a selfmotivated activity, which does not need too much of monitoring, if any at all. If the formal learning is still a mandatory requirement for most organisations (PUSH), the informal learning is entirely an inner-business (PULL). Given the supplementary effort it requires, on a continuous basis, planning for 100 is more appropriate for the managers, self-motivated people to climb up the stairs of career and less motivating for the execution level. 70/20/10 requires a different mentality. Sitting in a course and ticking a box in the individual human resource file does not mean that learning has been transferred into operable skills. 70/20/10 is not a cheap or a free school. Organisations should allocate budgets for web-based tools, seminars and other interactive sessions in pursuit of well and prior defined learning objectives. 70/20/10 is an integrated model, and should be regarded as an interdependent set of approaches. The learner should embark on all three dimensions, often simultaneously, and should not consider social and experiential as optional sequels of formal learning. On the contrary, as the overall value of formal learning within this equation is quite limited in breadth, the learners should put more efforts to seek informal opportunities for learning. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Thalheimer, Will. How Much Do People Forget? (2010, April), accessed February 2016, http://www.work-learning.com/catalog.html. De Grip, Andries. The importance of informal learning at work (2015, June), accessed February 20, 2016, http://wol.iza.org/articles/importance-of-informal-learning-atwork. Werquin, Patrick. Recognition of non-formal and informal learning in OECD countries: A very good idea in jeopardy? In Lifelong Learning in Europe 3, 2008, accessed February 21, 2016, http://www.oecd.org/edu/skills-beyondschool/41851819.pdf. Charles Jennings Blog, http://charles-jennings.blogspot.be/ Scott, Stef and Ferguson, Owen. New Perspectives on 70:20:10. A Good Practice Research Paper. Accessed February 29, 2016, http://www.goodpractice.com/ldresources/new-perspectives-on-70-20-10/. Cross, Jay. Informal Learning: Rediscovering the Natural Pathways That Inspire Innovation and Performance. Pfeiffer Essential Resources for Training and HR Professionals. San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer, 2007.

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MODELS EMPLOYED IN THE RISK MANAGEMENT Cătălin BURSUC Comander (Navy) Eng. - Ph.D. Associate Professor, ”CAROL I” National Defence University Bucharest, Romania, [email protected]. Luiza COSTEA Associate Professor, PhD, ”CAROL I” National Defence University, Bucharest, Romania Abstract: The risk management is a process carried out by managers and employees within an organization and it presupposes building up a strategy which needs to be implemented while identifying, evaluating and managing some risks that reaching goals in the organization and running activities within it entail. The strategy is in line with the structure of the organization and the environment characteristics. Employing models relevant to the concrete situation, methodology elements and valid tools predict the efficiency and efficacy situation in the risk management with an organization. Risk control activities should be planned and carried out so that the level of danger should not go beyond the limits of risk tolerance. Employing rigorous methodologies and adequate tools allows taking monitoring, periodical revising and ongoing reporting measures of the risk evolution. Key words: knowledge management, military organization, methods and models;

CATEGORIES OF MODELS IN THE RISK MANAGEMENT The model is a simplified system having a high degree of isomorphism with the phenomenon or the system present in real life, but naturally being more complex. Such a simplifying activity helps understand or investigate the reality, and such operations would be difficult to carry out in other circumstances. Choosing adequate models projecting and using some methodologies which allow expanding the experience one has within the organization with the appropriate communication and this could be additional incentive in reaching the organization’s objectives.1 By using the model, the analogies, the operations of expanding familiar situations, extrapolations and generalizing conclusions allow understanding the transforming, the functioning and the evolution of the system or of the phenomenon in real life. In the chapter, we have contrastively analyzed the models paired up depending on the main characteristic of the model. The analysis of the pairs of concepts highlights the main characteristics and advantages of each type of models and does not counterpart the defining elements of each paired concept. Mathematical models and conceptual models Formal conceptual models represent a class of models which refer to main activities, processes and the connections among them.2 1

Metodologie de implementare a standardului de control intern “Managementul riscurilor”, Ministerul Finanţelor Publice, Unitatea Centrala de Armonizare a Sistemelor de Management Financiar şi Control, 2007, la www.mfinante.ro/control_prev/.../METOD_IMPLEMENTARE_RISC.pdf. 2 Ion ROCEANU, Ciprian LUNGU, Managementul cunoştinţelor în organizaţiile mari, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare Carol I, Bucureşti, 2013, p.30.

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By the mathematical model we understand another particular class of models generally employed as tools that describe various phenomena of a rigorous character of expression, and which can be used in a wide range of phenomena in the most diverse domains. The complexity of the mathematical apparatus used is directly proportional with the peculiarities of the modeled phenomenon. Mathematical models give the possibility to analyze different ways of the evolution of risk factors, as well as the effects the former have in the organization, in the dynamics of the events. The literature in the field3 focuses on the fact that when a model emerges, an opposite dependency relation appears, between the precision and the simplicity of the former. In the given context, the term precision expresses the fidelity of modeling and it shows how close to the model the real situation is (the level of the model approximation). Generally speaking, mathematical models can be divided into two categories, and the classification is made in function of the type of information related to the phenomenon in determinist and stochastic models, for events that do not display causative evolution and develop probabilistically. In the first situation, all parameters present in the phenomenon under discussion can be made familiar following the causative effect. In the case of stochastic models, when describing events, factors with a probabilistic evolution emerge, considered random variables that with algorithms cannot be replaced with corresponding average values and that is possible in the case of determinist models. Analytic models and heuristic models Analytic models allow determining the appropriate means starting with the conditions necessary and sufficient present in the system of functional equations, differential equations etc. Solutions derive from the existence of convergence conditions of the algorithm of computation and from the appropriate version. Heuristic models allow determining a sufficient solution at optimal or suboptimal level, on the basis of the insufficiently expressed reasoning in the analytical model. Research carried out in small-sized economic organizations whose object of activity is on-line selling have highlighted the major risks that arise in some UK firms by using analytic models. The identified risks were: identity theft, credit card frauds, email frauds and cybernetic attacks.4 This type of models have proven their applicability by modeling the type of efficient reasoning in their concrete, effective, successful employment in the organization’s activity. Probabilistic models and intuitive models Within the decision-making process concerning military actions, probabilistic models are avoided as the expert analysis is applied to intuitive models with determinist-intuitive defining that do not fully cover the uncertainty and the disturbance within the organization. With some modeling, biased probabilities are used. The obtained results in such decisions must be closely monitored. The mechanism behind the manager’s decisions takes into account a series of factors deriving from their experience, environment change and so on, and not from the objective mathematical elements. In the case of statistic models, the factors which are determining in supporting the model do not especially belong to the military unit under discussion. The reason for our Adiel Teixeira de ALMEIDA, Cristiano Alexandre Virgínio CAVALCANTE, Marcelo HAZIN ALENCAR, et al., Multicriteria andMultiobjective Models for Risk, Decision Analysis Reliability and Maintenance, Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland, 2015, p.14. 4 A. Sukumar, D. Edgard, K. Grant, An investigation of e-business risks in UK SMEs, World Review of Enterpreneurship Management and Suitable Developement, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 380-401. 3

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stating it is that in the decision-making process in a military unit, a sum of data deriving from the activity of several military units is employed, and these data are called statistic information. The final outcome does not mirror the peculiarities of the given institution and, thus, the conclusions can be less adequate with the specificity and the reality of the given entity. Using a model in line with the evolution of the environment parameters should go beyond the statistic data analysis as the latter are the result of collecting the state data. Disregarding the event dynamics can lead to wrong decisions because of the fact that prognosis methods and models inadequately describe the information uncertainty or use groundless formalisms. Risk modeling should lead to a clear area of modeling management responsibilities in the organization under discussion since the organizational experience prove that managers’ decisions are currently based on the institution and are made under the narrowed-down vision they have of the respective issue or activity. Deterministic models and stochastic models Determinism presupposes the functioning of the model in line with the law of causality by which the cause leads to the emergence and the evolution of the effect. The law of the evolution, once known, can be applied to each and every case. For repetitive situations we have identical manifestations of the phenomenon and such phenomena would be identical whenever the model works under the same initial conditions and hypotheses. In the case of statistic relations in model defining, repetition can be witnessed as a tendency. This repetition is admitted and checked at the level of an ensemble and characterizes nondeterministic or stochastic situations. Stochastic evolution phenomena are described by statistic laws that mirror the average situation of a great amount of events, highlighted by the dominant tendency that quantitatively differentiates accidental deviations. Within small-sized organizations there is a more direct connection between external events and the organization’s feedback. A comparison drawn between big-sized and smallsized organizations focuses on the fact that the internal structure of the latter is simpler and they are more flexible and react better to environment changes by means of adaptation changes.5 The necessary connection between the event and the generating cause present in the determinist model turns into a stochastic model in a relation that confirms as a whole, and not with absolutely all events and not always with the same measure. The 4e model employed in the risk management with projects This model takes into account the level of adequacy as a response measure in which the degree of implementation of the project management corresponds to the organizational needs, taking into account internal conditions and those of the external environment and the newly created value.6 The structure of this risk management model considers the satisfaction of the organization members. The value map is a tool projected within this model, which combines the value levels with the success levels within the project.

Lavinia Lopez, M.R.W. Hiebl, Management Accounting in Small and Medium-sized Enterprises: Current Knowledge and Avenues for further Research, Journal of Management Accounting Research, doi: 10.2308/jmar50915; 6 Dan VOICULESCU, Managementul riscului la accesarea şi gestionarea fondurilor europene, Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, 2015, pp. 23-26; 5

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Determining the value brought by the project management shows whether the adequacy degree is a key element, and the former measures the degree in which the project management implementation is in line with the organizational needs, being a strategic element in the organization.7 The model uses four value levels upon unfolding projects. Each element of the map allows interrogations by means of which the level of users’ appreciation can be established in relation with the value system. Success levels 4e

Employee efficiency (e1)

Process efficiency (e2)

Economically Expected benefits sustainable expenses (e4) (e3)

Portfolio Val. Innovation (v1)

Value levels

Program

Capabilities

Priorities

Financing

Strategy

Allotment

Plans

Business Plan

Share holders

Accountability

Implementatio n

Budget

Ethics

Productivity

Governing

Financial value

Sustainability

Val. Manag. (v2) Project Val. proiect (v3) Operations Val. Improvement (v4)

Figure 1 The value map8 These interrogations could constitute phases of intermediary process control, and this activity could prevent disparages and actively regulate the whole project. The environment in which projects unfold is one with unexpected evolutions, and this requires creativity and innovation in reaching goals. The measure efficiency and the success of the project is comprised in the following four dimensions:9 - employee efficiency; - process efficiency; - sustainable costs; - expected benefits. The advantages the given model entail for both a successful organizational climate and directly for managing risks in the project management mean the optimum identifying of priorities, the just evaluation of results, transparent procedure applying and good communication, as well as the increasing at the management level of the skills of identifying opportunities and competitive advantages. Michael E. PORTER, "What Is Strategy?" Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6, Nov.–Dec. 1996, pp. 61–78. Prelucrare după Dan VOICULESCU, apud, Ronan J. Murphy, Project Managing the Value System, Project Perspectives 2012, Vol. XXXIV, IPMA. 9 Dan VOICULESCU, Op. Cit., p. 26. 7 8

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IT MODELS EMPLOYED AS INTEGRATED SOLUTIONS IN THE RISK MANAGEMENT We need to mention in the end of the chapter the fact that risk is a multidimensional concept whose conceptualization cannot be narrowed down to a sole element or to number. It is vital for any organization to determine the acceptable risk level the former is ready to take, keeping the planned performance standard. Alongside with the relevance and the opportunity of the available data, the speed and the processing capacity are the key elements of the quantitative approach of risks and of the decision assisting of organizations nowadays. The IT instruments used in the risk management are getting more and more numerous and often employed. The most commonly used software products are the ones used in projects or the IT products dedicated to the project management. Such programs allow processing bulks of data large enough for reaching valid conclusions in the situation of a reasonable number of analyzed variables. In the case of software, friendly interfaces and available graphic options allow a relatively simple employment and designing products which are easy to be presented and highly understandable. The programs available on the market are different one from another in terms of processing capacity, the number and the complexity of variables used in the analysis, of the friendly usage and the ease of learning operating elements, as well as in terms of acquisition price. FINAL DISCUSSIONS For achieving risk control and especially for reducing the risk effect form the very moment of their emergence, risk management is necessary at all levels and throughout all phases of the activity, starting with plan and project designing, so that the envisioned effect of the risks to be clearly highlighted in the case of decision making. Each participating structure at the implementation of a level of risk analysis must be able to identify main risk factors that could emerge within unfolding the project. It is necessary that planned activities be part of a model which determines the exact methodology. Moreover, risk management can be carried out without allotting specialized human resources, financial, energetic, informational and IT resources, as well as ensuring the proper environment for each activity. Risk management is developing domain that requires concentration of force, means and energy with the aim of dealing with risks and reducing the effects the former have on the organization goals. In the military organization, as in any other organization, performance is highly appreciated in terms of results, and results improve in line with control and reducing risks. The complete elimination of risks is actually a totally hypothetical situation, accepted only by the formal logics. When we state that we have in mind the fact that in the military organization dangerous explosive materials are used and specific risky activities are carried out. We accept the fact that irrespective of the model employed in risk evaluation, a risk evaluated as being minor could generate a major impact if it is under-evaluated. Such an event, in the given context, can lead to injury, infirmity, death, technical destruction or damage.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9. 10.

BROOKS J. David, Security risk management: A psychometric map of expert knowledge structure, in Risk Management, Volume 13, Issue 1-2, 2011, Publisher Palgrave MacMillan, Basingstoke - United Kingdom, pp. 17-41; ROCEANU Ion, LUNGU Ciprian, Managementul cunoştinţelor în organizaţiile mari, Editura Universităţii Naţionale de Apărare Carol I, Bucureşti, 2013. de ALMEIDA Adiel Teixeira, CAVALCANTE Cristiano Alexandre Virgínio, HAZIN ALENCAR Marcelo, et al., Multicriteria and Multiobjective Models for Risk, Decision Analysis Reliability and Maintenance, Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland, 2015; LOPEZ Lavinia, HIEBL M.R.W., Management Accounting in Small and Mediumsized Enterprises: Current Knowledge and Avenues for further Research, Journal of Management Accounting Research, doi: 10.2308/jmar-50915; PORTER Michael E. , "What Is Strategy?" Harvard Business Review 74, no. 6 (Nov.– Dec. 1996): 61–78; SUKUMAR A., EDGARD D., GRANT K., An investigation of e-business risks in UK SMEs, World Review of Enterpreneurship Management and Suitable Developement, Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 380-401. VOICULESCU Dan, Managementul riscului la accesarea şi gestionarea fondurilor europene, Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj-Napoca, 2015; Metodologie de implementare a standardului de control intern “Managementul riscurilor”, Ministerul Finanţelor Publice, Unitatea Centrala de Armonizare a Sistemelor de Management Financiar şi Control, 2007, la www.mfinante.ro/control_prev/.../METOD_ IMPLEMENTARE_RISC.pdf. Standardul ISO 31000 / 2009 Managementul riscului. Principii şi linii directoare, în http://www.consultantacertificare.ro/stiri/standardul-pentru-managementul-risculuiiso-31000.html; http://www.consultanta-certificare.ro/stiri/iso-31010.html;

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EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT – AN ANALYSIS FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT CONCEPT Adriana RÎŞNOVEANU Associate professor, PhD., „CAROL I” National Defense University, [email protected] Abstract: The concept of „management” has already become a buzzword of specialists dealing with designing, developing, applying and evaluating the educational system and process. The management functions pertaining to military educational establishments have associated different functional responsibilities, such as: prevision, organising, leading, coordinating, controlling and evaluating the educational system and process. The given paper has as a starting point the general understanding of the term “management”, and in this light we have in mind identifying the particularities of the educational management, taking into account the characteristics of the educational process. Keywords: management, education, educational management

GENERAL MANAGEMENT It is well-known that management does not represent a natural, organic issue, or something mystical that could miraculously help us to get the wanted results. Management represents a product which is conceived, developed and put into practice by people preoccupied to find out optimal formulas of design, achievement and assessment of those objectives and activities so specific to any organization and, also, preoccupied to find some well-organized ways of thinking in complex organizational contexts. Broadly speaking, management requires the description in operational terms of what has to be done, how it must be done and, and as it is well-known, when and how it was done. Management is, in fact, an operating methodology, coherently and consistently applicable in the organizational framework, „a sum of rules and principles meant to carry out an activity, in its specific conditions, of efficiently managing the existing resources for achieving some preestablished end states/objectives”1. As a process, management can be defined as a coherent sum of activities (actions and operations) executed on a specific timeframe, through which the laws and principles of leadership are translated into practice in order to fulfill the strategic objectives of the organization, in an action manner full of efficiency and efficacy. Even though the „management” concept is a notorious term in the broad Anglo – American area, its etymology comes from the Latin language. The term itself comes from the Latin word „manus” – man, and as an action, it means „handling”, „piloting”. Etymologically, management means to keep in hand, to lead an action in an efficient and effective way. Therefore, we define management as being that rational, creative and coherent process through which a person (the manager) or a team (a managerial team) achieves through other elements (human resources, financial resources, relevant things, information) the proposed objectives of the organization. The term management is often used, in a wrong way, as being synonymous with other concepts, as follows: 1

Gherguţ, Alois, Management General şi strategic în educaţie. Ghid practic, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2007, p. 11.

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administration (sum of static operations meant for keeping track of/managing resources, goods, things);  operation (part of the process of running the business which aims at keeping and handling the allotted / given goods and resources);  organization (part of management which is aimed at structuring activities, resources and relations);  coordination, guidance, training2. From this point of view, for an accurate understanding of the management concept, we do appreciate as useful the comparative analysis made by Professor Romiţă Iucu between „administration” and „management”, which delineates the particularities of each approach, both the administrative and the managerial3 one: 

OBJECTIVES

SUCCES CRITERIA RESOURCES DECISION STRUCTURE

ROLES DESIRABLE ATTITUDES

SKILLS

ADMINISTRATION MANAGEMENT Formulated in general terms and Formulated as general strategic rarely revised or changed. objectives and accompanied by detailed short-term tasks, which can be revised. Avoiding errors. Performance is Seeking success. Most of the time, sometimes measurable. performance is measurable. They come second in line as objects They are placed in the center of of concern. attention, representing a primary task. Only a few decisions are made which A lot of decisions are made which will affect a lot of people, in the will affect a lot of persons, in timeabsence of any timing constraints. related restrictive conditions. Roles are defined in terms of Limited hierarchies, maximum responsibility domains. Considerable delegation of responsibility. hierarchies, limited delegation of responsibility. Referee Player Passive: the loading degree is Active: it tries to influence the determined from outside the system. environment. The best members are The best members are used to solve used to exploit opportunities. the issues occurred. Inaccessibility Pressure of the time factor. An regarding the time factor. Caution, accepted risk, in minimizing conformity, the emphasis falls on circumstances. The emphasis is on procedures. results, non-conformity and independence. Writing (producing mainly reports, Quantifying (mainly focused on notes). statistics, data).

Consequently, we believe that we can define management as being a chain of thinking and acting efforts through which the manager or its managerial team accomplishes:  prognosis, prediction, planning,  decision-making and organizing,  leadership and coordination,  control and evaluation 2 3

Idem, p. 12. Iucu, Romiţă, Management and gestiunea clasei de elevi, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2000, p. 42.

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of the process of transforming resources (material, human, financial, informational) in order to fulfill the organization’s objectives, in an optimal way. Another aspect that deserves our attention is the controversy generated by the following question: Is management an art or a science? Can the person who exercises the managerial act do it as a master in the field, based on his/her own knowledge and skills, or can he/she follow some universal scientific principles, practically proven and validated by repeated positive results? We believe that this dilemma was in fact generated by the specific way in which the concept of management has evolved throughout the history. The so-called birth certificate of „management” is the work entitled „The scientific management principles” (1911) belonging to F. Taylor, an engineer employed at Ford factory, at the beginning of the 20th century. Taylor tried to systematize some managerial principles applicable in an industrial production unit, principles necessary to increasing both labor productivity and employees’ satisfaction. Taylor’s concepts, extremely innovative at the time, turned the Ford factory into the highest labor productivity place, with the best paid employees and the biggest labor satisfaction in the car-making industry sector. Obviously, throughout the time, F. Taylor’s scientific management theory has faced improvements and amendments, renewals and revisions due to the scientific and intellectual efforts of other management theorists and practitioners, such as H. Fayol, M. Weber, E. Mayo, R. Likert, B. Warren etc. The new notions and concepts which occurred in the management theory framework were determined not only by the changes in the way of thinking, but also by the major change of the social, economic and financial contexts. Step by step, management has evolved from mainly art to mainly science, but without ever separating completely those two sides of this complex activity. Even though the managerial activity is based on a set of rational and scientific principles and specific working methods, one cannot ignore the personal traits of the manager (e.g. intuition, imagination, capacity of reaction etc.), his/her experience gained in similar situations, his/her capacity to use the particular contexts occurring on a daily basis, as a part of daily routine. On the other hand, management cannot remain at the level of improvisation, of short-term orientation, of activity based on „trial and error”. On the contrary, it must resort to acknowledging reality through scientific means, to analyzing processes, identifying principles and laws, to performing a careful and complex analysis of the impact of the internal and external factors over organizational activities; it must have long-term orientation; it must use complete and complex information; it must be directed towards action, creativity and adaptability. In conclusion, management is both an art and a science, but it cannot be reduced, as activity and practical process, to only one of them. The rigor, precision and predictability given by the scientific instruments of management (concepts, principles, methods, laws) must intertwine in the managerial act with intuition, creativity, flexibility and adaptability. EDUCATION The term „education” comes from the Latin word “educatio” – a process of nurturing ideas in order to take somebody out from an inferior-natural status and raise him/her to a superior-cultural status; in Latin “educere” means “bringing up”. We appreciate the following definition of education, belonging to Professor Iona Nicola, as being comprehensive and highly explicit: „education is a complex social activity performed through an endless chain of actions done in a conscious, systematic and organized way, in which, at every moment, a subject is acting upon an object in order to transform it in

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an active and creative personality that corresponds to both current and future social request and its individual potential”4. Therefore, education is a complex process through which on the one hand, society passes to the young generations its knowledge and cultural heritage and, on the other hand, individuals filter and exploit knowledge, skills and attitudes, becoming themselves active people and members of society. The process itself is not univocal but bi-univocal and creative. Education is not the equivalent of a social taming activity in which the individual’s interests do not have any relevance. This must be a win-win situation: on the one hand, for the individual and his/her personal life, on the other hand for the social framework in which the individuals integrate themselves. Education must take into consideration the relevant curricula for life and the needs of a society facing a permanent transformation process. Education must be a dynamic process so as to be able to effectively contribute reaching certain relevant objectives, beneficial to the entire society and its members. Education must make the future graduates capable of provoking desirable social changes, concomitantly with preserving all the positive cultural values. The term education is correlated with the concepts of teaching-learning and training. With respect to the management processes, we find it very interesting to delineate them and offer some explanations useful for their differentiating among them. The teaching-learning process is the institutionalized form of education. Under the umbrella of teaching-learning system the teaching process is run, that is the systemic, coherent, volunteer and finality-oriented way of education. The teaching process is run by the professionals in education (the teachers) in large intervals of time (teaching cycles, years), in well-delineated institutional and organizational frameworks5. Training refers to the cognitive dimension of education. By training, the intellectual and professional formation of the trained people is accomplished. As a consequence, a trained person is not necessarily an educated person. Education refers to the preoccupation for developing all the sides of personality of those subjected to education, i. e. the cognitive, affective, motivational, aptitude–vocational, physical, aesthetic sides. We appreciate it as being really necessary to make this conceptual differentiation as we do want to address the next logical notion, respectively that of „educational management”, and not the „management of teaching” or the management of training”. EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT In the educational realm, the way of defining management was based on the way the concept was explained theoretically and practically in other scientific domains, such as economy, political science or sociology. For a consistent period of time, the specific concept used for designating the „piloting” of an educational unit was that of „leadership”. Nowadays, in order to face the current cultural, economic and social complexity, the term „leadership” was replaced by „management”, which means more than leadership and even includes it. On the other hand, management imposes a specific and scientific background oriented towards theories, principles and methods which have proven their efficiency and efficacy in the managerial practice which also constituted their origin. As it is suggested by the verbal label associated to the concept itself, „educational management” designates a number of complex activities taking place in the educational organizations, or in the institutions which establish rules and supervise education, used as 4 5

Nicola, Ioan, Tratat de pedagogie şcolară, EDP, Bucureşti, 1994, p. 22. Ştefan, Mircea, Lexicon pedagogic, Ed. Aramis, Bucureşti, 2006, pp. 179-180.

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tools for predicting, planning, organizing, leading and coordinating, controlling and assessing the educational process itself and its supportive elements (financial, administrative, human resources etc.). Which exactly is the role of management in an educational organization? Here are a few possible answers:  Studying the future educational perspectives stemming out from the educational policies promoted and applicable at a national scale. Making predictions regarding the educational needs of those benefiting from the process, in a correlated way with the specific macro-social and economic developments. Planning education, starting from de macro plan/perspective that contains the general targets, the ways of approaching them and the procedures recommended, and ending with the micro organizational and administrative plan/perspective. From this point of view, educational management processes will focus on formulation of the organizational objectives and the determination of the effective ways of achieving them. This is a phase in which the educational manager makes some decisions and acts accordingly so as to assure the future success and efficacy of the entire educational organization, of each department taken separately, as well as of himself/herself as a manager.  Procuring and managing the necessary resources for achieving the goals and objectives assumed (financial, logistic, and human). Making current decisions and solving problems, establishing optimal communication  with the personnel of the educational organization for building up efficient teams.  Organizing and coordinating all the activities inside the organization in order to achieve the objectives with maximum efficiency and efficacy.  Influencing and stimulating the organization’s human resources for accomplishing the assumed objectives and for getting the desired performances.  Assessing the activities taking place in the educational organization by comparing them with the initially formulated plans.  Planning courses and coordinating the schedules of the teachers attending the classes.  Organizing and running the teaching activities.  Mediating and solving conflicts, managing stress in the educational organization.  Developing a supportive educational climate.  Counseling and supporting the teaching staff in their evolution career-wise.  Managing the budget. CONCLUSIONS All the above mentioned elements may lead us to draw certain some specific peculiarities of educational management which should be taken into consideration by any educational manager while he/she fulfills his/her specific tasks. Education is a process that involves human interaction: on the one hand the grownups/adult generation, on the other hand the youngsters/young generation, respectively, on the one hand the teachers, on the other hand the pupils/students. Even though formally they are not part of educational organization, the pupils/students are included in its human resource, and the management processes must be particularly focused on them. The pupils/students, those mainly benefiting from the educational system, are both partners in and outcome of the educational process. From the perspective of the educational goals and, implicitly, of the organization’s objectives, the daily activities and educational practices, the pupil/student must represent a permanent mark of the process itself. Due to this reason, an essential component for ensuring success at the educational organization level is the management of the faculty corps and of the pupils/students corps. The knowledge, skills, values and attitudes, as results of the teaching-learning process, are 291

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present at their level and the objectives are translated into practice through them. The nice atmosphere, the supportive climate, the degree of satisfaction, the feeling of belonging, contentment, motivation, optimism, appreciation, cooperation are some distinctive elements that describe a healthy environment and normal relationships developed from the managerial level through an appropriate style of leadership and attitude towards subordinates. Moreover, counseling the teachers with respect to their possibilities of development and professional evolution is an important component of educational management. The management of the pupils/students corps implies the adoption of another vision over the role of the young generations. Education is nothing else but an investment made by the grown-ups in a particular type of future. The partnership with the pupils/students is very important from the managerial process perspective. It is recommended that the decisions concerning and directed towards the pupils/students be discussed with them and communicated openly in a relationship of mutual trust and respect. If this does not happen, the consequence will be some apparent obedience to the authority or its cancellation. In the educational field, efficiency and efficacy have different dimensions as compared to those pertaining to the production-economic field. The emphasis must be, first of all, on quality. The teaching-learning results can be described by the following verbs: „to have” (to assimilate, to accumulate, to absorb new knowledge), especially „to be” (to promote values, attitudes and behaviors) and „to do” (to be able to demonstrate working skills, abilities, working algorithms). There are educational acquisitions which can be proven (i. e. Mendeleev’s periodic table, historical data, mathematical theorems), but also there are accumulations in quality made over considerable periods of time which can barely be brought up to the surface, revealed and quantitatively measured (i. e. personality traits, promoted attitudes, social behaviors). As a result, an assessment of the profound and often valuable results of education cannot be accurately performed, unless we sacrifice quality for the sake of quantity. Besides grades and classifications, the pupils/students’ assessment should be also done in a descriptive manner, by addressing all the quality aspects of each pupil/student’s personality evolution. The grades not only demonstrate the degree of success, but also personal involvement, devotion, generosity, selflessness, and perseverance, things that can be hardly be assessed by an ordinary grade. Educational management is rather a soft process than a hard one. You can hardly make economic analysis and reports without being accused of futile and useless exaggeration. In our opinion, the main concern of any educational manager should be directed towards the satisfaction of every pupil/student who at the moment of graduating school/highschool/college considers himself/herself as being ready to live and enjoy a good standard living in a word confronted with a permanent reconfiguration. If an economic unit has as main value its „efficiency”, a public institution, such as the educational institution, has as main value the „responsibility” for the quality of its final outcome, that is, consciously assuming and fully accomplishing its role in the social dimension. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4.

Gherguţ, Alois, Management general şi strategic în educaţie. Ghid practic, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2007; Iucu, Romiţă, Managementul şi gestiunea clasei de elevi, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi, 2000; Nicola, Ioan, Tratat de pedagogie şcolară, EDP, Bucureşti, 1994; Ştefan, Mircea, Lexicon pedagogic, Ed. Aramis, Bucureşti, 2006.

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LIBERAL ARTS AND THE MILITARY Anca GÂŢĂ Professor PhD, Director of the Research Center “Discourse Theory and Practice”, “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi [email protected] Abstract: This study discusses the contribution of general education, mainly humanities and critical thinking abilities training, to leadership development, military graduates’ decision making process in army operations and success. Romanian higher education institutions in the field of military sciences and engineering can use with fruitful outcomes training and research results in humanities and social sciences to enhance their graduates’ leadership and crisis management skills. With respect to this, reading and commenting on fiction and non-fiction works may be essential in developing critical questioning since these provide illustrations of real life issues. This enhances trainees’ abilities of considering individuals and society more closely, making sense of paradox, developing interpersonal and cross-cultural tact, and thinking “outside the box”. This claim is supported by ideas taken from U.S. Army documents and American officers’ testimonies which provide a discussion basis for possible strategic middle and long term changes in the Romanian higher education system. Keywords: argumentative competences, critical thinking, cultural awareness, languages, liberal arts, the military

INTRODUCTION In a recent PhD dissertation defended with Georgetown University, J.G. Kaufmann1 (2015) [1] argues that “a liberal arts education is the best means of producing the leaders that the Army itself has described in its own literature as ideal”. I am not adopting this claim completely in this study, but I am advancing the standpoint that research in humanities and social sciences may have a critical impact upon Romanian military higher education, as it may have one upon Romanian higher education in engineering, sciences, and liberal professions. The Bologna educational reform has brought to European students the advantage of fewer class activities, by diminishing the amount of time spent by students attending lectures, and by providing them with more free time for individual work. Compared to what happened twenty years ago or more, the Romanian student has about half that amount of class interaction, being supposed to prepare larger assignments in the library and at home. I do not know of many studies considering how Romanian students really use this free time to enhance their training for the profession. With respect to this, my questions to educational professionals are: How do Romanian students use this free time today on an everyday basis? Does the school provide enough tools for Romanian students to make the most of the free time they are blessed with? I am not answering myself these questions here, and I think that specialists in higher education strategies are expected to answer them sooner or later – sooner would be better.

Kaufmann, U.S. Army Retired Colonel, has an experience as “NATO, Senior Army Fellow, airborne aviation battalion commander, OSD Balkans Task Force Director, USMA Assistant Professor of English, and G-3/5/7 tours”. Cf. Thomas E. Ricks, “Liberal arts and military officers (II): To get the officers it says it wants, the Army should give them liberal arts educations”. In Foriegn Policy, Nov 5, 2015. http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/11/05/liberal-arts-and-military-officers-ii-to-get-the-officers-it-says-it-wants-thearmy-should-give-them-liberal-arts-educations/ Accessed on Feb 15, 2016. 1

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What I am trying to do is provide a view into how non specialist written discourse and critical comments about issues tackled in such contexts can contribute to a better use of at least: 1) the amount of time available to students in extra class life; 2) the information widely available on the Internet today and in the databases accessible via libraries of higher education institutions. The first section of my study presents specialist informed, army personalities’, and ordinary professionals’ viewpoints about the contribution of liberal arts to military education and their potential. The second section provides some clues for identifying paths towards enhancing military education by thorough study of languages and critical approaches to fictional and non fictional discourse. Students may complete such tasks outside the class if they are provided with rightly conceived tools and training, including the confidence that liberal education makes each individual different from another and open to the Other – this is the contents of the third section of this study. This study may contribute to the debate around the idea that, in the Romanian context, “an educational strategy for the initial training of human resources for the Ministry of Defense should be developed in line with national and European policies in the field, materialized in the particularities specific to military environment.”2 [2] It focuses however on a broader view of this “educational strategy” by pointing to the North-American experience and expertise in the field. The idea I support along the study is that a good citizen, a successful leader, and an excellent officer are not made only by “professional training”, but mainly by developing intellectual skills, versatility, and diverse cultural knowledge. CONTRIBUTION OF LIBERAL ARTS TO MILITARY EDUCATION The term “liberal arts” has almost become forgotten in the Romanian contemporary setting and even in academia. The main possible reason of this may be the so long communist history that this people has witnessed, which has had as an outcome a change of mentality and, probably, a deep modification of mental representations of what is needed to be “free”. More largely, Europe has quite given up the study of liberal arts in academia, with curricula designed more pragmatically and with a more focused attention to the employment market requiring good engineers, accountants, economists, physicians, etc. This is not quite the case in the United States, where a more conservative approach to education has been maintained to “round up” the graduate so as to educate one as a citizen and train him/her as a free thinking specialist. Liberalia studia, as they called them in Latin, or liberal arts, as we call them today in English, are defined as a group of scholar subjects that an individual is expected to study in order to be able to think freely, independently, and behave according to such a line of thought. These subjects used to be grouped together as Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and Quadrivium (arithmetic, astronomy, music, and geometry). The contemporary equivalents of these are mainly represented by literature, languages, philosophy, history, mathematics, and sciences. Along the years, colleges and universities in the U.S. have preserved, as long as they could afford it, a liberal education for many student cohorts. The importance of liberal arts in citizen, leadership, and military education is not discussed only in Kaufmann (2013). General Charles de Gaulle highlights in his writings the idea that the power of mind involves versatility coming from the exercise of one’s profession, but also of the individual’s general education3. William G. Durden, president of Dickinson College of Liberal Arts since 1999, Petcu, 2015, 338. Quoted by Brian Hanley, Planning for Conflict in the Twenty-first Century (Westport. Connecticut / London: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008), 130.

2 3

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and also a 1971 graduate of the Army Reserve Officers’ Training Corps, mentions a joint initiative of Vassar College and the U.S. Military Academy to organize “a discussion for their students on Military Academies and the Liberal Arts.”4 Higbee (2010) [3] highlights the following ideas: “A fundamental component of the United States’ system of government places the president, an elected civilian, as the commander in chief of the armed forces. This arrangement helps hold together what in many ways are opposing forces: on the one hand, the president is the highest official in a political system that functions chiefly via rhetorical power; on the other hand, the president is the head of a military whose chief function is to exercise sheer physical force.” 5 This shows that the military function and the rhetorical skill, dwelling on liberal education, may be seen as opposites, but nevertheless somewhat merged into one essential attribute, that of driving the guides of a democracy and freedom, in the person of the American president, in this context. Higbee continues: “For a democracy, having the president serve (together with the assistance of the civilian secretary of defense) as the leader of the military has the clear advantage of limiting the autonomy of the military, for an independent military can lead to militarism or worse. At the same time, having a commander-in-chief whose stock in verbal trade is verbal suasion carries with it the responsibility of the military being used for partisan reasons.” 6 It is thus again reminded that the main function of a state leader endowed with military power is to trade offices “verbally” and to use one’s position by exercising “verbal suasion”. In this context, the underlying idea is that owning full military power and offices does not exempt the holder from addressing the large community with the versatile “power of mind”, which meets de Gaulle’s desiderate. And in order to do this at its best one does not only needs experienced counselors in all fields, but also a freedom of thought and of action driven by liberal skills. Durden (2013) also provides some insights to liberal arts education for the military, by stating, for instance, that the U.S. “Constitution decrees civilian leadership of the military a necessity for a liberal democracy” and that “a nation whose success depends upon an engaged and informed populace demands an education far different from the isolated model that was prevalent throughout 18th-century Europe, and upon which America’s colonial, theologically oriented colleges and universities had been modeled”.7 These quotations are meant to bring into discussion a perspective on training in military higher education schools (and not only), which does not rely solely on the illuminist ideal, but also on the use of critical thinking competences informed and developed in a modern and innovative academic environment. ENHANCING MILITARY EDUCATION IN ROMANIA BY LANGUAGE TRAINING, DISCOURSE APPROACH, AND CRITICAL THINKING While not leaving aside the importance of the study of mathematics and sciences, as representatives of modern liberal arts, this study looks more closely at the necessity of enhancing study of these subjects in the present-day Romanian academic context with a solid education of the military in languages, literature, philosophy, and history. While history may be quite well represented in the Romanian military academic curriculum, the study holds that a necessary adjustment of this curriculum should be in view with respect to humanities. Foreign language training is present in the curriculum, but, as a rule, a small number of class activities is devoted to it. Most military institutions, if not all, focus on training “A Liberal-Arts Home for the Military”, Feb 25, 2015. http://chronicle.com/article/A-Liberal-Arts-Home-forthe/137539/. Accessed on Feb 9, 2016. 5 Higbee, 1. 6 Ibidem. 7 See note 5 above. 4

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students for the practice of English. Liberal education, if any, in Romanian military schools should rely upon the idea that English as a compulsory subject in the whole curriculum is even more important than physics, mathematics, economics, and history to the education of a military officer, since it ensures the basis for worldwide communication. Its existence in the curriculum needs a sound and stronger support from the governmental authorities, so that English is studied as a second language, not merely as a foreign or an additional language. Romanian specialists’ advice in second language acquisition is to be taken into due consideration with respect to reforming and adapting the curriculum to this need. A second idea advanced here is that academic military schools should also include another “foreign” language all over the curriculum. Or else, the curriculum should allow future military officers to choose among a range of liberal subjects among which another language than English. Thirdly, military academic curricula should also include what is not included in most Romanian academic curricula, i.e. the study of Romanian composition, starting from essay writing to more developed argumentative, or discursive, texts. This is a necessity for any intellectual educated in a university belonging to the civilized world. Yet critical thinking is a capacity developed by practice in speech or written discourse, which the Romanian academic school does not enforce enough, maintaining a tradition of somewhat large classes, in which most students, depending on their main field of study do not have the time to build this ability. This is why some liberal subjects should be made into the core of professional education, which was an idea introduced in the first years of academic reform in Romania after 1989. Few understood it, it was applied inconsistently, and it faded almost completely after several years of continuous reform of the higher education system, eventually being demolished by the introduction of the Bologna reform after less than two decades after the fall of communism. Reduction of the bachelor programs to three years of study in humanities, sciences, and social sciences, and to four years in engineering has again diminished the interest for maintaining liberal education as core student training. Enhancing the argumentative and persuasive competences of military officers is, in my opinion, as important as their professional knowledge. These are competences which can be introduced in class and developed outside class, if students are made aware of the rules governing the enhancement of such competences. Development of argumentative competences, going in hand with practice of critical thinking, may well rely on the introduction of Essay Writing and Composition in Romanian in the first year of the academic curriculum, and later in English. This allows for future military professionals a sound basis for communication with colleagues in other states and on the operation sites. A fourth line of thought in the perspective of an educational change in military schools is an introduction to reading skills and techniques: the study of literature – fiction and nonfiction (history, travel impressions, touristic guides, art history, etc.). Practicing reading as a task and as an academic subject allows for discussion of problematic issues of everyday life and of modern society ensuring the basis for later development of critical thought. Presenting one’s own opinion in a reasonable way is essential to modern society, and this is not an innate or intuitive ability: “Many of us feel uncomfortable in the world of reasoned opinion because we just don’t understand the rules.”8 [4] These rules are learned gradually if a government is interested in this and provides some funds for training its citizens in academia with respect to developing their critical abilities. Moreover, there is an important difference between achieving liberal education, on the one hand, and specialist or professional instruction, on the other, in activities outside the class. Liberal education does not need a particular environment and logistics to be achieved by each individual. Once the military 8

Emilio, 2000, vi.

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student is trained to think critically and to express opinion in a reasonable way, this becomes an everyday practice, in all sorts of social environments. It may provide the trainee with the confidence that speaking one’s own opinion in a reasoned way is a tactic of creating one’s own identity and building up a strong intellectual image of oneself. This is the image to be successfully displayed in professional meetings, discussions, and decision making, and an important component of leadership and citizenship. STRATEGIC TRAINING AND TOOL DESIGN FOR A LIBERAL EDUCATION OF THE MILITARY Along the preceding remarks, it should be pointed that governmental programs can be created to fund the personal development of students and their professors or tutors. Directing governmental funds to public bodies and universities for such programs is not necessarily a new initiative. In this line of argument, an excellent example is that of the systemic project funded from the Romanian Government in October-November 2014, providing a (too) small amount of money (roughly 150 EUR per person) to teaching personnel in schools and universities for personal and professional development. This initiative was variously approached in the media and in casual conversations, and amply criticized for its spontaneous appearance by some. Leaving aside the alleged political implications of the approaching presidential elections, which are of no interest here, the reasons for critics may have been the following: the initiative was unclearly and insufficiently documented, the information about the program was almost inexistent, although large amounts of procedural text were disseminated to public educational institutions, the outcomes were to be produced too quickly, so that the teaching personnel were quite at a loss with the procedures to be applied in order to achieve the goals of the project. What the program should have ultimately achieved is an idea favored and advanced by this study: personal development is the basis for sound professional achievement. It still depends on how well such a program is documented and on which principles it relies upon. The term “personal development” refers here to spiritual, intellectual, and cultural development, in the sense of liberal development. In other words, the more accomplished an individual is and feels on the personal level, the more performing one is on the professional level. The amount of funds provided for an individual in the afore mentioned context should have been sufficient for: (a) participation in a professional conference (which was mentioned in the project procedures, but there was little time or no time at all for identification or registration for such an event, so many professionals could not use this procedure); (b) a cultural visit (in Romania or abroad – this too was impeded by the lack of time and of planning, and also not clearly stipulated in the procedures); (c) buying professional or cultural documentation or logistics for personal use (again unclear in the program methodology); etc. This can be further criticized, which is not my point here. The example briefly summarized above can also be seen positively, especially under point (b) above as a starting practice in extra-curricular development for the military, to be more thoroughly documented, applied to teaching personnel, and extended to students. Teaching personnel and students in military schools are to be seen as positively discriminated beneficiaries of such a program since they belong to an avant-garde “platoon” in a civilized state. This should be meant to give them further cultural awareness. Such an initiative relies however on a large interest and involvement of the teaching personnel in cultural development, by a willingness to organize and lead cultural visits with and for students. Financial support from the program would also be needed for the involvement of specialized tour agents and communication with equivalent public bodies. Especially for students, this is supposed to reinforce their feelings of national identity and leadership when exposed to local, regional, and national cultures. 297

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This can be supplemented by a governmental program procedure of funded (d) participation of military faculty and students in foreign and second language courses to make them proficient or more fluent in the languages they already use, and open their appetite for other languages – and also cultural knowledge. The creation of such a long term governmental program needs creativity and versatility so as to expose military personnel to “cultural”, “liberal” endeavors which they may find rewarding and also challenging. The initiative of such a program can be seen as an example of good practice, and further extended to other academic areas and different types of cultural and liberal arts projects. It might amply contribute to the development of the military human resources. FINAL REMARKS Romanian universities are autonomous, yet funded by the government. But both the government and the universities should cooperate in setting up about national educational priorities and in making strategic decisions about the professionals they are providing with a specific kind of training. This is also the case with military academic education. The study highlights several lines of thought according to which being a good or an excellent professional is not the only result of specialist and technical skills training. An individual gets alienated by the only practice of one’s own profession and thinking patterns. This often results in fatigue, stress, and other “specialist” or “professional” diseases characteristic of the latest decades. This may be counterbalanced by slightly reforming and renewing the military academic curriculum by the introduction or reinforcement of subjects meant to foster students’ critical thinking abilities, discursive and speech skills in Romanian, fluency or proficiency in English, knowledge of other languages, and (cross-) cultural awareness. These are essential components to professional training in all fields, not only for the military. These abilities are developed in time, and the basis should be set in the training process in universities, not to be allocated only to the professional context and activity. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3.

4. 5.

6.

KAUFMANN, Joseph Gregory, Jr, The Military Imperative for the Liberal Arts, PhD Dissertation, Georgetown University, Washington, 2015. https://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/760887. Accessed on Feb 10, 2016. PETCU, Vasile, “Educational strategy of initial training (professional qualification) of human resources for the national defense ministry – perspectives”. In Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference “Strategies XXI”, Command and Staff Faculty, vol. 2: 336-341. 2015. HIGBEE, Douglas, “Introduction” – “Intersections”. In Military Culture and Education: Current Intersections of Academic and Military Cultures, edited by Douglas Higbee, 1-6. Farnham / Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2013. EMILIO, George A., Promoting Critical Thinking in Professional Military Education, A Research Report Submitted to the Faculty in Partial Fulfillment of the Graduation Requirements, Advisor: Lieutenant Colonel Michael Simpkins. Alabama: Maxwell Air Force Base, 2000. www.au.af.mil/au/awc/awcgate/acsc/00-058.pdf Accessed on Jan 31, 2016.

This study was supported by an ordinary individual research grant funded by “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galaţi for the annual research plan included in the strategy of the Research Center “Discourse Theory and Practice”.

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WORK ERGONOMY Sorina-Mihaela MARDAR Assisting professor, ‘Carol I’ National Defence University [email protected] Abstract: The work ergonomics was formed as a science in the 50s’ and represents a superior step in the scientific organization of work. The founder of this science is F. Taylor, who studied the principles or workplace organization from a scientific point of view. “The ergonomics is the scientific discipline which studies the interaction between peoples and other elements of a system, as well as the profession which applies theories, principles, information and design methods in order to optimize men activity and the performances of the system”1. The etymology of term “ergonomics” can be found in Greek: “ergos” means work and “nomos” means natural law. Ergonomics studies the problems of workplace organization, underlying the psycho-social factors, placing on the front line the worker with its solicitations. The object of study of the ergonomics is represented the mensolicitations system which includes work motivation, work conditions, environments, social interactions, personal preoccupations. Therefore, we can say that ergonomics is connected to many other sciences, such as: psychology, sociology, work-medicine, work-protection, physiology and technical and economical sciences. Keywords: ergonomics, workplace conditions, evaluation.

INTRODUCTION The work ergonomics was formed as a science in the 50s’ and represents a superior step in the scientific organization of work. The founder of this science is F. Taylor, who studied the principles or work-place organization from a scientific point of view. “The ergonomics is the scientific discipline which studies the interaction between peoples and other elements of a system, as well as the profession which applies theories, principles, information and design methods in order to optimize men activity and the performances of the system” 2. The etymology of term “ergonomics” can be found in Greek: “ergos” means work and “nomos” means natural law. Ergonomics studies the problems of workplace organization, underlying the psychosocial factors, placing on the front line the worker with its solicitations. The object of study of the ergonomics is represented the men-solicitations system which includes work motivation, work conditions, environments, social interactions, personal preoccupations. Therefore, we can say that ergonomics is connected to many other sciences, such as: psychology, sociology, work-medicine, work-protection, physiology and technical and economical sciences. Ergonomics and the workingplace The ergonomic organization of the working place mains to harmonize the working place elements (work means, work force) in order to allow the employee to undertake a good activity with minimum energy consumption and with the feeling of good physiological state. The time required to achieve every operation depends on the organization of the working place. Principles for an ergonomic organization of the working places -

1 2

Movement ergonomy allows employees exemption of futile effort, the removal of fatigue sensation and, maintain availability of working at a satisfactory level;

Definiţie adoptată în august 2000 de către Consiliul director al Asociaţiei Internaţionale de Ergonomie. Definiţie adoptată în august 2000 de către Consiliul director al Asociaţiei Internaţionale de Ergonomie.

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Concurrent execution of passive surveillance activities of equipment operation; Concurrent execution of manual work with both hands; Movements can be reduced by proper planning of the workplace - appropriate choice of the location of equipment will allow a decreasing path of travel. Tips for a good organization of workplaces:

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on your working surface maintain only those devices which are used in that day; each material/device should have its own place; materials/devices used often will be placed closer to user, those used rarely will be placed farther from user; the office and the desk should be well illuminated; the seat height should be adjusted; the desk height should be adjusted; the standing activities and sitting activities should be well combined.

Questionnaire regarding the self-evaluation of the ergonomic organization of our office Nr. crt.

DA √

ITEM

1.

Is the room where is your office pleasant/attractive?

2.

Is your office well lit?

3.

The windows from your office have blinds?

4.

6.

Hallways, ramps and stairs are well lit? Is your workingspace private enough in order to conduct your activities? Do you have a correct sitting position at your desk?

7.

Has your desk footrest?

8.

Your seat height can be adjusted?

9.

Your chair has ergonomic backrest?

5.

10. The space in your office is protecting you from excessive heat? 11. The space in your office is protecting you from excessive cold? 12. The space in your office is protecting you from excessive noise? 13. Is there a ventilation system in your office? 14. Is your office clean (dusted desks, vacuumed floors, cleaned windows)? 15. Do you maintain order on your desk, so that everyone should feel comfortable? 16. Are you allowed to customize your workplace (paintings, photos etc.)? 17. Is your working place offering you a resting period? 18. Is your working place offering you resting facilities (sitting, eating, discussing)? 300

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19. Is your working place offering you easy access to first-aid facilities? 20. Do you have a meeting/training room? 21. Is this room nicely arranged, according to the purpose? 22. Have you been envolved in arranging/designing your office? 23. The standing activities and sitting activities are well combined? Are the working instruments/devices well placed, so that you 24. have easy access (PC /laptop, keyboards, printer, copymachine, scanner)? Your office space is large enough to accommodate everything 25. needed without feeling uncomfortable (shelves, papers, files, books)? The questions answered with “yes” are part of the ergonomic organization of your working place. For the questions which have “no” as answer, take another peace of paper and note: - why was your answer “no”?

- is it necessary to change that element?

- is that element changeable?

- in what direction should that element be changed?

- is in your power to make that change?

- if the change is necessary, is possible, but is not up to you to realize it, will you inform your superior about this?

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

Burloiu, Petre: Managementul resurselor umane, Bucuresti, Lumina-Lex, 1997. Enache, I: Organizarea ergonomica a muncii in birou, Bucuresti, Ed. Universitatii, 1999. Gheorghe, Adrian V: Birotica, Bucuresti, 1989. Godnig, E.; Hacunda, J: Computerul si stresul, Bucuresti, Antet, 199 Naftanaila, I: Birotica si performanta manageriala, Bucuresti, ASE, 2000. Naftanaila, I.; Colesca, S.E: Birotica cu aplicatii in management, Bucuresti, ASE, 1998. Nicolescu, O.; Verboncu, I: Management, Bucuresti, Ed. Economica, 1998. Pana, A.; Ionescu, B.; Mares, V: Birotica, Bucuresti, 1996. Socobeanu, I.; Socobeanu, Iordana: Secretele secretariatelor, Bucuresti, Eficient, 1998. www.ergonomie.ro MSc in Health Ergonomics - Distance Learning - University of Derby, UK MSc in AppliedErgonomics - Distance Learning - University of Nottingham, UK MSc Ergonomics and Safety at Work - University of Cranford, UK Postgraduate Diploma & Master of Science Degree in Health Ergonomics - Robens Centre for Health Ergonomics, UK Ergonomics & Human Factors MSc programmes - Loughborough University, UK

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF MILITARY FLYING TRAINING SYSTEMS FROM ROMANIA AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Eduard-Ionuţ MIHAI LTC AF, „Henri Coandă“ Air Force Academy, [email protected] Oliver CIUICĂ LTC AF, „Henri Coandă“ Air Force Academy, [email protected] Abstract: Education organization into cycles or levels of study, together with the concept of career orientation, comprises both shared features, as well as significant dissimilarities, when the two Romanian and American training systems are compared. Accordingly, the aim of the current paper consists of a qualitative analysis meant to prove the necessity of adjusting curricula to the exigencies of the geopolitical reality within the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and to identify both strong common and distinctive points of the military pilots training programs in the Romanian Air Force and the United States Air Force. Keywords: reform, Air Force, education, pilots, curricula

INTRODUCTION The current status of the military flying training within the Romanian Air Force is being built on one of the world’s oldest foundations in the field of training flying personnel, thus obviously reflecting both the tradition and experience that have been accumulated through all the years. The student pilot training programs designed by the educational institutions subordinated to the Air Force Staff, namely, “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy and “Aurel Vlaicu” Flight School, are presently characterized by their efforts of aligning to the NATO and EU partner defense force standards. The main three directions that have been focused on within this paper are in connection with the academic, military and flying training. The intended purpose is to offer an image related to the present approach to training military pilots, including its strong and weak points. In an environment subjected to a continuous transformation, at a rapid rate, the Romanian Air Force needs to keep pace with its flying personnel training and to obtain a finite product that meets all standards in force. ASPECTS REGARDING THE ACADEMIC TRAINING Aspects displaying differences and that need improvement or even complete restructuring are perceptible from the very initial phase, namely, the admission to air force academies in the United States of America and Romania. The admission process reflects the quality of the raw product that is to be worked on during the training program, and the selection process degree of difficulty is directly proportional with the level of the final performance index. Thus, in order for a candidate to become a student of the “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, within the flying personnel training program, a high-school graduate needs to take 303

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two written examinations, in English and Mathematics and to pass physical fitness and medical test, all of which are of medium level of difficulty. In the United States, the Air Force Academy adheres to a principle of evaluation of the “whole” or of the “whole-person” concept; therefore, high-school graduates are assessed in both theoretical knowledge (highschool grade-point average, Scholastic Assessment Test/SAT score, admission score), and physical and extra-curricular performance. Moreover, candidates need to be proposed by a competent authority so as to be allowed to participate in the selection process, and they are required a number of three recommendations from three teachers. The final steps consist of an interpretation of all data by the selection commission and of a final interview that will establish which of the candidates are admitted to the academy.1 It is worth mentioning that the admission rate to academy is approximately 10 percent of initial applicants (in the year of 2015, out of 9706 candidates, only 1190 were accepted).2 As far as the academic training is concerned there are also differences and they derive from the structure of the programs of study. A key advantage of the American cadets is the fact that the United States Air Force Academy preserves its role of university; therefore, its main objective focuses on education and skills development through higher studies and it offers a great array of choices for the bachelor’s degree and its pertaining majors. The academic program in the United States is mainly oriented toward developing intellect and character and forming leadership abilities in its cadets, different from “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy, which aims at a development oriented toward three simultaneous directions: academic excellence, military training and specialized training. The American cadets are, in this respect, also advantaged by the possibility of choosing one or more of the twenty-four majors for the bachelor’s degree and also by the fact that they are offered the opportunity to personally manage the loads of courses they are going to take. Differentiated education implemented in the United States allows the cadets to participate in a range of additional advanced programs meant to develop in them abilities beyond the standardized level. Aspects related to the character development turn the scale decisively in favor of the American academy, both due to its Officer Development System/ODS and due to the fact that “Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy does not benefit from and does not run a similar program. The military academy of Colorado Springs adopted the concept of “character leader” and it considers necessary for its trained personnel to prove solid moral values, such as integrity, respect to their peers’ dignity and to national values, responsibility and discipline. In order to achieve this objective, a Center for Character and Leadership Development/CCLD3 was established and it is structured into four independent modules that are taught throughout the four years of study. At the same time, CCLD administering the four modules requires of cadets to complete these courses at a level that is at least satisfactory, so long as an impeccable conduct is one of the basic criteria for the selection of officers that will further be part of the Air Force elites. The leader’s spirit is one of the main objectives of the academies training military personnel for the officer corps, yet, different percentages of the two higher education institutions’ efforts are directed toward leadership abilities development. In case of the Romanian military training, the military organization of the academy is the only element that imposes the assignment of commanding officers for various microstructures, but these “U.S. Air Force Academy-Admissions”, accessed January 26, 2016, on http://www.academyadmissions.com/admissions/the-application-process/application-steps/ 2 “U.S. Air Force Academy-Admissions”, accessed January 29, 2016, on http://www.academyadmissions.com/admissions/advice-to-applicants/all-applicants/ 3 “United States Air Force Academy's Center for Character and Leadership Development”, accessed January 30, 2016, on http://www.usafa.edu/Commandant/cwc/?catname=cwc 1

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officers hold limited responsibility or possibility to enforce the act of command. Unlike the Romanian reality, the American military training, the institution’s needs and the command of various structures and microstructures are entirely assured by cadets. In their case, active officers function as supervising instructors and their interventions are as limited as possible and only for such circumstances as to correct major faults in management or conduct. Within the American academy there is also implemented the principle of rotating command, thus offering each of the cadets the possibility of discovering/proving and training his or her own skills in relation to leadership and being promoted in agreement with these skills. Regrettably, these principles are not applied within the Romanian military institution. An important role in training the flying personnel is held by the minimum performance required as the cadets complete their training programs. Noticeable differences are given by the analysis of grading systems and graduation standards. With regard to the military flying training in Romania, the minimum standards of performance may be easily reached, given the fact that the minimum performance is 5 on a scale of 10, out of which 1 stands for minimum and 10 for maximum. Therefore, graduation is granted against a minimum performance standard scored 5, representing a graduate’s academic performance and the pass of graduation exams. Unlike the Romanian academy, the US academy of Colorado Springs regards graduation with extreme strictness, their minimum performance requirement, in respect of both completing the academic training and intellect and character, military and fitness trainings, is the equivalent of grade 8 of the Romanian counterpart. Moreover, the American rules of conduct are extremely strict; any deviation in behavior being punished through expulsion, and this fact explains the American graduation index of 80% of their initially admitted cadets. With regard to the daily schedule and the requests from the cadets, one can notice similarities between the two training programs. Both academies foster strict agendas to impose a high degree of solicitation on their students/cadets and to make them increase their physical and psychic resistance necessary for their future professions. Still, there are differences in designing, implementing and organizing the weekly and yearly schedules. The Romanian institution combines, in its program’s structure, both academic activities and activities pertaining to the military or administrative areas, as compared to the American military flying training, where student-pilots benefit only from academic training and all the necessary tools for accomplishing academic goals. Differently, in Romania, flight training is part of the general training that students are obliged to complete, and it is regarded as specialization. There are similarities between the two institutions, concerning the overall performance calculus and the study program. The overall performance is represented by an index standing for the average attributed to each study-subject and core curriculum; nevertheless, for the United States Air Force Academy an Overall Performance Average/OPA is also necessary and it establishes the final hierarchy of students and highlights the importance of the academic excellence due to the fact that for its calculus, the academic performance holds a percentage of 60%, whereas the military training represents 30% and the fitness performance only 10%. 4 At the same time, this coefficient is used to reward the merits of those students who obtained the best results throughout their program of study, numerous awards having been granted to them.

“The United States Air Force Academy grades”, accessed January 29, 2016, on http://www.usafa.edu/df/dfr/curriculum/grading.cfm?catname=dfr2 4

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ANALYSIS OF THE MILITARY TRAINING PROGRAM The aspect of military training represents the second point of interest with regard to the training of pilots who are about to occupy military positions within the Air Force of the NATO partner armed forces. The military training programs are mandatory, taking into account the profession specificity and the environment in which pilots work. Starting from basic elements and ending with more detailed aspects of both individual and joint combats, as well as aspects regarding doctrines, the military training requires a minimum but necessary knowledge core. Both the American and the Romanian training programs include in their structures these especially designed stages that aim at developing the military thing in the future pilot. Obviously, the armies’ specificity, their historical background, the financial aspects and the main objectives were conditional for the development of each of these programs, in turn, and they also determined the appearance of a series of differences, whose analysis continues to represent the objective of this paper. As far as the forming of and the development of the military thinking fundamentals of the United States Air Force pilots are concerned, American pilots benefit from an initial training during the academic years. This primary stage, holding as its complement the character development program, aims at developing moral values, characteristics and aptitudes, the instruments necessary for the future officer-pilots to efficiently accomplish their job tasks and to serve under the Air Force. Given the fact that the academy focuses mainly on the academic training, the military training of its officers is reduced to basic training and to providing the necessary tools for the military training as a core. American pilot-cadets benefit from a special military training, provided by the Officer Training School/OTS. 5 This school approaches, in a mature and efficient manner, all aspects related to military training, in terms of developing knowledge and aptitudes in future pilot-officers, at all levels, without any exception, starting from doctrines and theoretical stages and ending with the use of theory into practice. The curricula approached are extremely various and consist of elements of organization and personal and collective determination, up to those pertaining to doctrines, morale, leadership and military management, while applying and demonstrating each of these elements. Dissimilarities with regard to the military specific training are notable especially when we speak about the similar training program in use at the Henri Coandă” Air Force Academy. Pilots trained by the Romanian Air Force Academy benefit from military instruction only at the academy, their military training being considered a secondary form of instruction, part of the academic training. The premises for setting up these programs, together with the importance they are given, are, once again, different for the two academies under scrutiny. The structure of the Romanian military training comprises two modules, preponderantly theoretic, included among the academic modules, as part of the academic year. Courses consist of basic elements regarding the infantry training and theoretical elements concerning personal means of fighting under the infantry subunits. At the same time, there is an initial stage of basic military training, similar with the one existent at the United States Air Force Academy, namely, the Basic Military Training/BMT6 and short-termed military training sessions (military instruction camps). The aspect that illustrates the most evident deficiencies of the basic military training is the one oriented toward the branch specialization, specifically the aviation. An officer, in its nature and based on the NATO conception, is the leader of a structure belonging to the Air Force. Pilot-officers of the Romanian Air Force do not benefit from a character-development training program, and the forming of their leader qualities is minimal, the natural conclusion 5 6

Holden, Henry, To be a U.S. Air Force Pilot, Zenith Press, Minneapolis, 2004, p. 16 Holden, Henry, p. 20

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being that psychic, intellectual and physical abilities developed in them are not the ones necessary for future leaders. Moreover, the deficient or, in some cases, inexistent appliance of knowledge, together with a deficient theoretical instruction lead to a poor general level of training, which results in low performance with regard to the military development of future officers belonging to the Air Force under the NATO. ASPECTS REGARDING THE SPECIALTY TRAINING The specialized training and the flight training represent the confirmation and settlement of all knowledge acquired through previous training programs. This facet of the military flying training totally reflects both the historical context and the current reality, in case of both training systems, each of them managing to pass the time test successfully and to train quality flying personnel. Inherent differences appear, in this case as well, yet, they do not influence dramatically the final product. Nevertheless, the focus lies on efficacy, adjustability to the current dynamics and tendencies regarding the training manners. The American program does not imply the mandatory flight training for its cadets during the academic years; the cadets only have the option to benefit from extracurricular glider-flight courses or parachute jumps. The very specialized training starts with the Initial Flight Screening/IFS within the Air Force Flight School, the Academy and the Air Force Officer School. The pilots selected within this initial program can start their instruction as flying personnel aboard various aircraft of the squadrons involved in specialized training programs and initial formation (Undergraduate Pilot Training/UPT). It is worth mentioning that any graduate of the Academy or the Officer School may apply for the flight training program, the selection of cadets being made by the rigors imposed by it. A different approach is made by the Romanian Air Force Academy, in which pilotstudents benefit from mandatory flight training from their very first year of study. These flight training sessions are designed to fix and apply the theory acquired during the academic training, as well as to form and develop basic skills necessary for the profession of a military pilot. The specialized flight training takes place at the “Aurel Vlaicu” Air Force Flight Training School, on IAK-52, or IAR 316-B aircraft, or at the recently contracted Romanian (Civilian) Aviation Academy, on light aircraft such as Cessna-172, or Robinson R-22. The structure and schedule of the specialized flight training sessions offer the pilots under training the possibility to acquire both theoretical and practical knowledge, by the time of their graduation; thus, facilitating their specialized pre-operational training. CONCLUSIONS The military aeronautical education systems, which are the main objective of the current paper, certainly present a great number of differences. This conclusion is inherent, given the fact that each of the two education systems reflects the historical and current realities of the society that it represents and to which it is adjusted so as to function as a change-generator, in the field of forming professional competences. The natural conclusion that results out of this paper is one according to which the Romanian Air Force currently has all the necessary instruments for the specific flight training of military pilots, they taking advantage of a flight training program adjusted to contemporary realities and which is developed in accordance with the NATO training standards in force. Noticing the effectiveness of this training model, the unique proposals for optimization are represented by a possible restructuring at the institutional level and by the reduction of the pilot training units to a single entity, later on generating the financial conditions for a minimum investment in the aircraft fleet modernization, infrastructure and didactical logistics. 307

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Despite the different approaches to the specialized flight training, the two systems offer the Air force a continuous flux of well-trained military pilots. The details regarding the Romanian Air Force flying training and its possible methods of making it more effective will be the aim of a further study. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

*** The United States Air Force Academy Outcomes 2009, published on http://www.usafa.edu/df/data/USAFA%20Outcomes.pdf *** Curriculum Handbook, published on http://www.usafa.edu/df/data/CHB20142015.pdf *** Ghidul studentului din Academia Forţelor Aeriene „Henri Coandă” pentru programele de studii de licenţă, published on http://www.afahc.ro/ro/facultate/documente/ Ghidul_studentului_LICENTA.pdf Holden, Henry, M. To be a U.S. Air Force Pilot, Zenith Press, Minneapolis, 2004. www.afahc.ro www.usafa.edu www.academyadmissions.com

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INDEX

ALEXANDRESCU Gelu, 187 BALANESCU Olga, 43 BOACĂ Margareta, 65 BOARU Gheorghe,162, 168 BODESCU Alin, 269 BULUC Ruxandra, 20 BURSUC Cătălin, 211, 281 CĂLIN Ion, 191 CIUICĂ Oliver, 303 COJOCARU Gabriel, 229 CONDRUZ-BACESCU Monica, 113 COSTEA Luiza, 281 DEAC Ioan, 13 DIACONU I. Bebe, 248 DUMITRESCU Virginia Mihaela, 55, 105 FARCAȘ Cornelia, 38 GÂŢĂ Anca, 293 GUDU Tasia, 156 ION Alexandru, 143, 151 IONIȚĂ Diana, 259 IONIȚĂ Mirela, 128 MACOVEI Daniela, 73, 90

MALESCU Simona Valentina, 97 MARDAR Sorina-Mihaela, 299 MICU Valeria, 80 MIHAI Eduard-Ionuţ, 303 MIHĂEŞ Lorena, 259 MUNTEANU Codrin, 220 OLAR Polixenia, 211, 220 PARASCHIV Lăcrămioara Gena, 97 PĂSTAE Veronica 124, 128 PLESANU Toma, 211 PLEŞANU Nicolae-Alin, 220 POPESCU Lucian Dragoş, 197, 234 PUŞCAŞU Mirela, 203, 239 RÎŞNOVEANU Adriana, 287 ROŞCAN Alina, 26 STOICA Alina-Mihaela, 32 TEODORESCU Stelian, 135 TOPOR Sorin, 181 TURCU Dănuţ, 173 VLAD Iliuta, 243 VOICU Petrică-Marinel, 162, 168

C. 217/2016

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Scientific Editors: Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD Colonel Professor eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD

April 14 - 15, 2016 Bucharest, Romania

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE STRATEGIES XXI National Defense University „CAROL I” Bucharest, Romania, April 14-15, 2016 Professor Constanţa Nicoleta BODEA, PhD (Academy of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania) Lieutenant Colonel (ret.) Carol PETERFI, University of Tartu, Estonia Major General (ret.) Professor Gabriel-Florin MOISESCU, PhD (NDU) Brigadier General Professor Eng. Ghiţă BÂRSAN, PhD (Land Forces Academy “Nicolae Bălcescu”, Sibiu, Romania) Brigadier General Professor Vasile BUCINSCHI, PhD (Air Force Academy “Henri Coandă”, Braşov, Romania) Colonel Professor Daniel DUMITRU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Ion ROCEANU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Sorin PÎNZARIU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Constantin POPESCU, PhD (NDU) Lieutenant-Colonel Professor Dorel BUŞE, PhD (NDU) Colonel Associate Professor Gheorghe DEACONU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Professor Dănuţ TURCU, PhD (NDU) Colonel Associate Professor Lucian POPESCU, PhD (NDU) Associate Professor Mirela IONIŢĂ, PhD (NDU)

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD (National Defense University “Carol I”, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Professor Eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD (National Defense University “Carol I”, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD (NDU) Magistrate Lieutenant General Professor Erich CSITKOVITS, PhD (National Defense Academy, Austria) Brigadier General Professor Eng. Bohuslav PŘIKRYL, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) Brigadier General (ret.) Professor Eng. Rudolf URBAN, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) Professor Zdenek ZEMANEK, CSc, PhD (University of Defense, Czech Republic) General Associate Professor Boguslaw PACEK, PhD (National Defense University, Poland) Navy Captain (ret.) Associate Professor Piotr GAWLICZEK, PhD (National Defense University, Poland) Colonel Professor Tadeusz SZCZUREK, Ph.D. (Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland) Brigadier General Associate Professor Dipl. Eng. Boris ĎURKECH, PhD (Armed Forces Academy of GMRS, Slovakia) Major General Professor Vuruna MLADEN, PhD (Military Academy, Serbia) Brigadier General Professor Slaven ZDILAR, PhD (“Petar Zrinski” Defense Academy, Croatia) Colonel Professor Mojca PEŠEC, PhD (Army Command and Staff College, Slovenia) Brigadier General Professor Meelis KIILI, PhD (Baltic Defense College, Estonia) Professor Augustin MEAHER, PhD (Baltic Defense College, Estonia) Professor András PATYI, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Gabor BOLDIZSAR, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Professor Laszlo KOVACS, PhD (National University of Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel-general (ret.) Professor Zoltan SZENES, PhD (National University for Civil Service, Hungary) Colonel Professor Christophe MIDAN, PhD (France) Professor Larry WATTS, PhD (USA) Professor Radu MIHALCEA, PhD (University of Illinois, Chicago, USA) Professor Adrian CURAJ, PhD (UEFISCDI, Bucharest, Romania) Professor Daniel TORJE, PhD (Police Academy, “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”, Bucharest, Romania) Professor George-Marius ŢICAL, PhD (National College for Home Affairs, Bucharest, Romania) Colonel Associate Professor Niculae IANCU, PhD (National Intelligence Academy, “Mihai Viteazu”, Bucharest, Romania) General (ret.) Professor Teodor FRUNZETI, PhD (Titu Maiorescu University, Bucharest, Romania) Lecturer Codrin MUNTEANU, PhD, (NDU) Professor Adrian IVAN, PhD (“Babeş-Bolay” University, Cluj Napoca, Romania)

ORGANIZING COMMITTEE CHAIRMEN: Colonel Professor Gheorghe CALOPĂREANU, PhD Colonel Professor Eng. Toma PLEŞANU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Daniel GHIBA, PhD MEMBERS: Captain Lecturer Ciprian IGNAT, PhD - Conference Administrator Colonel Professor Constantin POPESCU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Gheorghe DEACONU, PhD Captain (nv.) Professor Sorin TOPOR, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Lucian POPESCU, PhD Colonel Professor Ioan DEAC, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Professor Dorel BUŞE, PhD Colonel Professor Dănuţ TURCU, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Filofteia REPEZ, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Dorin EPARU, PhD Colonel Professor Constantin IORDACHE, PhD Colonel Professor Gelu ALEXANDRESCU, PhD Colonel Professor Ion CĂLIN, PhD Colonel Associate Professor Mirela PUŞCAŞU, PhD Associate Professor Margareta BOACĂ, PhD Associate Professor Sorina MARDAR, PhD Associate Professor Adriana RÎŞNOVEANU, PhD Colonel Lecturer Cosmin OLARIU, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Lecturer Marius PĂUNESCU, PhD Major Cristian ICHIMESCU, PhD student Lieutenant Colonel Dan PETRESCU, PhD student Lecturer Mihaiela BUŞE, PhD Associate Professor Daniela COMAN, PhD Assistant Professor Polixenia OLAR, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Mădălina-Daniela GHIBA, PhD student Colonel Valerică CRUCERU, PhD Lieutenant Colonel Gheorghe STOIU, PhD

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SPONSORS:

SPONSOR: NC "Maritime Ports Administration" SA Constanta

NC „Maritime Ports Administration” SA Constanta NC “Maritime Ports Administration” SA Constanta has the role of port authority for the Romanian Ports - Constanta, Midia and Mangalia (and Tomis Marina). From its position, it aims to provide quality and competitive services to the ports customers, to offer a developed transport infrastructure, as well as security, safety and environmental port conditions, thus encouraging the cargo traffic and transforming the Port of Constanta in to an important transit center - by offering the shortest transport alternative to the center of Europe and becoming a regional distribution center - the leader - for its hinterland The Port of Constanta offers a lot of advantages, among which, the most important are: • multi-purpose port with modern facilities and sufficient depth to accommodate the largest vessels passing through the Suez Canal; • direct access to the Pan-European Corridor VII, through the Danube Black Sea Canal, providing a shorter and cheaper waterway transport towards Central Europe than the routes using the Northern Europe ports; • good connections with all modes of transport: railway, road, river, airway and pipelines; • the New Container Terminal on Pier II South, increasing the container operating capacity; • future expansion planned; • Ro-Ro and Ferry-boat terminals suitable for the development of short sea shipping serving the Black Sea and the Danube countries; • Since 1st January 2007 the Port of Constanta has become a port with customs facilitations. In order to meet the traffic requirements, Constanta port is equipped with shore cranes, bulk discharging facilities, gantry cranes, handling platforms for loading bagged and bulk cargo, pneumatic floating cranes, oil handling facilities, as well as specialized operating within quays and terminals. European and international promotion of Constanta port’s competitive advantages: • favorable geographic position – Constanta port is connected to the Pan European transport network by corridors IV (road and railway), VII (inland navigation) and TRACECA transport corridor; • operation facilities for any kind of cargo and storage capacities; • port services in a competitive environment; • promotion activities in the Central Europe by the representative offices in Budapest, Belgrade and Vienna. Constanta Port efficiently serves cargo flows going to or coming from Central and Eastern European countries including: Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Moldavia, Slovenia, Slovakia, Ukraine, and former Yugoslavia countries.

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PROGRAM THE INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE STRATEGIES XXI “STRATEGIC CHANGES IN SECURITY AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS”

Day 1 – April 14, 2016 08.00 - 08.40 – Registration of participants – Building “D”, Ground Floor, Mid Entrance; 09.00 - 09.40 – Opening Ceremony – National Defense University „CAROL I” Auditorium, Building “C”, Ground Floor; 09.40 - 09.50 – Photo Session – National Defense University „CAROL I” – Building “C”, Main Entrance; 09.50 - 10.15 – Inauguration of the “Crisis Management, Conflict prevention and Cyber-Security” Laboratory, Building “C”, 2nd Floor, Room no. 211; 10.20 - 12.00 – Working Panels*; 12.00 - 13.00 – Coffee Break – Building “C”, Ground Floor, in front of the National Defense University „CAROL I” Auditorium; 13.00 - 15.00 – Working Panels; 15.00 - 15.30 – Visiting of the Conference’s Exhibition and the “Crisis Management, Conflict prevention and Cyber-Security” Laboratory; 15.30 - 17.30 – Cocktail – Mess Hall, Building “A”, Ground Floor.

Day 2 – April 15, 2016 08.30 - 11.30 – Working Panels*; 11.30 - 12.00 – Coffee Break – Building “C”, Ground Floor, in front of the National Defense University „CAROL I” Auditorium; 12.00 - 13.00 – Final conclusions and Closing Ceremony (on Panels). * Working Panels Locations: - 1, 2, 3, 4 - „Gl. David PRAPORGESCU” Auditorium, Building C, 2nd Floor, Room no. 204; - 5, 6, 7 - „Nicolae IORGA” Auditorium, Building C, 1st Floor, Room no. 105; - 8, 9, 10, 11 - Venue: „Gl. Ştefan FĂLCOIANU” Auditorium, Building C, Ground, Room no. 5.

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