Volume 40, Number 2 Winter 2015

Journal of Reading Education • Volume 40, No. 2 • Winter 2015

Volume 40, Number 2

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Winter 2015

Journal of Reading Education An International Publication of the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy

VOLUME 40, NO. 2 • WINTER 2015

Senior Editor Managing Editor Assistant Managing Editor Editorial Coordinator JRE Designer

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Janet Richards Lisa Adkins Rebecca Powell Michele Sebti Steve Long

On the Cover:

This month’s cover is a serigraph titled Children Dance by William H. Johnson, African American modernist. Owned by the Smithsonian American Art Museum, the work currently hangs in the White House. The authors chose this colorful piece because of its appeal to children of all ages. In his carefully designed composition, Johnson depicts movement, harmony, and joy. Children Dance is an example of artwork that engages and inspires.

Journal production is sponsored in part by a grant from Verizon Reads Endowment.

Copyright ©2015, Statement of ownership: The Journal of Reading Education is published three times a year (Fall, Winter, Spring/ Summer) by the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy Incorporated in Florida as a nonprofit educational corporation to promote reading education worldwide. This journal is paid for by the membership in the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy, the owner of this education publication. Name of stockholders: none. Known bondholders, mortgages, and other securities: none. Senior Editor: Dr. Janet Richards, College of Education, University of South Florida, 4202 East Fowler EDU 105, Tampa, FL 33620-5650. Journal of Reading Education (ISSN 08876-57010)


Journal of Reading Education A publication of the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy

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he Journal of Reading Education is a peer-reviewed journal published by the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy as a service to those interested in preservice and inservice reading teacher education. The journal is intended as a forum to reflect current theory, research, and practice. Its contents do not necessarily reflect or imply endorsement by OTEL or its officers or members. For Submission Guidelines see page 41.

EDITORIAL BOARD John Barnitz University of New Orleans

Cindy Gillespie Hendricks Bowling Green University

Deborah Begoray University of Victoria

Dana Grisham California State University, East Bay

Jeanie Burnett Kutztown University of Pennsylvania

Ellen Jampole State University of New York at Cortland

Deanne Camp Missouri State University

Ann Matschiner Pacific University

Maryellen Cosgrove Gainesville State College

Kathleen Quinn Holy Family University

Elizabeth Dobler Emporia State University

Elinor Ross Tennessee Technological University

Eula Ewing Brigham Young University

Ruth Short University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee

Joyce Fine Florida International University

Rod Winters Winona State

Eva Garin Bowie State University

Nancy Williams University of South Florida

Joan Gipe, Professor Emerita University of New Orleans

The JRE is seeking qualified applicants for the manuscript Review Board. Please send your application to Lisa Adkins at [email protected]. Applicants should include their demographic information, publications, and experience as a reviewer. Janet Richards, Senior Editor, JRE

Journal of Reading Education VOLUME 40, NO. 2 • WINTER 2015

A journal of the Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy (OTEL), a Special Interest Group of the International Reading Association. INVITED SCHOLAR 3 Arts and Culture in the English Language Arts: Research Findings and Educators’ Perspectives Danielle L. DeFauw & Julie Anne Taylor, University of Michigan-Dearborn ARTICLES 13 Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of their Literacy Practicum Experiences Cindy Hail, Deanne Camp, Beth Hurst, & Jeanna Laughlin, Missouri State University 19

Keeping the Big Picture in Mind: Using a Reading Conceptual Framework to Guide Teacher Learning Holly B. Lane & Lynda Fender Hayes, University of Florida 27

Revisiting Literature Circles as Open Spaces for Critical Discussions Margaret Vaughn, Syndie Allen, Susan Kologi, & Sharon McGowan, University of Idaho TEACHING & LEARNING 33 Falling in love with close reading: Lessons for analyzing texts and life Nilufer Guler, Ottawa University 34 Modeling Historical Fiction Lessons as a Bridge to Primary Students’ Content Reading: What I Didn’t Know and Learned about the Standards Janet Richards, University of South Florida OTER BUSINESS 40 Slate of Officers 41 Submission Guidelines 42 Application for Membership The JRE is initiating a new section entitled, “Essays on Literacy.” We think the addition of an essay section will provide opportunities for single, or collaborative authors to write about a variety of topics related to literacy and for readers to consider new ideas, or troubling issues that connect to the teaching, learning and researching of literacy. We hope readers will send us their responses and reactions to the ideas presented in the “Essays in Literacy” section so we might begin and sustain an authentic JRE open forum. Please send your original 20 page or less essay to Lisa Adkins, JRE Managing Editor, at [email protected].

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LET TER OF APPRECIATION November 30, 2014 Dear Members of the Literacy Educator Profession, As the archivist for our organization, Organization of Teacher Educators in Literacy (OTEL), a member of the Journal of Reading Education Editorial Board, and on behalf of many colleagues in OTEL, I am writing this letter to share my perspective on the phenomenal changes that I have witnessed in the Journal of Reading Education (JRE). Early on, the journal was a collection of articles that was printed and largely disseminated only to a small group of reading educators who belonged to the organization. Now it is an internationally read and respected, peerreviewed journal for all those interested in undergraduate and graduate literacy education. The journal is accessible from the Wilson database so that the many quality articles may be read and enjoyed by anyone in the world. Not only does it continue to have high quality articles that inform, describe, and explain what quality practices for improving literacy are, it also has a section called Invited Scholars in which leaders in the field disseminate their work and comment on the direction of literacy instruction. The quality of the publication has been recognized by the continuous support by the Verizon Reads Endowment. The work involved in the production of such a state-of-the-art journal takes many capable contributors working interdependently. These people, most of whom are volunteers, deserve much credit. Additionally, the Senior Editor, Janet Richards, deserves many accolades for her organizational management, guidance, and vision to bring the journal to this high caliber. I am deeply humbled and grateful to have been a part of this organization and to have gained from the development of such a journal’s legacy. Very truly yours, Joyce C. Fine

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Danielle L. DeFauw & Julie Anne Taylor are the featured literacy scholars in this issue of the JRE. Danielle DeFauw is an assistant professor of reading & language arts at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. Her research interests focus on writing instruction related to teacher-writers and authentic writing tasks. Julie Anne Taylor is an associate professor of education at the University of Michigan-Dearborn. She conducts research in the fields of multicultural and social studies education.

Art and Culture in the English Language Arts: Research Findings and Educators’ Perspectives Danielle L. DeFauw & Julie Anne Taylor UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN-DEARBORN

ABSTRACT This article details the results of a survey of elementary, middle, and high school educators concerning their perceptions of arts integration. Seventy-four inservice educators completed a survey of five open- and five closeended questions to identify their views of arts integration, the extent to which they use the visual arts in instruction, and their perceptions of the impact of arts integration on students. The authors discuss the implications for literacy educators, and they provide strategies for arts integration to support students’ visual literacy development.

Art has the potential to act as an umbrella hovering over all subject areas and connecting them in a single space (Newland, 2013, p. 49). Introduction

Background

The English language arts encompass all subject areas. In becoming literate, students learn to read, write, speak, listen, and function socially in a print-based society (Venezky, 1995). For today’s digitally wise students (Prensky, 2009), visual literacy is important. To be visually literate, students must interpret the meanings of non-print based media, or visual symbols (Harris & Hodges, 1995). In addition to fostering students’ literacy skills, arts integration increases students’ understanding of culture and diverse perspectives. The practice “helps students to fluidly make connections between their lived experience with the popular visual world, the fine arts, language, and ideologies” (Pennisi, 2012, p. 104). For this study, the researchers surveyed educators to determine their views of arts integration, the extent to which they use the visual arts in instruction, and their perceptions of the impact of arts integration on their students. The research questions were (1) How do educators view arts integration?; (2) How and to what extent do educators integrate art?; and (3) What are educators’ perceptions of the impact of arts integration on students? In this article, the study and its results as they relate to English language arts are detailed. The authors also provide a background of visual literacy, examine the role of arts integration in the promotion of cultural understanding, and offer resources and tips for arts integration.

J ust as Rosenblatt (1978) contends, readers do more than read what the writer wrote; they comprehend the text within the context of their own knowledge and experience. Students read and comprehend when they interpret artistic images (Freedman, 2003), which represent and convey meaning. The visual arts employ signs and symbols that communicate meaning within language systems (Albers, 2007). Dewey (1934/2005) considered works of art to be expressive forms of language: Because objects of art are expressive, they are a language. Rather they are many languages. For each art has its own medium, and that medium is especially fitted for one kind of communication. Each medium says something that cannot be uttered as well or as completely in any other tongue. (p. 110) Because our “global culture is rapidly shifting from text-based communication to image saturation” (Freedman, 2003, p. xii), students must acquire a fluid ability to “read” and “write” images (Connors, 2011), hence develop their visual literacy. The visually literate create images to communicate, and they evaluate and comprehend visual messages that are pervasive in the contemporary environment (Eisner, 2002; Johnson, 2008). Across the curriculum, the study and creation of art deepen students’ understanding of visual culture (Pennisi, 2012).

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As students become visually literate through arts integration, other cognitive skills develop. Students learn to attend to details, identify relationships between written and visual texts, and make inferences (Eisner, 2002). Learning occurs in diverse social contexts within which students negotiate meaning (Crouch, 2008). The cultivation of visual literacy supports the development of critical literacy; students learn to first read their world and then the word (Freire & Macedo, 1987). Critically reading visual and written texts allows students to challenge what they have learned, interpret and question “facts,” and reflect upon their awareness of their changing assumptions and thinking processes (Albers, 2007). When such learning “cross[es] disciplines, [students] use a repertoire of distinctive modes of communication, or literacies, to guide [their] reading of the world” (Pennisi, 2012, p. 102). Arts integration supports English language arts educators’ instruction and their students’ literacy development.

the participants teach social studies (24.3%), mathematics (21.6%), science (18.9%), and special education (8.1%). The majority of the English language arts educators strongly agreed (43.1%) or agreed (41.7%) that arts integration increases students’ interest in the content area. As illustrated by Figure 1, some educators strongly disagreed (12.5%) while some were neutral (2.8%). About a quarter of the educators stated they rarely (24.3%) or never (4.1%) use art in instruction. The majority of the educators who indicated that they use art in instruction do so often (17.8%) or sometimes (51.4%), as Figure 2 shows. The participants reported teaching with drawings (81%), photographs (72.9%), oil paintings (44.3%), decorative artifacts (24.3%), sculptures (22.9%), and ceramics (2.9%). The close-ended responses reveal that the majority of the English language arts educators perceive their students to be more interested in the content area when the visual arts are utilized. To establish the primary reasons for arts integration, the researchers used the constant-comparative method (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) to analyze the responses to the open-ended questions. Each researcher studied the data independently to establish natural categories. Together, they compared their conclusions and agreed upon topical and conceptual groupings. Adopting a consistently reflective stance and engaging in comparative description (Stake, 2005), they identified relationships within the participants’ responses. Each researcher then individually coded the educators’ responses in light of the established categories. The process required multiple readings of the entire data set by each researcher. A systematic comparison of each final, independent categorization of the data revealed a similarity index of 88%. The identified categories reveal five primary aims of arts integration by the English language arts educators. They use art to (a) enhance understanding, (b) develop critical thinking skills, (c) diversify instruction, (d) engage and inspire, and (e) educate students about culture. A sixth category, access to and support for teaching with art, was identified to include the multiple issues that participants raised. The quoted survey responses, in italics below, represent numerous participants’ comments.

Method and Procedure To determine educators’ views, perceptions, and pedagogical practices, a 10-item structured survey (Baumann & Bason, 2004) consisting of five open- and five close-ended questions on arts integration was designed. Multiple-choice responses were written for three of the close-ended questions, and Likert-scales were created for the other two items. In a Midwestern state, classroom educators in different content areas in elementary, middle, and high schools were invited to take the survey on visual arts integration in 2013. The survey was distributed electronically through Survey Monkey and in hard copy. In response to questions one and two, the participants identified the subjects (social studies, English, mathematics, science, world languages, and special education) and levels at which they taught (elementary, middle, and high school). On question three’s Likert-scale, they indicated how frequently they use art in instruction. Question four asked the participants to identify the type(s) of art that they use: oil paintings, ceramics, sculptures, photographs, drawings, decorative artifacts, and others written in a comment box. Questions five and six were open ended. The participants were asked the following: (a) Why do you use art in instruction? and (b) What are common reactions by your students when they see images of art and artifacts in class? On question seven’s Likert scale, the educators indicated their level of agreement with the assertion that arts integration increases students’ interest in the content area. Questions eight and nine were open ended: (a) What is your opinion of integrating art into content-area instruction? and (b) What resources for teaching with art would you like to have? Finally, question 10 invited participants to provide additional comments. See Appendix for a copy of the survey.

Enhance Understanding The educators reported that many of their students, when presented with art, are able to grasp difficult concepts and make interdisciplinary connections. Through the study of art, students envisage abstract ideas and gain insight into complex themes in literature. The following comments concern the enhancement of students’ learning as a result of arts integration: • Art often enhances meaning and provides a visual context for deep understanding. • Students are more connected to the material and the visuals give them something concrete on which to “hook” the more abstract idea. • [Art] provides visual representations of complex ideas and concepts. • Most of our students are visual (video generation) and so it helps to SEE art. Literature while art of a different kind is much harder to “see” for many students. Art that is connected helps them form

Analysis and Results Of the 180 valid surveys that were completed, 74 (41%) were submitted by English language arts educators. Of those educators, the majority teach at the high school level (73%) followed by the elementary (21.6%) and middle school (5.4%) levels. In addition to English language arts, 4

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Diversify Instruction

more concrete ideas about literature. Cross-curricular connections make learning so much more meaningful for students, as they can see how lessons apply to all facets of life. Which is what they will be doing when they become contributing citizens in our communities. The videos and movies and visuals always help their understanding of the subject.

The findings of this study indicate that English language arts educators use art to diversify and support instruction. Numerous educators commented on the engagement of learners who have different interests and aptitudes. Artistic images are accessible to struggling students. Educators use art to advance their students’ understanding of the contexts of literary works. Participants in the study made these statements: • I have found that there is an opportunity to include art pieces into almost every subject I teach. I have found that it addresses specific learning styles. • Many of my students are visual learners and respond well to graphic images. • I usually use it for students to explain their thinking in a different way. • All students have equal access to it. We can look at it together and discuss what we see and think and how the work affects each of us. • I like a multi-media approach, and to get students to consider our reading from as many perspectives as possible. I also demonstrate that all forms of art (literature, sculpture, ceramics, painting, etc.) are all interrelated and represent the movement and perspective of the times that produced them. • To give my students an exposure to a wide range of artifacts…it’s important to mirror themes and con flicts in literature with the art of the time period.

Arts integration provides compelling visual representations and enriches instruction (Johnson, 2008). The complexities of the human experience, both contemporary and historical, require interdisciplinary approaches to teaching and learning (Wineburg, 2001). Artistic works connect to students’ daily lives in which they are flooded with images through the media and technology (Eisner, 2002). Develop Critical Thinking Skills Educators repeatedly reported that arts integration supports students’ critical thinking development. They indicated that when their students are presented with works of art, they are challenged to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate. Learners hone their communication skills in discussions, and they gain an appreciation of diverse perspectives. The following statements are representative: • Learning to carefully examine, think about and respond to works of art develops a range of thinking skills. • As we become even more of a visual world learning about art helps students better evaluate and analyze the information they receive. • [Including art] increases the level of critical thinking when applied to the materials associated with the art presented. • I do think the close study of artwork technique helps students connect to the need for close reading. • No matter our discipline, we are teaching students how to critically think and appreciate differing views on issues. Art is the perfect vehicle to achieve this. Students are comparing, contrasting, synthesizing, analyzing, etc…. Moreover, since it is something that is seen as non-threatening and fun by most students, it is a great way to get them warmed up to the more challenging content skills that you will be covering without making them shut down. Also, in collaboratively discussing the works and making connections, teachers are building students’ inter personal relationships…[students’] communication skills…[and a] classroom environment of risk- taking….Thus, it is a great way for students to… become the scholars of our discipline we ultimately desire them to be.

Arts-integrated learning embraces multi-modal representation and expression and supports all students, including students with special needs (Robinson, 2012). Students of varying literacy levels are able to use visual thinking strategies to interpret and discuss artistic works (Yenawine, 2013). Through literary studies enhanced with visual art, students’ forge connections; connections are facilitated since interpreting art does not require traditional reading and writing skills (Harris & Hodges, 1995; Venezky, 1995). Engage and Inspire hen asked, “What are common reactions by your W students when they see images of art and artifacts in class?”, the majority of the respondents (70%) reported positive reactions. Most educators maintained that their students find art to be appealing, and they enjoy art analysis. Students usually become more focused and engaged when art-based lessons are implemented. Because of its potential to inspire, art is used in creative writing assignments. These comments by the participants are characteristic: • A picture is worth a thousand words – as they say. Art can be used to inspire someone to write a reflection, guess what happened, [and] learn about descriptive language and imagery in writing. I’ve even used photo prompts and had kids write creative stories about what was happening in the photo. • They become engaged when presented images as opposed to words. • They sometimes do not understand it, but they are always engaged. They ask questions and once we discuss it, they understand it and see the big picture.

Through collaborative art analysis, students engage in dialogue, and they develop an appreciation of nuance and differing perspectives (Sayre, 2009). Diverse readers of varying literacy levels acquire meaning from art (Gallas, 1994); therefore, students may first use art to develop close reading skills (Connors, 2011). As students critically read art, they acquire skills that are transferrable to real-world settings (Freire & Macedo, 1987). They make connections between learning contexts (Pennisi, 2012). 5

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Access to and Support for Teaching with Art

They find it much more engaging and applicable than notes and verbal examples. They love the challenge and opportunity to employ interpretive skills. Art is a form of self-expression. Many students can demonstrate knowledge and understanding of concepts through art. Art evokes creativity. I use art…to appeal to students…who need a visual representation to understand something or also a visual outlet to help them define or pull apart what they’ve learned. Common reactions of my students are lengthier discussions or more clearly focused comments as well as a better understanding of the material. They typically enjoy anything related to art.

Although the majority of educators reported that art is beneficial (65%), even necessary (35%), educators shared concerns about access to art due to limited technology, time, resources, and training. They seek works of art that are suitable for teaching for English language arts in grades Pre-K to 12, and they desire tailored professional development. • I wish I had the time and ability to do [art] more often. • I need time to locate relevant artwork for my texts. I find the activities more meaningful when I locate them and connect them to our…standards and goals versus having kids…locate a painting on their own. • I love it and only wish I knew more about art to incorporate it more frequently. • I support the idea of art integration whole-heartedly, although as a core content educator at the high school level, with new state curriculum standards and testing standards to adhere to, it is more challenging “to fit” arts into the curriculum. • I would like to integrate art more, but I don’t really know what to include or where to find it (outside of the textbook). • I feel that if it were accessible, and if it tied appropri ately into content then it would be beneficial and help trigger students’ schema. • I think that the marriage between literature and art is natural, and I would love to have more ways to incorporate art into the curriculum.

Educators inspire imaginative vision, illustrate concepts, and promote creativity through arts integration. In the process of making art, individuals do more than represent and map their worlds; they imagine and invent (Petherbridge, 2010). Like the literary arts, the visual arts may be visionary and transformative (Smithrim & Upitis, 2005). On the visionary nature of art, Dewey (1934/2005) wrote, “Only imaginative vision elicits the possibilities that are interwoven within the texture of the actual…the first intimations of a better future are always found in works of art” (pp. 345-346). Educate Students about Culture The educators in this study repeatedly commented on raising their students’ cultural awareness through arts integration in the English language arts. Art is an accessible form of cross-cultural communication. When studying art, students gain understanding of the artistic conventions of different cultures and time periods. Participants shared the following comments: • [Art is] a great way to determine the aesthetic and cultural norms of the communities, which are producing the works that we are studying. • We use the art to help us recognize the values of the cultures as well as to hone the observational skills of our students. • We...look at…an artifact and see what we can learn from it – about a culture. • We integrate…objects, art, architecture, music and dance of the cultures we study into our discussions of the literature, philosophy, and religions of those cultures.

Professional development and resources for arts integration ought to be offered on a larger scale, perhaps through teacher colleges, professional organizations, publications, or websites. Access to art would improve through the employment of additional school personnel (Bryce, 2012); cross-disciplinary collaborations; and partnerships with organizations, such as museums (Pennisi, 2012). Many museums today do employ education curators who are eager to work with educators and school groups. In addition to making art-based lessons and digital images of art available on their websites, museums increasingly offer videoconferencing. Some resources on teaching with art are provided in this article’s implications for teaching section. Discussion The findings of this study suggest that arts integration is a powerful instructional practice for educators in the English language arts. Arts integration enhances students’ understanding and develops critical thinking skills as it supports cultivation of new literacies (Commission on Arts & Literacies, 2012; McDonald, 2010). Through arts integration, educators diversify instruction, engage and inspire students, and heighten cultural awareness. Arts integration is in alignment with current standards and supported by research. The National Council of Teachers of English and the International Reading Association’s (2012) standards emphasize communication through visual language. The integration of knowledge and ideas

Art helps students understand and tell stories about themselves and others. Integrating various art forms is fundamental to culturally responsive teaching (Epstein, 2009). Artistic works are pieces of evidence within cultural narratives. Arts integration addresses the aims of the Common Core State Standards as it prepares students to engage in conversations and collaborations with diverse partners (National Governors Association for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010).

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via diverse media is detailed in the seventh anchor standard for reading in the Common Core State Standards for English language arts (National Governors Association for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010). Using artistic works as “text” equalizes students’ abilities to understand and analyze text; thus instruction is diversified (Gallas, 1994). Students develop close reading skills as they critically interpret art (Connors, 2011). They learn deeply when they negotiate meaning using diverse texts (Bryce, 2012). When students view art as texts, they are engaged and inspired to make meaning (Eckhoff, 2008). Such aesthetic experiences facilitate students’ creative and critical thinking and writing (Blackhawk, 2002; Ehrenworth, 2003). The process of “entering” into works of art stimulates the imagination (Blackhawk, 2002). Students identify and express feelings, tell stories, and construct narratives (Newland, 2013). “If we imagine literacy as an aesthetic experience, then we can imagine its purpose is to illuminate the human condition” (Ehrenworth, 2003, p. 43). Art and literature foster self- and cross-cultural understanding. Integrating the visual and literary arts offers students exposure to the complex cultural patrimonies of diverse peoples. Students develop an awareness of diverse perspectives and views as they make connections and perceive relationships (Pennisi, 2012; Sayre, 2009). Through arts integration, students become culturally literate as they develop twenty-first century skills. This study indicates that arts integration, from classroom educators’ perspectives, is beneficial to most students.

Focusing on nonfiction literacy across the content areas, Bryce (2012) details a case study of a K-8 schoolwide arts integration theme titled New York’s Past. Children demonstrate their understanding of content, especially nonfiction content, through art production that is showcased throughout the building. Students analyze the messages that the art communicates in relation to the theme. Through the support of an art consultant, the entire school is transformed through the Mano a Mano project. Pennisi (2012) provides models of arts integration programs supported by organizations. Provided all members of the partnership feel empowered to design, implement, or support the curricula, students may benefit academically, socially, and personally. An example of a partnership open to all educators is the interactive and participatory online community called GRAM educator created by the Grand Rapids Art Museum in Grand Rapids, Michigan (2014). Following a simple registration process, educators gain access to the museum’s resources, which include images of 19th and 20th century art, videos tailored to educators’ needs and requests, and succinct art lessons easily adaptable to curricular requirements. Newland (2013) shares the art lessons that she provides as the art teacher to support the English language arts. The lessons focus on narratives, visualization, metaphors, and visual idioms. For example, students write narratives from the viewpoint of a personally created clay sculpture; students imagine and detail the sculpture’s before and after experiences. Also, students visualize the content of a picture book, whose illustrations are withheld so students can use their visualization skills to create their own illustrations of the picture book’s storyline. Additionally, students paint visual interpretations of the personal metaphors they create. Likewise, students identify an idiom and demonstrate its meaning through art interpretation versus writing. Students’ visual literacy development is supported through these lessons. Connors (2011) uses graphic novels with preservice and inservice teachers to support visual literacy development through the analysis of the “basic shapes, perspectives, and left-right visual structure” (p. 73) evident in visual texts. Such features in visual texts share meaning across contexts. Teachers and students learn the necessary vocabulary to “talk the talk” of art analysis. Acquiring vocabulary is important to support teachers’ and students’ visual literacy development so they can share their meaning socially. Another invaluable tool for arts integration is ReadWriteThink (http://www.readwritethink.org) created by the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English (n.d.). A keyword search for “art” on the website yields 316 results across K-12 with most lessons written for secondary grades. This website offers free detailed lesson plans that have been aligned to the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practice & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010) and are supported by research. See Table 1 for examples. Similarly, Literacyhead is a resource (http://www. literacyhead.org) created by Jan Burkins (2010-2013). Although some lessons are free, a $99 yearly subscription

Implications for Teaching The majority of the English language arts educators (84.8%) agreed that arts integration increases students’ interest in the content area. Many lamented the lack of appropriate resources to support arts integration. Connors (2011) stated, “[C]lassroom teachers are left largely to their own devices to figure out how best to address [visual literacy] …with which they might lack experience” (p. 72). This section provides some resources that educators can access and implement, efficiently. Albers (2007) offers two sample units of study on the Dust Bowl and immigration. These curricula provide (a) focus questions to guide the topics’ initial explorations, (b) opportunities for writing and reading, (c) text sets of various media, (d) inquiry-based learning strategies, (e) art invitations, (f) whole-group strategy lessons, (g) ideas for sharing, and (h) suggestions for reflection. Another unit of study on the Harlem Renaissance follows the same curricular format (Albers, 2006). Freedman (2003) provides an “example scope and sequence for teaching visual culture” (pp. 116-117) for Pre-K to post-secondary. She details 15 organizational concepts that demonstrate how individuals create art for personal and social purposes that support learning, critical thinking, and cultural awareness. Through the curriculum, students use various media and forms to create art that demonstrates their interpretation of personal experience and academic content.

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provides numerous resources for educators to connect multiple literacies. Various lessons categorized by literacy topics such as phonics, reading, high frequency words, writing, and vocabulary are provided to help educators connect English language arts and visual literacy. Additionally, free lessons and digital images are available on the websites of the National Gallery of Art (2013) and the Smithsonian American Art Museum (n.d.). Such resources offer a glimpse of the materials available for teachers to utilize to support arts integration.

from National Council of Teachers of English: http:// www.ncte.org/cee/commissions/artsandliteracies Connors, S. P. (2011). Toward a shared vocabulary for visual analysis: An analytic toolkit for deconstructing the visual design of graphic novels. Journal of Visual Literacy, 31(1), 71-92. Cowan, K., & Albers, P. (2006). Semiotic representations: Building complex literacy practices through the arts. The Reading Teacher, 60(2), 124-137. doi:10.1598/ RT.60.2.3 Crouch, C. (2008). Afterword. In J. Elkins (Ed.), Visual literacy (pp. 195-204). New York, NY: Routledge. Dewey, J. (1934/2005). Art as experience. New York, NY: Perigee Books. Eckhoff, A. (2008). The importance of art viewing experiences in early childhood visual arts: The exploration of a master art teacher’s strategies for meaningful early arts experiences. Early Childhood Education, 35(5), 463-472. Ehrenworth, M. (2003). Literacy and the aesthetic experience: Engaging children with visual arts in the teaching of writing. Language Arts, 81(1), 43-51. Eichler, K. (n.d.). Creative communication frames: Discovering similarities between writing and art. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink. org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/creativecommunication-frames-discovering-10.html Eisner, E. W. (2002). The arts and the creation of mind. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Elkins, J. (Ed.). (2008). Visual literacy. New York, NY: Routledge. Epstein, T. (2009). Interpreting national history: Race, identity, and pedagogy in classrooms and communities. New York, NY: Routledge. Freedman, K. (2003). Teaching visual culture: Curriculum, aesthetics and the social life of art. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Freire, P., & Macedo, D. (1987). Literacy: Reading the word and the world. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Gallas, K. (1994). The languages of learning: How children talk, write, dance, draw, and sing their understanding of the world. New York, NY: Teachers College Press. Grand Rapids Art Museum. (2014). GRAM educator home: Learn. Engage. Inspire. Retrieved from: http://www.artmuseumgr.org/learning/schools-andeducators/ Harris, T. L., & Hodges, R. E. (Eds.). (1995). The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Hurt, C. (n.d.). Judging a book by its cover: The art and imagery of The Great Gatsby. Retrieved from http:// www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/ lesson-plans/judging-book-cover-imagery-967.html International Reading Association, & National Council of Teachers of English. (n.d.). ReadWriteThink. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org Johnson, M. H. (2008). Developing verbal and visual literacy through experiences in the visual arts: 25 tips for teachers. Young Children, 63(1), 74-79. Karchmer-Klein, R., & Shinas, V. (n.d.). Using Glogster to

Conclusion Just as art connects all subject areas (Newland, 2013), the English language arts enable students to succeed across the curriculum. All content areas require students to read, write, speak, and listen (Venezky, 1995). Cross-curricular teaching that supports visual literacy development is necessary to ensure students are empowered to comprehend the visual texts inherent in their world. When visual literacy skills are cultivated, overall literacy develops as students read, write, and talk about images that span the curriculum. Most importantly, visual literacy encompasses students’ lives in and outside school. Students’ cognitive, emotional, and social development is supported through arts integration (Smithrim & Upitis, 2005). The findings of this study suggest that when English language arts educators integrate art, they support students’ overall literacy development. n References Albers, P. (2006). Imagining the possibilities in multimodal curriculum design. English Education, 38(2), 75-101. Albers, P. (2007). Finding the artist within: Creating and reading visual texts in the English language arts classroom. Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Baumann, J. F., & Bason, J. J. (2004). Survey research. In N. K. Duke & M. H. Mallette (Eds.), Literacy research methodologies (pp. 287-307). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Beyersdorfer, J. (n.d.). Digital reflections: Expressing understanding of content through photography. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/ classroom-resources/lesson-plans/digital-reflectionsexpressing-understanding-985.html. Blackhawk, T. (2002). Ekphrastic poetry: Entering and giving voice to works of art. In T. Foster & K. Prevallet (Eds.), Third mind: Creative writing through visual art (pp. 1-14). New York, NY: Teachers & Writers Collaborative. Bryce, N. (2012). “Mano a Mano”: Arts-based nonfiction literacy and content area learning. Language Arts, 89(3), 179-193. Burkins, J. (2010-2013). Literacyhead. Retrieved from http://www.literacyhead.org Chun, C. W., & Atwell, M. (n.d.). Making it visual for ELL students: Teaching history using Maus. Retrieved from http://www.readwritethink.org/classroomresources/lesson-plans/making-visual-studentsteaching-1178.html Commission on Arts and Literacies. (2012). Retrieved

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support multimodal literacy. Retrieved from http:// www.readwritethink.org/professional-development/ strategy-guides/using-glogster-supportmultimodal-30789.html Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. Luce-Kapler, R. J. (2007). Radical change and wikis: Teaching new literacies. Retrieved from http://www. readwritethink.org/professional-development/ professional-library/radical-change-wikisteaching-20918.html Martin, M. (n.d.). Using pictures to build schema for social studies content. Retrieved from http://www. readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lessonplans/using-pictures-build-schema-1059.html McDonald, N. L. (2010). Handbook for K-8 arts integration: Purposeful planning across the curriculum. Boston, MA: Pearson Education. National Council of Teachers of English, & International Reading Association. (2012). NCTE / IRA standards for the English language arts. Retrieved from http:// www.ncte.org/standards/ncte-ira National Gallery of Art. (2013). Retrieved from http:// www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/education/teachers. html National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards: English language arts. Washington, DC: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices and Council of Chief State School Officers http://www.corestandards.org/ELALiteracy/. Newland, A. (2013). Engaging students through image and word. Art Education, 66(2), 47-51. Pennisi, A. C. (2012). A partnership across boundaries: Arts integration in high schools. Teaching Artist Journal, 10(2), 102-109. Petherbridge, D. (2010). The primacy of drawing: Histories and theories of practice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.

Prensky, M. (2009). H. sapiens digital: From digital immigrants and digital natives to digital wisdom. Innovate: Journal of Online Education, 5(3). Retrieved from http://www.wisdompage.com/ Prensky01.html Robinson, A. H. (2012). Understanding how arts integration contribute to disadvantaged students’ success: A theoretical framework. International Journal of Arts and Sciences 5(5), 371-376. Rosenblatt, L. M. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Sayre, H. M. (2009). Writing about art (6th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Smithrim, K., & Upitis, R. (2005). Learning through the arts: Lessons of engagement. Canadian Journal of Education, 28(1/2), 109-128. Smithsonian American Art Museum. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://americanart.si.edu/education/resources/ Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd Ed., pp. 443-466). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Venezky, R. L. (1995). Literacy. In T. L. Harris & R. E. Hodges (Eds.), The literacy dictionary: The vocabulary of reading and writing (p. 142). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. Wineburg, S. (2001). Historical thinking and other unnatural acts: Charting the future of the past. Philadelphia, PA: Temple UP. Wright, J. (n.d.). Analyzing symbolism, plot, and theme in Death and the Miser. Retrieved from http://www. readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lessonplans/analyzing-symbolism-plot-theme-833.html. Yenawine, P. (2013). Visual thinking strategies: Using art to deepen learning across school disciplines. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

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Figure 1. ELA Educator’s Perceptions of the Impact of Arts Integration on Students’ Interest Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with this statement: Arts integration increases the students’ interest in the content area 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Neutral

Agree

Figure 2. Frequency of Art Use by English Language Arts Educators How often do you use art in instruction? 40

30

20

10

0

10

Strongly agree

Table 1. Lessons for Arts Integration from Readwritethink.org Grade

Media

Description

Source

9th – 12th

Graphic novels (Maus)

English language learners develop critical literacy skills.

(Chun & Atwell, n.d.)

9th – 12th

Classic novels (The Great Gatsby)

Students compare and contrast book cover interpretations.

(Hurt, n.d.)

9th – 12th

Paintings (Death and the Miser)

Students interpret the painting’s meaning.

(Wright, n.d.)

6th – 12th

Radical Change and Wikis

Students develop visual literacy skills cooperatively.

(Luce-Kapler, 2007)

3rd – 12th

Glogster

Students use technology to communicate meaning.

(Karchmer-Klein & Shinas, n.d.)

6th – 8th

Photography

Students use technology to understand content.

(Beyersdorfer, n.d.)

6th – 8th

Galleries

Students analyze paintings virturally or in person.

(Eichler, n.d.)

3rd – 5th

Propaganda

Students read images.

(Martin, n.d.)

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Appendix A Arts Integration Survey 1. At which level do you teach? n Elementary school n Middle school n High school 2. What subject(s) do you teach? Please check all that apply. n Social studies n English n Mathematics n Science n World languages n Special education 3. How often do you use art in instruction? n Never n Rarely n Sometimes n Often 4. If you use art in instruction, what types of art do you use? Please check all that apply. n Oil paintings n Ceramics n Sculptures n Photographs n Drawings n Decorative artifacts n Other ______________________________________ 5. Why do you use art in instruction?

6. What are common reactions by your students when they see images of art and artifacts in class?

7. Please indicate the degree to which you disagree or agree with this statement: Arts integration increases the students’ interest in the content area. n Strongly disagree n Disagree n Neutral n Agree n Strongly agree

8. What is your opinion of integrating art into content-area instruction?

9. What resources for teaching with art would you like to have?

10. Additional comments:

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Preservice Teachers’ Perceptions of their Literacy Practicum Experiences Cindy Hail, Beth Hurst, Deanne Camp, & Jeanne Laughlin MISSOURI STATE UNIVERSITY

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine undergraduate preservice teachers’ perceptions of their practicum experiences and their readiness for teaching literacy. We wanted to know how prepared students felt to teach reading and writing, how familiar they were with various instructional literacy models, how prepared they felt to teach the various models, and how often students observed teachers using the various models. Our findings indicated that we need to be more intentional about monitoring student placements, placing more of an emphasis on the reciprocal nature of reading and writing, and demonstrating how the writing process works across the curriculum.

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iteracy is a fundamental aspect of preservice teacher preparation, from understanding literacy components to best practices in teaching. Literacy emphasis has become essential in content learning in all elementary classrooms. Barnyak and Paquette (2010) state “Literacy instruction coursework is a vital component within elementary preservice teachers’ undergraduate preparation programs” (p. 1). Most preservice teacher programs offer experiences for classroom interaction and site-based involvement in the schools. Iaquinta (2006) stated “It is estimated that one in three children experience significant difficulties in learning to read” (p. 413). This shocking statistic supports why reading is the primary responsibility of every elementary teacher. We wanted to make sure our undergraduate preservice teachers felt prepared to teach literacy. It was important for us to capture our students’ perceptions of their practicum experiences and their readiness for teaching literacy. Armed with information directly from our students, we felt we could make more informed decisions regarding our current literacy curriculum. Our approach was to develop a survey to identify their perceptions. The following four questions guided the study. What are preservice teachers’ perceptions of how prepared they feel to teach reading and writing based on all of their coursework and practicum experiences? How familiar are preservice teachers with various instructional literacy models? How prepared do preservice teachers feel to teach literacy using specific literacy instructional models? How often do preservice teachers observe classroom teachers using various instructional literacy models during their practicum?

Theoretical Framework

It was important for us to capture our students’ perceptions of their practicum experiences and their readiness for teaching literacy.

Alger (2009) focused on how to empower preservice teachers by requiring them to model a researched-based strategy to their peers, complete a case study of reading attitudes, and create lesson plans that incorporate reading strategies. Even though the preservice teachers did an excellent job of completing these activities for their peers, Alger found “there is evidence that strategy instruction does not get transferred to their classrooms” (p. 61). She

According to Barnyak and Paquette (2010), it is the responsibility of teacher certification programs to prepare “well-qualified teachers to meet the needs of today’s diverse student population” (p. 1). Undergraduate teacher preparation programs must teach best practices and allow opportunities for preservice teachers to practice literacy instructional models to build their knowledge base and their confidence. Miller and Veatch (2010) emphasize educators need to focus on how to choose and use the most appropriate instructional strategies for their students. If they know various literacy instructional models, they will feel more confident to teach literacy. However, Fisher and Frey (2008) stated “Even though a strategy is known, it may not be used if the teacher is unsure how to apply it to his or her content” (p. 248). This leads to the important role practicums play in preservice teacher preparation.

Undergraduate teacher preparation programs must teach best practices and allow opportunities for preservice teachers to practice literacy instructional models to build their knowledge base and their confidence.

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discovered that during field experiences, the preservice teachers did not use the strategies they had learned. The preservice teachers apparently had the head knowledge, but not the practical knowledge about how to use researchbased best practices in the classroom. Mongillo, Lawrence, and Hong (2012) stated students should have “ample opportunities to demonstrate what they know and are learning through courses by participating in a variety of authentic experiences” (p. 560). These examples support the importance of learning literacy instructional models and practicing how to implement them in the classroom. Literacy strategies need to be taught in undergraduate courses and implemented during practicum experiences so preservice teachers feel confident teaching reading and writing. Russell and Russell (2011) contend the “The internship or field experience is considered one of the most significant milestones of the teacher preparation program” (p. 5). Routman (2003) stated “Teachers need to gain back the confidence to trust their own professional knowledge” (p. 9). Having confidence is important for educators, and having knowledge and training in the literacy field will give educators confidence to teach and follow through with their own professional opinions.

literacy models, how prepared they felt to teach the various models, and how often they observed teachers using the various models. Students were engaged in practicums in more than five courses, and literacy was explicitly or implicitly part of the experience during which the preservice teachers observed, taught, and practiced best teaching strategies. The questionnaire was distributed during the final practicum, which was an all-day, twiceweekly experience just prior to student teaching. Data were collected during the Fall 2011 and Spring 2012 semesters. The enrollment was 79 and 77, respectively. Gender was predominately female with approximately 6% males each semester, and