Wednesday 2 June FREE PAPER ABSTRACTS

Conference Proceedings Conference of Science, Medicine & Coaching in Cricket Sheraton Mirage Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia 1-3 June 2010 Cricket Australia (Brisbane, Melbourne) Edited by: Marc Portus, Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, Cricket Australia Centre of Excellence Peer reviewed conference proceedings. Conference Organising Committee (Cricket Australia) Marc Portus, Sonya Thompson, Sarah Sharpe, Dianne O’Neill, Matt Cenin Scientific Review Sub-Committee Marc Portus (Cricket Australia), Damian Farrow (Victoria University & Australian Institute of Sport), Bruce Elliott (The University of Western Australia), David Pyne (Australian Institute of Sport), Kevin Sims (Cricket Australia), John Orchard (The University of Sydney), Aaron Kellett (Cricket Australia), Michael Lloyd (Cricket Australia), Michelle Cort (Cricket Australia) Coaching Program Sub-Committee Sonya Thompson, Damian Farrow, Greg Chappell, Matthew Betsey, Troy Cooley Formatting & Typesetting Carolyn Arthur (Cricket Australia) Layout & Design Matt Cenin (Cricket Australia) & MMR Studio

© Copyright Cricket Australia 2010, the authors and their institutions.

Title 1 of 1 - Conference of Science, Medicine & Coaching in Cricket 2010 Subtitle: Conference Proceedings

ISBN: [978-0-9751669-1-8] Format: Paperback Publication Date: 06/2010 Recommended Retail Price: $0.00 Number Of Pages: 199 Height By Width: 300 x 210 Illustrations Included: Black and White Contributor: Marc Portus Contributor Role: Editor Subject: Sports and Games, Medicine, Science

Table of Contents

Conference Program ...................................................................................................................... 1 Conference Day 1 ............................................................................................................................ 5 An Overview of Sport Science Literature in Cricket: Where are we at?   Bruce Elliott ................................................................................................................................... 7  Anti Doping and Other Medical Issues in Cricket   Peter Harcourt ............................................................................................................................. 12  Holistic Skill Development: Balancing Technical and Tactical Needs   Damian Farrow............................................................................................................................ 14  Biomechanics of Overhand Throwing: Implications for Injury and Performance   Glenn S. Fleisig ........................................................................................................................... 17  Throwing Mechanics, Load Monitoring and Injury: Perspectives from Physiotherapy and Baseball as they Relate to Cricket   Rod Whiteley ............................................................................................................................... 21  Individualisation of Cricket Players Hydration Strategies - A Necessity for High Performance   Michelle Cort ............................................................................................................................... 25  Supplementation 2010 and Beyond Programs, Structures and Ways to Help Athletes Stay Safe   Greg Shaw .................................................................................................................................. 29  A Novel Training Tool for Batters to ‘Watch the Ball’   David Mann, Bruce Abernethy, Damian Farrow.......................................................................... 32  A Constraint-Led Approach to Coaching   Ian Renshaw and Darren Holder................................................................................................. 35  Conference Day 2 .......................................................................................................................... 39 Monitoring and Managing Training Load and Fatigue in Elite Team Sport Athletes   Stuart Cormack ........................................................................................................................... 41  Cricketers’ Hotspots & Coldspots: Talent Tracking the Key Development Geographies of Australia’s Elite Cricketers   Geoffrey Woolcock, Dwight Zakus, Murray Bird, Emily Hatfield ................................................. 44  Past, Present and Future of Injury Surveillance in Australian and World Cricket   John Orchard, Trefor James, Alex Kountouris, Marc Portus....................................................... 46  The Relationship between Quadratus Lumborum Asymmetry and Lumbar Spine Injury in Junior Cricket Fast Bowlers   Alex Kountouris, Jill Cook, Marc Portus, Howard Galloway, John Orchard ................................ 48  Psychological Aspects of Workload Management in Elite Sport   Scott Cresswell ........................................................................................................................... 51  Planning & Monitoring Workloads: Identifying Performance Limiting Factors and Developing Solutions   Stuart Karppinen ......................................................................................................................... 56

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Conference Day 2 - Free Paper Abstracts .................................................................................. 58 The Effect of Footwear on the Lower Limb Biomechanics during the Fast Bowling Delivery Stride: A Single Subject Case Study   Chris Bishop, Dominic Thewlis, Wayne Spratford, Simon Bartold, Marc Portus, Nick Brown .... 59  The Biomechanics of the Initial Movement in Cricket Batting   Gerard Randika Dias and Rene Ferdinands ............................................................................... 63  Kinematic Correlates of Lumbar Spine Loading in Fast Bowling   René E.D. Ferdinands, Max Stuelcken, Andy Greene, Peter Sinclair, Richard Smith ................ 67  Proprioception and Throwing Accuracy after Exercise   Jonathan Freeston, Roger Adams, Kieron Rooney .................................................................... 71  Validity of GPS for Measuring Distance Travelled in Cricket   Adrian Gray, David Jenkins, Mark Andrews, Dennis Taaffe and Megan Glover......................... 74  Multidisciplinary and Multivariate Approaches to Problem Solving in Exercise and Sport Science   Ian Heazlewood .......................................................................................................................... 77  Development and Implementation of a Simulated Cricket Batting Innings for Testing and Training   Laurence Houghton, Brian Dawson, Jonas Rubenson and Martin Tobin ................................... 82  Strength Training for Fast Bowlers: Resistance to Resistance Training   Stuart Karppinen ......................................................................................................................... 86  Training Responses of AIS Cricket Scholars to an Elite Cricket off Season Program   Aaron Kellett, Kevin Sims and Kieran Young............................................................................... 90  The Effect of a Formalised Goal Setting Program on Perceptions of Quality of Performance in Training in an Elite Cricket Sample   Michael Lloyd .............................................................................................................................. 94  Can Your Players See the Ball? What a Cricket Coach Needs to Know about the Eyes and Vision of their Players   David Mann ................................................................................................................................. 98  Back Injuries in Pace Bowlers – An Under-use Injury?   Graeme Nuttridge and Peter Milburn ........................................................................................ 101  Practical, Field-Based Pre-Cooling for Medium-Fast Bowling in Hot Environmental Conditions   Geoffrey Minett, Rob Duffield, Marc Portus and Aaron Kellett .................................................. 105  Transfer of Motor Skill Learning: Is it possible?   Sean Müller and Simon Rosalie ................................................................................................ 109  CA/AIS/UWA GPS PhD Scholarship: Findings, Conclusions and Future Directions   Carl Petersen, David Pyne, Marc Portus, Brian Dawson........................................................... 112  What the Experts Think: Fast Bowling Expertise Acquisition and Talent   Elissa Phillips, Keith Davids, Ian Renshaw and Marc Portus.................................................... 114  How do our ‘Quicks’ Generate Pace? A Cross Sectional Analysis of the Cricket Australia Pace Pathway   Elissa Phillips, Marc Portus, Keith Davids, Nick Brown and Ian Renshaw................................ 117  Quantifying Variability within Technique and Performance in Elite Fast Bowlers: Is Technical Variability Dysfunctional or Functional?   Elissa Phillips, Marc Portus, Keith Davids, Nick Brown and Ian Renshaw ............................... 121  A Batting Skills Test to Assist the Development of Elite Cricketers   Marc Portus, Stephen Timms, Wayne Spratford, Nadine Morrison, Rian Crowther ................. 125 

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The Utility of a Bowling Skills Test to Assist Developing Fast Bowlers   Marc Portus, Stephen Timms, Wayne Spratford, Nadine Morrison, Rian Crowther ................. 130  The Use of the Total Quality Recovery Model in Determining Optimal Training Loads and Recovery Periods   Gregory Reddan........................................................................................................................ 134  Links between Physiotherapy Measures and Physical Performance Measures in Australian First Class Cricketers   Kevin Sims and Aaron Kellett.................................................................................................... 137  Measurement of Ball Flight Characteristics in Finger-Spin Bowling   Wayne Spratford and John Davison ......................................................................................... 140  The Influence of Batting Handedness on Rates of Shoulder Counter-Rotation in Cricket Fast Bowlers   Wayne Spratford, Chris McCosker, Nadine Morrison and Rian Crowther ................................ 144  Biomechanical Spin Bowling Research   Wayne Spratford and Jacqueline Alderson ............................................................................... 147  Examining How Psychological Factors Contribute to Team Performance in an Australian National Cricket Competition   Rosanna Stanimirovic and Michael Lloyd ................................................................................. 150  The 3D Kinematics of the Single Leg Flat and Decline Squat   Stephen Timms, Tony Shield, Marc Portus, Kevin Sims, Patrick Farhart ................................. 153 Conference Day 3 ........................................................................................................................ 157 The Spine in Cricket   Peter O’Sullivan ........................................................................................................................ 159  Technology in Sports Assessment: Past, Present and Future   Daniel James, Andrew Wixted .................................................................................................. 161  Wearable Sensors for on Field near Real Time Detection of Illegal Bowling Actions   Andrew Wixted, Wayne Spratford, Mark Davis, Marc Portus, Daniel James ............................ 165  Smart Balls: Design and Application   Franz Konstantin Fuss .............................................................................................................. 169  Examining How Psychological Factors Contribute to Team Performance in an Australian National Cricket Competition   Rosanna Stanimirovic and Michael Lloyd ................................................................................. 172  The Multi-Component Training Distress Scale for Monitoring Athlete’s Health and Wellbeing   Luana Main................................................................................................................................ 175  Mental Toughness: Conceptualisation, Measurement, and Development   Daniel Gucciardi ........................................................................................................................ 178  The Battle Zone: Constraint-Led Coaching   Ian Renshaw, Greg Chappell, David Fitzgerald, John Davison and Brian McFadyen .............. 181  Subject Index............................................................................................................................... 185 

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Conference Program

TUESDAY 1 JUNE 7.00 am

DELEGATE REGISTRATION OPEN Mirage Grand Terrace

8.50 am

CONFERENCE OPENING Grand Ballroom 2

9.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 1: James Sutherland The future of world cricket: implications for coaches, support staff and scientists Grand Ballroom 2

9.30 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 2: Prof. Bruce Elliott An overview of the science & medicine literature in cricket: where are we at? Grand Ballroom 2

10.30 am

Morning Tea

11.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 3 : Dr. Peter Harcourt

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 4: Prof. Damian Farrow

Anti-doping & other medical challenges in world cricket Grand Ballroom 1

Holistic skill development: balancing technical and tactical needs Grand Ballroom 2

12.00 pm

Lunch

1.00 pm

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 5: Dr. Glenn Fleisig Overhand throwing biomechanics: implications for injury and performance Grand Ballroom 2

2.00 pm

3.00 pm

Seminar: The new powerhouse: do we need Twenty20™ specialists? Grand Ballroom 2 -

Panel: Tim Nielsen, Darren Lehmann, Patrick Farhart, Ian Renshaw, Jamie Cox, Stuart Karppinen, Greg Chappell, Troy Cooley

-

Moderator: Ian Healy

Afternoon Tea Parallel Seminars

3.30 pm

Shoulder Seminar 1

Nutrition & Supplementation

Skill Acquisition in Practice

Invited Speaker: Dr. Rod Whiteley (45 mins)

Michelle Cort - Hydration strategies for High Performance (30 mins)

An introduction to constraints based coaching – Dr. Ian Renshaw & Darren Holder (15 mins) Grand Ballroom 4

Panel: Glenn Fleisig, Rod Whiteley, Kevin Sims, Aaron Kellett (45 mins) Moderator: Kevin Sims Grand Ballroom 2

Invited Speaker: Dr. John Kellett - Vitamin D & Muscle Function (30 mins) Invited Speaker: Greg Shaw Supplements, Performance & Antidoping (30 mins) Moderator: Michelle Cort Grand Ballroom 1

5.00 pm – 6.30pm

Shoulder Seminar 2 Assessment & management – Dr. Rod Whiteley. Grand Ballroom 4

7.00 pm

Conference Dinner Sheraton Mirage Lagoon Lawn (by registration)

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Constraints based coaching – examples from the AIS – Dr. David Mann (15 mins) Grand Ballroom 4 Constraints based coaching; (45 mins) Practical on tennis court Moderators: Prof. Damian Farrow & Matthew Betsey

WEDNESDAY 2 JUNE 9.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 6: Afterburner Flawless execution Grand Ballroom 2

10.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 7: Dr. Stuart Cormack Managing workloads, fatigue & performance Grand Ballroom 2

11.00 am 11.30 am

Morning Tea KEYNOTE ADDRESS 8: Jon Deeble Talent identification: lessons from a life in the business Grand Ballroom 2

12.30 pm

Lunch Parallel Seminars

1.30 pm

Identifying & Developing Talent

Cricket Injuries & Medicine

Invited Speaker: Scott Clayton (45 mins)

John Orchard – Injury Surveillance (30 mins)

Geoff Woolcock – Talent Hotspots (15 mins) Panel: Brian McFadyen, Geoff Woolcock, Scott Clayton, Jon Deeble (30 mins) Moderator: Sonya Thompson

Alex Kountouris – QL Research (15 mins) Panel: Peter Harcourt, John Orchard, Alex Kountouris, Trefor James, Kevin Sims (45 mins) Moderator: Dr. Simon Carter

Workload & Wellbeing

Illegal Bowling Actions

Invited Speaker: Dr. Scott Cresswell (45 mins)

Panel: Troy Cooley, Bruce Elliott, Damian Farrow, Rene Ferdinands, Tim McCaskill, Wayne Spratford, Andrew Wixted

Stuart Karppinen – Planning & Monitoring Workloads (15 mins) Panel: Stuart Cormack, Scott Cresswell, Stuart Karppinen, Shona Halson (30 mins)

Moderator: Dr. Marc Portus Grand Ballroom 5

Moderator: Aaron Kellett Grand Ballroom 1

Grand Ballroom 4

Grand Ballroom 2 3.00 pm

Afternoon Tea Free Paper Parallel Sessions Grand Ballroom 1

Grand Ballroom 2

Grand Ballroom 4

Grand Ballroom 5

Grand Ballroom 6

3.30 pm

Marc Portus Batting Skills Test

Wayne Spratford Bowling Left & Right

Elissa Phillips Expert Views Talent

Stephen Timms Squat Kinematics

Adrian Gray GPS & Cricket

3.45 pm

Gerard Dias Batting Biomechanics

Chris Bishop Bowling Footwear

Michael Lloyd Goal Setting

Ian Heazlewood Multivariate Stats

Aaron Kellett Training Responses

4.00 pm

Laurence Houghton Simulated Batting

Elissa Phillips Generating Pace

Gregory Reddan Recovery Model

Wayne Spratford Ball Flight Measures

Geoff Minett Precooling Effects

4.15 pm

David Mann Eyes & Vision

Rene Ferdinands Bowling Spine Loads

Kevin Sims Physio & S&C Links

Peter Milburn Bowling Underuse

Stuart Karppinen Strength Training

4.30 pm

Sean Muller Learning Transfer

Stephen Timms Bowling Skills Test

Wayne Spratford Spin Research

Elissa Phillips Technique Variability

Jonathon Freeston Exercise & Throwing

4.45 pm

Day Concludes

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THURSDAY 3 JUNE Parallel Seminars 8.30 am

Spine in Sport 1

Technology in Sport

Coach Longevity

Invited Speaker: Dr. Matthew Scott-Young (45 mins)

Invited Speaker: Dr. Daniel James: Technology in Sport: Past, Present, Future (25 mins)

Invited Speaker: Kevin Sheedy (30 mins)

Invited Speaker: Prof. Peter O’Sullivan (45 mins)

Invited Speaker: Dr. Andrew Wixted: Sensors to measure illegal bowling actions – The ICC project (25 mins)

Moderator: Alex Kountouris Grand Ballroom 4

Invited Speaker: Prof. Franz Fuss: Smart Balls in Sport (25 mins)

Invited Speaker: John Wright (30 mins) Q&A from the floor (30 mins) Moderator: Greg Chappell Grand Ballroom 2

Richard McInnes: Using Technical Information in a Practical Environment (15 mins) Moderator: Richard McInnes Grand Ballroom 1 10.00am 10.30 am

Morning Tea KEYNOTE ADDRESS 9: Greg Chappell Developing and managing talent in the changing cricket landscape Grand Ballroom 2

11.30 am

12.30 pm

Seminar: Bridging the gap between domestic and international cricket Grand Ballroom 2 -

Invited Speaker: Ewen McKenzie: Bridging the gap: provincial & international rugby (25 mins)

-

Panel: Ewen McKenzie, Tim Nielsen, Alex Kountouris, Ryan Harris, Ross Chapman, Stuart Karppinen (35 mins)

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Moderator: Ian Healy

Lunch Parallel Seminars

1.00 pm

Spine in Sport 2: Assessment & management Prof. Peter O’Sullivan By registration only Grand Ballroom 4

The Smart & Resilient Cricketer Dr. Michael Lloyd – EQI Profiling in Cricket: a three year project (20 mins) Invited Speaker: Dr. Luana Main – A new model to measure athlete stress (20 mins) Invited Speaker: Dr. Daniel Gucciardi – Mental Toughness in Cricket (20 mins) Panel: Ross Chapman, Luana Main, Scott Cresswell, Daniel Gucciardi (30 mins) Moderator: Dr. Michael Lloyd Grand Ballroom 2

2.30 pm

The Battle Zone: Game Based Training in Cricket Greg Chappell Ian Renshaw Darren Holder David Fitzgerald John Davison Starts in Grand Ballroom 1 for intro presentation (15 mins) and then moves to Tennis Court (60 mins)

Seminar: Workload restrictions for young fast bowlers: are they doing more harm than good? -

Panel: John Orchard, Patrick Farhart, Aaron Kellett, Alex Kountouris, Bruce Elliott, Damian Farrow, Peter O’Sullivan, Geoff Lawson, Craig McDermott, Troy Cooley

-

Moderators: Marc Portus and Stuart Karppinen Grand Ballroom 2

3.15 pm - 3.30 pm CONFERENCE CLOSING Grand Ballroom 2

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Day 1: Tuesday 1 June

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TUESDAY 1 JUNE 7.00 am

DELEGATE REGISTRATION OPEN Mirage Grand Terrace

8.50 am

CONFERENCE OPENING Grand Ballroom 2

9.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 1: James Sutherland The future of world cricket: implications for coaches, support staff and scientists Grand Ballroom 2

9.30 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 2: Prof. Bruce Elliott An overview of the science & medicine literature in cricket: where are we at? Grand Ballroom 2

10.30 am

Morning Tea

11.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 3 : Dr. Peter Harcourt

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 4: Prof. Damian Farrow

Anti-doping & other medical challenges in world cricket Grand Ballroom 1

Holistic skill development: balancing technical and tactical needs Grand Ballroom 2

12.00 pm

Lunch

1.00 pm

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 5: Dr. Glenn Fleisig Overhand throwing biomechanics: implications for injury and performance Grand Ballroom 2

2.00 pm

3.00 pm

Seminar: The new powerhouse: do we need Twenty20™ specialists? Grand Ballroom 2 -

Panel: Tim Nielsen, Darren Lehmann, Patrick Farhart, Ian Renshaw, Jamie Cox, Stuart Karppinen, Greg Chappell, Troy Cooley

-

Moderator: Ian Healy

Afternoon Tea Parallel Seminars

3.30 pm

Shoulder Seminar 1

Nutrition & Supplementation

Skill Acquisition in Practice

Invited Speaker: Dr. Rod Whiteley (45 mins)

Michelle Cort - Hydration strategies for High Performance (30 mins)

An introduction to constraints based coaching – Dr. Ian Renshaw & Darren Holder (15 mins) Grand Ballroom 4

Panel: Glenn Fleisig, Rod Whiteley, Kevin Sims, Aaron Kellett (45 mins) Moderator: Dr. Kevin Sims Grand Ballroom 2

Invited Speaker: Dr. John Kellett - Vitamin D & Muscle Function (30 mins) Invited Speaker: Greg Shaw Supplements, Performance & Antidoping (30 mins) Moderator: Michelle Cort Grand Ballroom 1

5.00 pm – 6.30pm

Shoulder Seminar 2 Assessment & management – Dr. Rod Whiteley. Grand Ballroom 4

7.00 pm

Conference Dinner Sheraton Mirage Lagoon Lawn (by registration)

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Constraints based coaching – examples from the AIS – Dr. David Mann (15 mins) Grand Ballroom 4 Constraints based coaching; (45 mins) Practical on tennis court Moderators: Prof. Damian Farrow & Matthew Betsey

An Overview of Sport Science Literature in Cricket: Where are we at? Bruce Elliott School of Sport Science, Exercise and Health, The University of Western Australia, Perth Correspondence: [email protected] Elite cricketers are unique in the world of sport, in that they are required to play so many matches of varying formats over the entire year. Research that provides evidence-based direction for their preparation is therefore imperative. This is particularly the case in Australia, where our relatively small population requires us to develop our players to their optimal, while at the same time keeping them injury free. To this end Cricket Australia (CA), through its Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, has been very forward thinking in the way that science has been used to enhance performance. Typically the majority of CA supported research should be applied, that is it should answer questions of interest and concern to coaches and players. However, some research may be more theoretical, providing background to questions that may not as yet have been asked. This presentation is not meant to summarise all aspects of science as it applies to cricket, that would require a very extensive document such as Bartlett (2003), however it will attempt to ‘set the scene’ for the presentation of science at this conference by briefly reviewing current literature in the various discipline areas. Even in this endeavour it is not meant to be all inclusive and only selected papers will be reviewed. The presentation will be started with a discussion of how a combined van Mechelen (1992) and Finch, (2006) research injury prevention model may be applied generally to cricket research (see 5 steps below) before discussing current research directions for each of the various science disciplines applied to cricket. 1:

Establish need for research. For injury-based research you need valid epidemiological data (extent, nature and severity).

2:

Identify aetiology of the problem - bigger than just technique.

3:

Develop technique enhancement or preventive measures.

4:

Educate the relevant population (player, coach, parents, media) - other models expand on this step to include such factors as efficacy of approach in the field setting.

5:

Evaluate the effectiveness of the coaching or preventative measures.

Each of the sport sciences has played a significant role in developing cricket in this country. Brief summaries of recent research are included. Sport and Health Psychology (a) Psychological skills training for junior cricketers. Results from unpublished research by Tobin and Gordon at UWA showed significant gains in both ‘knowledge of’ and ‘use of’ mental skills that did not diminish with time. Social validation procedures indicated that psychological training at a young age was regarded as both acceptable and appropriate by players, coaches and parents. (b)

The development of a ‘mental toughness’ inventory for high performance players. Mental toughness is a collection of experientially developed and inherent sport-general and sport-specific values, attitudes and emotions that influence the way in which we approach,

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respond to and appraise construed pressures, challenges and adversities to consistently achieve goals. Research by Gucciardi and Gordon (2009) identified a 5 factor 15 item model, the factors being: affective intelligence, attentional control, resilience, self-belief and desire to achieve Exercise Physiology (a) Heat acclimatisation/acclimation in preparing high performance players. Four sessions of high-intensity cycling (30 - 45 mins) on consecutive days in a environmental chamber (30°C & 60%RH) were only moderately successful in eliciting heat acclimation, as were 4 days of acclimatisation for a group, who spent the same period in Chennai. Longer and more intensive protocols were recommended (Petersen 2010). (b)

Fast bowler movement characteristics in an ODI (1 bowler over 12 matches). • Covered 16 km per game, with 12% of the time striding or sprinting. • Performed 66 sprints / game over 18 m and 1 high intensity run, of ~3 s every 68 s. • Recorded a maximum sprinting speed of 8.3 m/s (Petersen et al., 2009a).

(c)

Ground movements and the Twenty20 cricketer (18 players over 30 innings). Data from Petersen et al. (2009b) showed players: • Covered 6.4 - 8.5 km per game, while sprinting 0.1 - 0.7 km during 80 mins of fielding. • Fast bowlers covered 8.5 km and sprinted 42 times typically over 17 m. • While batting (30 mins) players covered 2.5 km and sprinted 12 times over 14 m.

(d)

Preparing cricketers for various formats (Pertersen et al., 2010). • Overall, ODI & Twenty20 required 50 -100% more sprinting/hour than multi-day matches. • However, the longer duration of multi-day matches resulted in 16 - 130% more sprinting per day. • Shorter formats were more intensive per unit time but multi-day cricket has a greater overall physical load.

Motor Learning (a) Skill decomposition (Renshaw et al., 2007 – batting against bowler or ball machine). • Significant adaptation of coordination and timing was observed under different practice task constraints. • Different ratio of backswing-downswing, when batting against a bowling machine (47% - 53%) compared with a bowler (54% - 46%). • Mean length of front foot stride was shorter against the bowling machine (0.55 m), compared with (0.59 m) a bowler. • Correlation between initiation of backswing and front foot movement was higher against a bowler (r = 0.88), compared with a ball machine (r = 0.65). (b)

Anticipation and batting performance (Weissensteiner et al., 2008 - skilled and lesser skilled U15, U20 and adult batsmen completed a temporal occlusion task). • Skilled adult and U20 players showed an ability to use pre-release kinematic information to anticipate ball type that was not evident among other groups. • Accumulated hours of experience explained only a modest percentage of the variance in anticipatory skill.

(c)

Learning new skills: Talent development programs should avoid the notion of common optimal performance models (Phillips et al., 2010). • Emphasise the individual nature of pathways to expertise by identifying a range of interacting constraints that impinge on performance potential of the individual.

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(d)

Modifying techniques (Elliott & Khangure 2002; Ranson et al., 2009) • Early work showed that providing data and a seminar to players, coaches and parents was NOT successful in changing key bowling characteristics over ~2.5 yrs. • An individual approach, with small group coaching was successful in modifying bowling techniques, shown to be related to back injury. • 2-years coaching intervention with elite 18 year old bowlers, showed specific changes, such as shoulder counter rotation were possible, even with highperformance players.

Sports Medicine (a) Workload and injury (Orchard et al., 2009; Saw et al., 2009). • >50 over’s/ match had an injury incidence in the next 21 days of 3.4/1000 over’s bowled. • >30 overs in the 2nd innings increased the risk of injury. • Injured players threw ~40 more times/week (12.5 throws/day) than uninjured players. (b)

The role of muscle morphology and loading on the bowlers’ back (Hides et al., 2007; Visser et al., 2007). Asymmetry of quadratus lumborum (QL) muscle, reported by Craig Engstrom in the 1990’s was initially thought to be related to lumbar loading. Recent research shows: • QL and erector spinae muscles were larger on the ipsilateral bowling arm side with this asymmetry linked to impaired motor control, for players with lower back pain. • Mathematical modelling has cast some doubts on this assumption, with some suggestion that this asymmetry may reduce the stresses in the pars.

Biomechanics (a) Performance optimisation; spin bowling (Chin et al., 2009). While the velocity (≈ 22 m/s) and spin rate (≈ 25 rev/s) are similar for off-break and ‘doosra’ deliveries, the angle of rotation is very different. This is caused by a different kinematic profile used to create these performance variables. (b)

Performance optimisation; fast bowling (Middleton et al., in progress). A forward kinematics approach will permit key questions, such as ‘does elbow extension enhance delivery speed’ to be addressed through manipulation of segment kinematics. This research supported by Cricket Australia is a collaborative effort between The University of Western Australia and Griffith University.

(c)

Lower back injury reduction in male and female fast bowlers (Stuelcken et al., 2010 – data collected on 26 high-performance female fast bowlers; Portus et al., 2007). • 14 females had a history of lower back pain (LBP), and bowlers with more counterrotation of the shoulder alignment were no more likely to have a history of pain. • Female bowlers with a history of LBP positioned the thorax in more lateral flexion relative to the pelvis. • Female bowlers with LBP moved the thorax through a significant greater range of lateral flexion relative to the pelvis. • Age, growth and physical maturation are important factors when assessing back pathomechanics in fast bowlers. • Adolescent fast bowlers more susceptible to injury from poor technique (ie shoulder counter rotation) than their senior counterparts.

(d)

Legality and bowling: The current ICC approach using the UWA method will be presented, along with testing of a proposed Loughborough model.

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References Bartlett, R. The science and medicine of cricket: an overview and update, Journal of Sports Sciences, 21: 733-752, 2003. Chin, A., Elliott, B., Alderson, J. & Foster, D. The off-break and ‘doosra’: Kinematic variations of elite and sub-elite bowlers in creating spin in cricket bowling, Sports Biomechanics, 8: 187-198, 2009. Elliott, B. & Khangure, M. Disc degeneration and the cricket fast bowler: an intervention study, Medicine and Science in Sport & Exercise, 34: 1714-1718, 2002. Finch, C. A new framework for research leading to sports injury prevention, Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9: 3-9, 2006. Gucciardi, D & Gordon, S. Development and preliminary validation of the cricket mental toughness inventory, Journal of Sports Science, 27: 1293-1310, 2009. Hides, J., Freke, M., Wilson, S., McMahon, S. & Richardson, C. MRI study of the size, symmetry and function of the trunk muscles among elite cricketers with and without back pain, British Journal of Sports Medicine, Dec: 509-513, 2007. Orchard, J., James, T., Portus, M., Kountouris, A. & Dennis, R. Fast bowlers in cricket demonstrate up to 3- to 4-week delay between high workloads and increased risk of injury, The American Journal of Sports Medicine, 37: 1186-1192, 2009. Petersen, C., Pyne, D., Portus, M., Karppinen, S. & Dawson, B. Variability in movement patterns during one day internationals by cricket fast bowlers, Int. Journal of Sports Psychology and Performance, 4: 278-281, 2009a. Petersen, C., Pyne, D., Portus, M & Dawson, B. Quantifying positional movement patterns in Twenty20 cricket, Int. Journal of Performance Analysis of Sport, 9: 165-170, 2009b. Petersen, C., Pyne, D., Dawson, B., Portus, M. & Kellett, A. Movement patterns in cricket vary by both position and game format, Journal of Sports Sciences, 28: 45-52, 2010. Petersen, C. Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University of Western Australia, 2010. Phillips, E., Davids, K., Renshaw, I. & Portus, M. Expert performance in sport and the dynamics of talent development, Sports Medicine, 40: 1-13, 2010. Portus, M., Galloway, H., Elliott, B. & Lloyd, D. Pathomechanics of lower back injuries in junior and senior fast bowlers: a prospective study, Sport Health, 25: 8, 2007. Ranson, C. King, M., Burnett, A., Worthington, P. & Shine, K. The effect of coaching intervention on elite fast bowling technique over a two year period, Sports Biomechanics, 8: 261-274, 2009. Renshaw, I., Oldham, A., Davids, K. & Golds, T. Changing ecological constraints of practice alters coordination of dynamic interceptive actions, European Journal of Sports Sciences, 7: 157-167, 2007. Saw, R., Dennis, R., Bentley, D. & farhart, P. Throwing workload and injury risk in elite cricketers, British Journal of Sports Medicine, Aug, 2009.

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Stuelcken, M., Ferdinands, R. & Sinclair, P. Three-dimensional trunk kinematics and lower back pain in elite female fast bowlers, Journal of Applied Biomechanics, 26: 52-61, 2010. Van Mechelen, W., Hlobil, H. & Kemper, H. Incidence, severity and prevention of sports injuries. A review of concepts, Sports Medicine, 14: 82-99, 1992. Weissensteiner, J., Abernethy, B., Farrow, D. & Muller, S. The development of anticipation: a cross-sectional examination of the practice experiences contributing to skill in cricket batting, Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30: 1-23, 2008. Visser, H., Adam, C., Crozier, S. & Pearcy, M. The role of quadratus lumborum asymmetry in the occurrence of lesions in the lumbar vertebrae of cricket fast bowlers, Medical Engineering & Physics, 29: 877-885, 2007.

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Anti Doping and Other Medical Issues in Cricket Peter Harcourt Chair, International Cricket Council Medical Committee Correspondence: [email protected] The International Cricket Council Medical Committee was formed in 2008 with a portfolio of interests that include: anti-doping, injury surveillance, medical facilities of cricket venues, heat risk to players and officials, protocols for the assessment of the biomechanics of bowling, age determination in underage competition and other emerging medical issues. This presentation will discuss these areas of interest with a focus on the anti-doping issues confronting the sport. The ICC is quickly moving towards WADA compliance, however, there are specific problems within the sport regarding this outcome. In particular some ICC members lack the capability to embrace managing contemporary international anti-doping strategies. There are challenges with team practitioner knowledge of drugs issues, therapeutic use exemptions, whereabouts compliance, player support and education – significant problems in an environment where there is rigorous drug testing and a high risk of inadvertent doping. The challenge is highlighted by the significant developments in the international anti-doping strategies over the last 30 years. Cricket needs to ‘fast track’ its ability to manage current WADA compliant anti-doping strategies. The sport has had a number of doping cases over recent years. These cases appear to have involved inadvertent doping as well as deliberate cheating. The complexity of these cases has demonstrated the difficulty detecting true cheating and the ease of making unfortunate mistakes. The inadvertent doping risk includes the use of prescription drugs when a treating doctor is unaware of the WADA prohibited list. It also includes ‘social’ illicit substance use and nutritional supplements which either deliberately or inadvertently contain prohibited substances. Cricket Australia (CA) and other elite sporting organisations address these inadvertent risks with annual education programs. In the case of CA it also has an Illicit Substances Rule (pertaining to ‘social’ drugs which are illegal in most countries but not necessarily on the WADA banned list) and specific strategy to address illicit substance abuse. There have been no positives with CA’s testing program but a number of players have come forward voluntarily so that their circumstances could be addressed medically. The Australian Football League (AFL) has a similar program with quite different results. This demonstrates the cultural differences of the two sports but also provides insight as to how these programs might evolve. In the case of the AFL there has been a significant drop in the illicit substance detection incidence from 4% to less than 1% over 4 years, compared with illicit substance use survey rates of 30% by a compatible cohort. Both these programs use primarily a medical model to respond to illicit substance use. The presence of WADA prohibited substances in nutritional supplements pose a significant risk due to the high incidence of stimulant or steroid contamination in the manufacturing process. In some countries such as the Netherlands, China, New Zealand and the USA, the presence of prohibited substances in supplements can be as high as 20 to 25%. These prohibited substances include DHEA, stanozolol, boldenone, designer steroids and a range of stimulants. Frequently these ‘additions’ are not listed in a product’s contents labelling. Sports scientists, dietitians and sports doctors need to understand these risks for athletes. Generally speaking due to the national regulatory environment Australian manufactured supplements are safe with high reliability in the

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labelling. Risks still occur with ‘Australian’ supplements which have sourced bulk product from overseas suppliers. Science is slowly addressing the problem of objective assessment of illegal bowling actions. The ICC Medical Committee is overseeing the ICC’s work in standardising the protocols for assessing the legality of a bowler’s action. An emerging medical issue for international cricket is age cheating in underage competition. The sport is looking for ‘medical’ solutions to this problem with age determination via imaging similar to FIFA’s initiative in this area. The evidence supporting this approach is thin and there have been incidents where players have been excluded from competition where clearly they were not ‘overage’. Other active issues are heat risk, gender verification and injury surveillance.

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Holistic Skill Development: Balancing Technical and Tactical Needs Damian Farrow 1,2 1

School of Sport and Exercise Science, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Active Living, Victoria University, Melbourne 2 Skill Acquisition Department, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra Correspondence: [email protected] The most appropriate method of instruction and practice to facilitate the learning of game skills has long been a question of interest to both coaches and scientists alike. A longstanding debate has centred around whether skills need to be first practised in contexts isolated from game conditions (referred to as the technical skill drill approach) or whether suitably designed games can be used to develop both technical and tactical skill prowess (games-based approach). Advocates for a technical approach typically cite a range of advantages over a game-based methodology. These include: greater quality control in terms of practice form and effort, ability to maximise practice repetition, greater direct instruction and feedback opportunities; and more chance of maximising player confidence (if required). These advantages are cited as being particularly pertinent when developing new skills or when a player is attempting to break an ingrained behaviour (habit). An alternative to this approach has centred on adaptations to a physical education curriculum referred to as “teaching games for understanding” (Bunker & Thorpe, 1982) or ‘Game Sense’ (Australian description). ‘Game Sense’ proponents argue that providing players with an understanding of why a particular skill should be applied in a game context is critical and should precede technical skill instruction. Furthermore, games contain the most pertinent information sources that players need to become educated to if transfer to the competitive setting is to occur. Hence, technical skills are learnt via a series of games that challenge the players to solve tactical and decision-making problems through predominantly a facilitated or discovery-based learning approach. The skills are applied in the context of the game, rather than in practice drills that may not necessarily reproduce the dynamics of the game. It is the aim of this presentation to place this debate in context. As highlighted previously (Chow et al., 2007; Hopper, 2002) many of the coach arguments and research findings presented, have simplified the issue to a matter of sequencing – do you coach the isolated skill before tactics or tactics-before the skill? When viewed from this perspective, anecdotes and empirical evidence can be found that support either approach. But such a position avoids the key issue, what are the learning processes or skill acquisition concepts that support effective skill development (Rink, 2001). A focus on this question allows both coaches and scientists to then make some educated decisions and predictions about how a player’s skill practice should be structured and how it is likely to develop. I will highlight that these approaches must not be examined empirically, nor applied in practice, as dichotomous methods. Rather that the skill learning process must be viewed holistically and nurtured through a program that extends an individual player’s skills in a context that is both appropriately challenging and transferable to the game setting. The Foundations of a Holistic Perspective Understanding learning and performance: These two concepts establish a framework for which all skill development initiatives can be applied and evaluated. Unfortunately, despite being a topic covered in beginning coaching courses it is apparent that, if understood, they are rarely considered when planning and implementing a skill practice intervention. Learning is an observable change in the capability of a player to perform a skill as a result of practice or experience that remains stable irrespective of conditions. Performance is a skill execution at a particular moment in time (not

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permanent) and can be affected by a range of factors including fatigue, instructions or a lack of sleep (Magill, 2007). Whether a coach is interested in facilitating learning or performance has significant implications for the design of a particular session or phase. Players must be challenged: Players need to be challenged at a level appropriate to their current skill level with a coach mindful of the difficulty of the task being practised. Guadagnoli and Lee (2004) (or Guadagnoli, 2007 for a coach friendly discussion) refer to this issue as the Challenge Point Framework and argue that for learning to occur, there is an optimal amount of information, which differs as a function of the skill level of the individual and the difficulty of the to-be-learned task. In order to set an appropriate skill practice session, one needs to account for the amount of challenge (information) presented by the organisation of practice trials within a session and the feedback content and frequency. Practice specificity: “Transfer of practice to game conditions depends on the extent to which practice resembles the game” (Magill, 1993). The relative simplicity of this quote belies the challenge this presents coaches when attempting to structure an effective practice setting. Renshaw and colleagues (Pinder et al., 2009; Renshaw et al., 2007) have addressed this issue in relation to the practice value of batting against a ball machine as compared with a bowler and refer to this challenge as one of task representativeness. Coaches are challenged to design practice activities that enable players to make decisions based on attunement to information sources reflective of the competition environment. Active learning: A wide variety of research findings emanating from a variety of theoretical perspectives are all pointing to the importance of empowering the player in the learning process. There are a number of methods that can be used to achieve this aim and include: practice settings that encourage discovery learning (Davids et al., 2008); more implicit instructional approaches (Farrow, 2006; Masters, 2008); and instructions / feedback that focus a player’s attention externally on the image of achievement rather than internally on the image of the act (Davids, et al. 2008). Conclusion: With a clear understanding concerning how the above principles interact within a practice setting, coaches are armed to design appropriate skill practice sessions to facilitate learning that transfers to the competition setting. The issue of whether this was achieved by technical skill drill or game becomes irrelevant. References Bunker, D. & Thorpe, R. (1982). A model for teaching games in secondary schools. Bulletin of Physical Education, 18, 7-10. Chow, J., Davids, K., Button, C., Shuttleworth, R., Renshaw, I., & Araujo, D. (2007). The role of nonlinear pedagogy in physical education. Review of Educational Research, 77, 251-278. Davids, K., Button, C., & Bennett, S. J. (2008). Dynamics of skill acquisition: A constraints-led approach. Champaign: Human Kinetics. Farrow, D. (2006). Implicit learning: A challenge to traditional coaching approaches. Overview: Cricket Coaches Australia, 2-3. Guadagnoli, M.A. (2007). Practice to learn. Play to win. Ecademy Press. Guadagnoli, M.A., & Lee, T.D. (2004). Challenge point: A framework for conceptualizing the effects of various practice conditions in motor learning. Journal of Motor Behaviour, 36, 2, 212–224. Hopper, T. (2002). Teaching games for understanding: The importance of student emphasis over content emphasis. Journal of Physical Education Recreation and Dance, 73, 44-48.

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Magill, R. (2007). Motor learning and control: Concepts and applications. 8th Ed, New York: McGraw Hill. Masters, R. (2008). Skill learning the implicit way – Say no more! In Farrow, D., Baker, J., & MacMahon, C. (Eds.) Developing Sport Expertise: Researchers and coaches put theory into practice. Routledge. Pinder, R.A., Renshaw, I., & Davids, K. (2009). Information-movement coupling in developing cricketers under changing ecological practice constraints. Human Movement Science, 28, 468-479. Renshaw, I., Oldham, A. R. H., Davids, K., & Golds, T. (2007). Changing ecological constraints of practice alters coordination of dynamic interceptive actions. European Journal of Sport Science, 7, 157–167. Rink, J. (2001). Investigating the assumptions of pedagogy. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 20, 112-128.

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Biomechanics of Overhand Throwing: Implications for Injury and Performance Glenn S. Fleisig American Sports Medicine Institute, Birmingham, Alabama, USA Correspondence: [email protected] While the cricket bowler is required to deliver the ball with unique mechanics (that is, neither bending nor straightening the elbow), the other players on a cricket team share mechanics similar to throws in other sports. Good throwing mechanics can help a cricket player minimize risk of injury and also maximize performance. Only one study has been published on cricket throwing mechanics (other than bowling mechanics) in the scientific literature (Cook & Strike, 2000). But something happened in the 18th century that may help us today understand the science of throwing a cricket ball. In the mid 1700’s, English immigrants who settled in New York and Boston played cricket and “rounders” in their leisure. These American pastimes merged and made several transformations over the next hundred years - including adding a third and fourth base, removing the wickets, adding a pitching mound, and changing the name of the game to “baseball.” One thing that did not change much was the ball. A modern baseball has a mass of 145 grams and a circumference of 230 mm, which are very similar to the mass (156 grams) and circumference (225 mm) of today’s cricket ball. While there is only 1 published study on cricket throwing mechanics, numerous biomechanical studies have been published in recent years describing baseball throwing. The purpose of this paper is to present baseball throwing biomechanics, and provide implications about injury and performance for cricket players. Most studies of baseball throwing biomechanics have focused on the pitcher. Earlier studies captured pitching biomechanics with high-speed video and manual digitization (Atwater, 1979). More recent studies have used reflective markers in indoor lighting with automatic data capture and 3D computation (Chu et al, 2009; Fleisig et al., 1995; 1996; Fortenbaugh et al. 2009; Miyashita et al., 2010). In 2009, a study of flat-ground baseball throws was conducted by ASMI (unpublished). In this study, the automated captured system was brought outdoors. Data were collected at night under artificial stadium lighting since the automated system cannot track the reflective markers in sunlight. Eighteen healthy college baseball players participated in the study. Each player started with the baseball in his hands and was then studied throwing the ball 37 m, 55 m, and maximum distance. For the 37 m and 55 m distances, the athlete was instructed to throw the ball “hard and on a horizontal line.” For the maximum distance, the athlete was asked to throw the ball as far as possible without any restrictions on trajectory angle. Results from this study showed the same general throwing pattern previously seen for baseball pitchers, American football quarterbacks, and other overhand throws (Chu et al, 2009; Fleisig et al., 1996). It is believed that cricket throws also follow the same general pattern, which is described below. The values presented in the description are the averages measured for the college baseball players tested in the 2009 study. The pictures are from an elite British cricket player recorded in ASMI’s biomechanics lab. The player is described as male in order to reduce the wordiness of the description; previous research has shown that male and female throwing patterns are similar (Chu et al, 2009).

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The fielding phase of the throw varies greatly. The athlete must position himself to catch the ball (off the ground or in the air), generate some momentum of his body towards the target, and position his feet for the subsequent dynamic phases of the throw. The athlete typically fields the ball with both hands, and with his legs spread apart and bent at the knees and hips.

In the step-phase, an athlete aligns his legs so that his trunk is approximately perpendicular to the target. He then steps or skips so that his back foot (right foot for a right-handed thrower) is closer to the target. This step can be either behind or in front of the lead leg. A picture of each technique is shown here.

In the stride phase, the athlete strides his front leg (left leg for a right-handed thrower) towards the target. At the same time, the athlete separates his hands and swings them down, apart, and up. The coordination of the leg and arm motions is critical to enable optimal timing in the later throwing phases. At the time of front foot contact, the stride length should be approximately 80% of body height and the lead knee should be flexed 45°. Also at this time, the pelvis should be slightly open to the target, but the two shoulders should be in line with the direction of the throw. Abduction (that is, the “armpit” angle) of the throwing shoulder should be 100°. The elbow is flexed 80°, and the shoulder has about 55° of external rotation. (External rotation is defined as 0 when the forearm is horizontal and 90° when the forearm is vertical.) The arm cocking phase begins at the time of front foot contact. During this phase the pelvis and then upper trunk rotate to face the target while the throwing arm cocks back. The non-throwing arm is tucked in near the trunk in order to increase velocity of the upper trunk rotation. The lag between pelvis rotation and upper trunk rotation is critical for generating energy from the trunk in the kinetic chain. Without proper timing of pelvis and upper trunk rotation, the athlete may have low ball speed and/or excessive loads in the shoulder and elbow (Fortenbaugh et al. 2009; Whiteley, 2007). The arm cocking phase ends with the throwing shoulder in maximum external rotation (MER). MER is 175°; in other words, the forearm is almost perpendicular to the trunk and the palm of the hand is facing up. Achieving such external rotation is strongly related to ball velocity (Fortenbaugh et al. 2009; Whiteley, 2007). An athlete must cock his arm back far in order to accelerate his hand forward. Measured MER is not just rotation within the shoulder joint, but actually a combination of shoulder (glenohumeral) rotation, scapula motion, and arching of the back (Miyashita et al., 2010). While MER is vital for ball speed, it is also a position of potential injury. In this position the rotator cuff muscles on the back of the shoulder (especially the infraspinatus muscle) may become pinched in the shoulder joint. When this muscle is impinged, it may tear during the forceful shoulder rotation (Fortenbaugh et al. 2009; Whiteley, 2007). The front of the shoulder capsule is under tension and may tear as well (Fleisig et al., 1995). The torque (“rotational force”) at the shoulder and elbow both peak near the time of MER, as the joints must stop the arm cocking and initiate the forward rotation of the arm. Peak elbow varus torque is 95 Newton-meters (which is equivalent to holding a 25 kg mass in the thrower’s hand at this instant). Repetition of this varus

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torque can lead to tension and tearing in the elbow’s ulnar collateral ligament and bone spurs in the back of the elbow (Fleisig et al., 1995). From this cocked position, the athlete initiates arm acceleration. Elbow extension velocity reaches 2500 °/s and shoulder internal rotation velocity reaches an incredible 7500 °/s. This is the fastest joint rotation documented in any sport (Fleisig et al., 1996). The biceps muscle of the upper arm contracts to decelerate the elbow extension. This contraction in the arm cocking and arm acceleration phases may lead to a tear of the cartilage (the labrum) at the shoulder joint (Fleisig et al., 1995). The arm acceleration phase ends with ball release. At the time of ball release, the front knee is flexed 35°. The front knee is extending (straightening) through ball release, which allows the athlete to stop the forward motion of his pelvis and transfer energy up his body to the ball. The trunk is tilted 25° forward and 25° to the side. The throwing shoulder is abducted 90° (that is, the throwing elbow is on the imaginary line passing through both shoulders). If the shoulder is abducted significantly more or less than 90° near the instant of ball release, there can be misalignment in the shoulder leading to damage to the shoulder capsule and surrounding tissue. Different athletes in various throwing situations may alter the sideways tilt of their trunk; however, the shoulder abduction at ball release should always be approximately 90° (Atwater, 1979). The rapid rotations of the upper trunk and throwing arm create a large force at both the shoulder and elbow. At the time of ball release more than 1000 Newtons are produced at both the shoulder and elbow to resist distraction. In other words, the body rotation creates forces greater than body weight that are trying to pull the arm out at the shoulder and elbow joint. Tension on the ligaments and muscles – especially the rotator cuff – may lead to tensile tears from repetitive throwing (Fleisig et al., 1995). After ball release the throwing arm continues to internally rotate, leaving the forearm in a pronated position. Pronation happens in all overhand throws – straight throws, curveballs, etc.

The arm horizontally adducts in front of the chest. The trunk continues to tilt forward and the back leg steps forward. An athlete with an abreviated deceleration and follow-through may not be using his body to dissipate the energy produced in throwing which may lead to excessive force in the shoulder and elbow (Fortenbaugh et al. 2009; Whiteley, 2007).

In conclusion, proper throwing mechanics can help a cricket player minimize the risk of arm injury and also maximize his throwing velocity and accuracyError! Bookmark not defined.. While coaches work on technique with bowlers, throwing technique with cricketers should also be emphasised. Biomechanical research shows a kinetic chain of events in proper throwing. This chain includes fielding the ball, step, stride, arm cocking, arm acceleration, arm deceleration, and follow-through. While it might seem that a cricket player sustains an arm injury from a specific hard throw or from one match, a throwing injury is really accumulated micro-trauma from repetitive throwing (that is, “overuse”). Improved throwing mechanics as well as avoiding throwing when

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fatigued can reduce the chance of injury. An understanding of throwing mechanics can also help technique coaches design training drills, and strength coaches design functional exercises. Acknowledgement: Dave Fortenbaugh, Becky Bolt, Ryosuke Ito, and James Andrews for their contribution to the biomechanical research used for this paper. References Atwater, AE. Biomechanics of overarm throwing movements and of throwing injuries. Ex Sport Sci Rev 7: 43-85, 1979. Chu Y, Fleisig GS, Simpson KJ, Andrews JR. Biomechanical Comparison between Elite Female and Male Baseball Pitchers. J Appl Biomech 25:22-31, 2009. Cook, D. & Strike, S. Throwing in cricket. Journal of Sports Sciences 18(12): 965-973, 2000. Fleisig GS, Escamilla RF, Andrews JR, Matsuo T, Satterwhite Y, Barrentine SW. Kinematic and kinetic comparison between baseball pitching and football passing. J Appl Biomech 12(2):207224, 1996. Fleisig GS, Andrews JR, Dillman CJ, Escamilla RF. Kinetics of baseball pitching with implications about injury mechanisms. Am J Sports Med 23(2):233-239, 1995. Fortenbaugh D, Fleisig GS, Andrews JR. Baseball pitching biomechanics in relation to injury risk and performance. Sports Health 1:314-320, 2009. Miyashita K, Kobayashi H, Koshida S, Urabe Y. Glenohumeral, scapular, and thoracic angles at maximum shoulder external rotation in throwing. Am J Sports Med 38(2):362-368, 2010. Whiteley R. Baseball throwing mechanics as they relate to pathology and performance – a review. J Sports Sci Med 6:1-20, 2007

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Throwing Mechanics, Load Monitoring and Injury: Perspectives from Physiotherapy and Baseball as they Relate to Cricket Rod Whiteley School of Physiotherapy, University of Sydney, Sydney Experienced coaches and players have often empirically observed what “looks” like good throwing technique, or mechanics, and this knowledge has grown in part from instruction, but is often learned too late as they observe athletes incur injury related to throwing in a manner that “looks bad”. Much work has been done in accurately describing and modelling the kinematics and kinetics, particularly as it relates to the baseball pitch (Fleisig, 1994; Fleisig et al., 1996, 1999), while some work has been conducted comparing other throwing techniques – from the field and throwing American footballs. The lessons learned here suggest that there are similar features of each of these throws that are common and, more importantly, parameters are described which will minimise the stresses to the throwing shoulder and elbow. In a practical sense, monitoring body position at the instant of stride foot contact is useful. Particular parameters of interest are: the position of the stride foot in relation to the stance foot and the target, the angle of the throwing shoulder abduction, shoulder external rotation, and horizontal abduction, trunk and pelvic orientation, and elbow flexion. A simple method is presented for teaching and monitoring these mechanical traits suitable for all ages of athletes which includes these parameters and incorporates utilisation of a stretch-shortening cycle initiated at the pelvis.

Figure 1: Key kinematic variables in the throwing motion. Top left image depicts stride length and direction. In practice, measurement of stride length from the beginning position proves more practical, and will be up to 90% of the athlete’s height. The stride foot should land on the line drawn from the trailing ankle to the target, and not to the right side (from this view), and the foot should stay pointed toward the target or slightly to the left. Top right image depicts shoulder external rotation which should aim to be approximately 53°. The bottom two images depict target elbow flexion (90°, left image) and horizontal abduction (23°).

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Figure 2: Depiction of shoulder abduction angle from the moment of stride foot contact until release. With this method understood, contrast can then be made between different throwing strategies where varying temporal and spatial demands are placed: throwing from the infield in comparison to throwing from the outfield are contrasted where the trade-off for fielding time (the time from picking the ball up until it is released) and flight time (the time from release until the ball reaches the target) results in different strategies optimising performance. A further complication is made when the athlete is forced to make an off-balance throw and it can be seen that the mechanics remain the same for the trunk and upper body.

Figure 3: Analysis of three different outfield returning strategies performed by one skilled thrower (throwing distance approximately 70m). It is shown that the maximum effort throw (Outfield 1 step hard) resulted not in higher throwing velocity (as would be evidenced by a shorter flight time) rather a quicker time to release and an improvement in total fielding time of 0.3seconds which translates to runner’s distance of 2.3m for an average runner. It is suggested that these strategies could readily be incorporated into the coaching of junior players thereby allowing enough time for expert skill acquisition required for high level performance as well as protective structural adaptations such as throwing-related increase in humeral retrotorsion. Injury surveillance and prevention: A load monitoring strategy has been in place in baseball for many years in the form of individual pitch limits per outing, and a pitching rotation enforcing days of rest between pitching outings. While these practices have substantially diminished the injury rates for these athletes, injury has not been entirely abolished, in fact far from it. In an effort to reduce injury rates, a process of prospective and retrospective examination was conducted which initially involved establishing demographics and injury incidence, and then instigating attempts at reducing injury incidence. After encountering many dead ends, some success has been achieved in more

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frequent monitoring of a few key variables, in particular range of motion of the posterior shoulder structures and monitoring of the strength of the shoulder’s internal and external rotators. Much more work still needs to be done. A clinical series of over 2,500 days’ observations in over 600 patients established that strength testing employing a hand held dynamometer was conducted. This series suggested that the ratio of shoulder internal rotation strength to external rotation strength was significantly associated with the presence of shoulder injury. In particular, values in excess of the ratio of 1.5:1 (Internal Rotation: External Rotation) were associated with shoulder injury. A subsequent pilot prospective analysis of Institute of Sport adolescent baseball athletes monitoring these strengths suggested that monitoring these strengths and altering throwing load and strengthening regimens when these values exceed target criteria were associated with a reduction in injury incidence. Burkhart et al., (2003) have suggested that aberrant thickening of the posterior capsule of the glenohumeral joint is key in the creation of a commonly seen throwing-related shoulder injury – superior labral injury associated with an undersurface fraying of the postero-superior rotator cuff tendons. These workers suggest that during the maximum external rotation incurred during the cocking phase of throwing, this thickened posterior capsule occasions an obligate postero-superior humeral head translation which both accentuates traction on the biceps anchor at the superior labrum and mechanically irritates the undersurface of the posterior superior rotator cuff tendons. Accordingly, clinical interest in the passive range of motion of the posterior capsule is heightened, and measurement of this range of motion can, theoretically, identify athletes at risk of succumbing to this pathological cascade. Two measurement strategies are suggested: passive internal rotation range of motion in 90° of forward flexion; and passive shoulder horizontal adduction range of motion in 90° of forward flexion. It is suggested that regular monitoring of this range of motion can identify athletes in whom either a reduction in throwing load or an increase in posterior capsular range of motion is warranted. A load monitoring strategy has been suggested in many athletic areas where excessive or increased loads are associated with injury. The logic behind this strategy is that by prescribing appropriate loads an athlete is able to maximise their activity while not exceeding presumed loading limits. In practice, coaches and athletes have identified that some athletes will be unable to cope with “normal” loads, while others seemingly escape unscathed from abnormally high loads. It is suggested that some degree of biologic variability is at play in these situations, and rigidly adhering to these prescribed limits will unnecessarily disadvantage athletes in either of these categories. An alternate strategy is suggested where measurement of key performance markers (shoulder rotation strengths, and shoulder flexibilities) might prove a more accurate post hoc measure of an individual’s reaction to loading and thereby allow for more individualised prescription of loading. An algorithm can then be derived for each athlete in terms of number of throws made over a time period and more accurately predict maximum values for activity without exceeding safe ranges. These values will vary with time as the athlete matures, strengthens, or ages, and ongoing monitoring will allow for more accurate estimation of appropriate loading for individual athletes. References Fleisig, G.S. (1994). The biomechanics of baseball pitching. Unpublished doctoral thesis. The University of Alabama. Fleisig, G.S., Barrentine, S.W., Escamilla, R.F. and Andrews, J.R. (1996) Biomechanics of overhand throwing with implicationsfor injuries.Sports Medicine 21, 421-437. Fleisig, G.S., Barrentine, S.W., Zheng, N., Escamilla, R.F. and Andrews, J.R. (1999) Kinematic and kinetic comparison of baseball pitching among various levels of development. Journal of Biomechanics, 32, 1371-1375.

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Burkhart, S.S., Morgan, C.D. and Kibler, W.B. (2003a) The disabled throwing shoulder: spectrum of pathology. Part I: Pathoanatomy and biomechanics. Arthroscopy 19, 404-42

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Individualisation of Cricket Players Hydration Strategies - A Necessity for High Performance Michelle Cort Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, Cricket Australia Centre of Excellence, Brisbane Correspondence: [email protected] Long before there is a risk to a cricket player’s health, dehydration causes a reduction in exercise performance. A fluid deficit of as little as 1.5%) of body mass can impact an athlete’s performance with the decrement being proportional to the fluid loss (Maughan, 2004). This performance decrease is further exacerbated when exercising in the heat. Loss of body water and associated electrolytes can impair cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function. The need for a cricket player to maintain hydration throughout a match is therefore vital to ensuring performance is maintained. The majority of published studies investigating hydration in sport have focussed on demonstrating the reduction in endurance exercise performance that occurs when an athlete is dehydrated in both temperate and hot environments. However, of perhaps more relevance to cricket, several studies have shown that the performance of complex tasks is also impaired at relatively low levels of fluid deficit. A study investigating the motor skill performance of cricket bowling (Devlin, Fraser. Barras, & Hawley, 2001) revealed no influence of dehydration on bowling speed, but bowling accuracy, (as determined by line and distance), was significantly worse when undertaken in a dehydrated state. Similarly, studies investigating other sports skill tests show significant deterioration in skill performance at around 2% dehydration (Maughan & Shirreffs, 2008). There are also negative effects of mild dehydration on cognitive function and mood (Grandjean & Grandjean, 2007). Interestingly, an observational study conducted by the Football Association in the UK showed that the risk of injury increases in later stages of game when players are suffering from fatigue and dehydration. This poses the question as to whether a cricket player is also more likely to become injured when dehydrated and fatigued? Although a variety of published “fluid replacement guidelines” are available to sports people they do not take into account the individual variation that occurs between individuals with regard to their hydration requirements. The generalised guidelines are of limited use to practitioners who face the task of providing advice to cricket players to aid in achieving optimal performance (Maughan 2007). No single recommendation is best for all cricket players in every situation, and development of individualised hydration strategies are essential to preserve performance. Optimum fluid replacement strategies during exercise are dependent on the exercise task (length and intensity), the environmental conditions (ambient temperature and humidity) and the individual physiological characteristics (sweat rate and sweat composition) of the athlete. Table 1 illustrates the range of sweat rates and sweat sodium concentrations for the current Australian Men and Women’s cricket team players (measured during summer training sessions). A ‘one size fits all’ approach to hydration is clearly not possible when such variation exists between athletes.

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Table 1: Australian cricket players sweat rate, and sweat sodium concentration ranges measured in training. Athlete Group

Environmental Conditions

Sweat Rate Range (ml/hr)

Australian Men’s Cricket Team Australian Women’s Cricket Team

29°C; 67% RH

850-2050

Sweat Sodium Concentration Range (g/hr) 0.5-1.8

22°C; 74% RH

220-909

0.2-0.9

Collection of the relevant data required to develop an individual player’s hydration strategy protocols should be undertaken over a number of training sessions or matches. After this data is collected, it needs to be interpreted by an experienced practitioner and the applicable individualised hydration protocols developed. The calculation of an athlete’s sweat rate during a training session or a match involves more than just measuring ‘pre and post’ body weight. Without an associated assessment of the athlete’s fluid intake, an underestimate of the sweat losses will usually occur. A fluid balance assessment, ((change in body weight + fluid intake) – (urine losses + weight of food consumed)), is more comprehensive. The data collected in this method allows calculation of the absolute and hourly rate of each athlete’s fluid intake, sweat loss, percentage fluid replaced and percentage body weight change. There is extensive published data on sweat rates in athletes from a range of sports and environmental conditions. The average sweat rate across sports is reported as 9001500ml/hr (Shirreffs 2006). Only a small number of studies have investigated sweat electrolyte losses, most of these have been conducted in soccer and American football. Sodium is the main electrolyte lost in sweat and chloride is present in slightly smaller amounts. Potassium, calcium and magnesium are present at vastly lower concentrations. Of these sodium is quantitatively the most important. Average reported sodium loss from sweat in athletes is 0.4 -1.5g/hr (Shirreffs 2006). Some athletes lose as much as 5 times the sodium as others during the same exercise session. The extent of sodium loss in some players warrants replacement of this electrolyte during training and competition. Accounting for differences in sweat rate, training status, degree of acclimation and dietary intake there is still a considerable inter-individual variability in sweat electrolyte concentration, indicating genetic variability. There is no correlation between sweat rate and sweat electrolyte concentration. There are 2 methods of sweat sodium measurement. These include, i) collection of sweat from a specific body region using a bag, capsule or patch, or ii), the more difficult, ‘whole body wash down’ technique. The whole body wash down method is the most accurate, however is not practical outside of a laboratory setting. During exercise sessions with cricketers (and other athletes) the regional (localised) sweat patch method is most commonly used. The sweat patch method provides higher electrolyte concentrations than the wash down method, overestimating whole body sweat sodium losses by approx 30-40%. This must be taken into account when interpreting results. Sweat patches therefore provide an approximate value of sweat electrolyte losses and identify athletes who have electrolyte rich sweat. Interpretation of sweat patch results needs to be evaluated together with fluid balance data (collected during the same session), exercise intensity, exercise duration, environmental temperature and humidity. If it is interpreted that a player is likely to lose significant sodium in a training session or match, additional sodium intake (during the session) is warranted. Recent data from tennis and American football (Maughan & Shirreffs, 2008), has suggested that muscle cramps occurring during exercise in hot environments are more likely to occur in players who sweat profusely, especially those with a high sweat sodium concentration. It has long been known that ingestion of salt (NaCl) and water, but not water alone, in susceptible individuals in the work force (industrial workers, soldiers) can reduce the frequency and intensity of muscle cramps.

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Anecdotally this has also been observed in athletes including cricketers. For cricketers to meet their individual hydration requirements in training and matches a strategic and systematic approach is required. Before exercise: There is no universal agreement on the definition of the optimal pre exercise hydration status. However it is well established that if an athlete begins exercise dehydrated physiological and thermal strain will ensue. Urinary specific gravity (USG) measured by refractometry is commonly employed by cricketers prior to starting training and matches as an indicator of hydration status. Results however must be interpreted with caution, as recent food or fluid intake and the time of sample collection will all impact on the USG. The first sample passed in the morning (on rising) is the most accurate USG testing sample. If an athlete is found to be dehydrated at this point a strategic rehydration plan can be employed to ensure hydration is achieved prior to starting exercise. If testing samples are collected at other times during the day, more careful interpretation of results is required. ‘Falsely hydrated’ results can occur if large volumes of fluid are consumed prior to collection of the sample (which is a common occurrence leading into to the start of training and matches). It should be noted that very low USG values (~1.004 or less) are likely to indicate the recent ingestion of a large volume of fluid, or that the sample has been tampered with. During Exercise: Cricketers should be encouraged to weigh themselves before and after sessions, the difference indicating the mismatch between their fluid intake and fluid loss. Ideally weight loss should generally not exceed 1-2% of body mass, however the athletes pre exercise hydration status will need to be taken into account when interpreting this value. Consumption of cold fluid reduces the physiological strain induced by the playing in the heat. Heart rate and sweat rate is reduced when drinking cold fluid as compared with drinking a warmer fluid. Fluids at 4 degrees Celsius (the temperature of fluids when stored in a refrigerator) reduce thermal sensation and perceived exertion. After Exercise: The need for cricketers to restore water and electrolyte balance after exercise is critical in ensuring subsequent exercise performance is maintained. Aggressive rehydration strategies will be required by players who have lost significant fluid in a morning session and continue to play in the afternoon session, or if playing over multiple days, or if undertaking multiple training sessions in the same day. Well established rehydration guidelines suggest that the athlete needs to consume 1½ times the fluid lost in the session in order to re-hydrate successfully. If significant fluid loss has occurred, or if the time for rehydration is limited, the rehydration fluid must contain water plus moderately to high levels of sodium (at least 50mmol/L) (Maughan & Shirreffs, 1997). Alternatively low sodium fluids (in the required rehydration volume) can be consumed with high sodium containing foods to successfully rehydrate. Urinary markers including colour and USG don’t correlate well with hydration status after exercise and such measurements have no value. In summary, the solution to the problem of fluid losses in cricket players is not simply suggesting an increase in fluid intake. Mean data has little relevance in assessing the requirements of individual players and detracts from the considerable variation in sweating response and drinking behaviour. Individual monitoring and assessment of players is required to determine individual fluid and electrolyte requirements. In order for physical, skill and cognitive performance to be optimised this should be an essential part of a player’s performance nutrition strategy.

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References Maughan, R.J., Merson, S.J., Broad, N.P & Shirreffs, S.M. (2004). Fluid and electrolyte intake and loss in elite soccer players during training. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, Jun 14(3):333-46. Devlin, L.H., Fraser, S.F., Barras, N.S. & Hawley, J.A. (2001). Moderate levels of hypohydration impairs bowling accuracy but not bowling velocity in skilled cricket players. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, Jun 4(2), 179-87. Maughan, R.J., & Shirreffs, S.M. (2008). Development of Individual Hydration Strategies for Athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 18, 457-472. Grandjean, A.C., & Grandjean, N.R. (2007). Dehydration and Cognitive Performance. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, Vol. 26, No. 5, 549S–554S. Shirreffs, S.M., Sawka, M.N., & Stone, M. (2006). Water and electrolyte needs for football training and match play. Journal of Sports Sciences, Jul; 24(7):699-707. Maughan, R.J., & Shirreffs, S.M. (1997). Recovery from prolonged exercise: Restoration of water and electrolyte balance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 15, 297-303.

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Supplementation 2010 and Beyond Programs, Structures and Ways to Help Athletes Stay Safe Greg Shaw Sports Nutrition Department, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra Correspondence: [email protected] Supplement usage in sport has become part and parcel of being an elite athlete over the past 10 years. Athletes believe in the benefits, sports foods and supplements can provide to enhance performance and adaptation to training stimuli. Administrators focus on the issue of doping risk supplementation presents. This divergence of how supplementation is perceived by the different parties can lead to a conflict between athletes and administrators. Athletes are often taking exceptional risk with supplement safety due to insufficient guidance, in an attempt to find the elusive “one percent” that they believe will be the difference between being successful and being confined to the also rans. Sports science/sports medicine practioner’s and administrators need to develop a safe and workable framework within which athlete’s can feel confident and safe with their supplement usage. The Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) in 2000 developed a sports supplement program built on scientific evidence for ergogenic supplements and sports foods as well as the potential risk of doping (Burke and Deakin, 2010). This presentation will discuss the AIS supplement program and review the success of the program and how sports foods and ergogenics can be used successfully while minimising the risk of doping. Supplementation in sport has become a major area of concern for many sporting organisations around the world. Australian athletes regularly report using sports foods and ergogenics to help drive training adaptations. A recent study of Australian athletes indicated athletes reported supplementation use of >85% (Dascombe et al., 2010). This seems to have decreased slightly since the inception and initial concept of the AIS supplement program in 1999 which was discussed by Baylis and colleagues who reported 99% of Australian swimmers reported using supplementation (Baylis et al., 2001). This led to the development of the AIS sport supplement program in 2000 (Burke and Deakin, 2010) (www.ausport.gov.au/ais/nutrition/supplementation). This program provides athletes with a way of making informed decisions, not only on what supplements are considered beneficial but also which sports foods and supplements may present a risk of doping. The AIS sports supplement program is divided into 4 main classifications (Group A, B, C, D). Supplements range from Group A supplements, which are supplements that have large bodies of scientific evidence to support their use to aid performance, to Class C supplements which are considered to have no scientific evidence to support their use as a performance ergogenic. Class D supplements are supplements that are either illegal under the WADA doping code or have a high possibility of returning a positive doping result if consumed. There have now been a number of cases of inadvertent doping through the alleged consumption of tainted products. These range from products that have been taken independently by athletes or allegedly provided by sports governing bodies. It is understandable that sporing organisations are apprehensive to provide advice, condone or even provide athletes with supplementation due to legal ramifications. It is however irresponsible to allow athletes to use supplementation without providing at a minimum safe advice on how to reduce risk of inadvertent doping. This is one of the main aims of the AIS sports supplement program. The use of nutrients like protein, carbohydrate, electrolytes and ergogenics like creatine and caffeine all have large bodies of evidence supporting their use to enhance performance in sports. These nutrients are available in real foods but often the composition and volumes required are not

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practical in a competition or training setting. This is where the use of sports foods (foods with specially formulated nutrient compositions to be used before, during or after sport) become highly practical and useful. An example of this is the use of sports drinks like Gatorade as a means of replacing fluid, electrolytes and carbohydrates in a convenient formulated fluid source. Sports foods have a unique position in the athletes training diet to provide convenient, compact and specific nutrient sources. This is why the AIS sports supplement program has a large number of sports foods in their group A classification. Through the program athletes can be educated on when specific products should be used and when their use is inappropriate. By providing structure, practices can be changed to bring them in line with more appropriate use of this subgroup of sports supplements. The use of other ergogenics like creatine, buffering agents, and caffeine all have a place in a well constructed training and competition nutrition plan. The problem with current usage seems to be the mis-supplementation of these ergogenics through the use of poly-supplements (concoctions of ergogenics in one all encompassing source). Athletes often consume these poly-supplements as a way of consolidating a number of key ergogenics in one convenient source. The problem with this is the often unknown composition of key ingredients in the supplement. Key ergogenic ingredients are often clumped on the nutrition panel as a “proprietary blend” rather than as exact amounts of active ingredients. This presents obstacles for athletes who are trying to consume specific doses of nutrients through supplementation. Without knowing exact amounts of an active ingredient athletes can inevitably take larger doses than required of some ergogenics or insufficient doses of others. Providing athletes with a structured program that enables them to make suitable choices of supplements with known ergogenic ingredient amounts, reduces the need for polysupplementation that appears to be coming more widely practiced. The AIS supplement program endeavours to supply athletes with known ergogenic supplements in pure form to reduce this issue of mis-supplementation and potentially reduce risk. Athletes need to be educated on what is the main reason for taking ergogenic supplements and sports foods. The AIS supplement program and its tiering system attempt’s to provide athletes with guidance on what can enhance performance or what may be a waste of their time. There are large numbers of nutrition supplements on the market. Without guidance on what ergogenics have good solid evidence for performance enhancement athletes are relying on the marketing hype and anecdotal reports. The AIS supplement program only looks at performance studies when building evidence for an ergogenic benefit. Each ergogenic and sports food along with scientific evidence for its use is presented to a panel of experts before it is accepted into the program and the panel of experts decide at which level of the program a supplement is added. Educational material like fact sheets are developed and provided to athletes at the time of supplement provision to help educate them on correct dosage, product name, and side effects. The AIS supplement program provides an excellent frame work that has been successful in educating athletes on correct use of ergogenic supplementation since its inception over 10 years ago. Some sporting organisations like Rowing Australia have taken the program onboard and ratified the AIS supplement program and promote its message to their athletes. Rowing Australia have taken this one step further and provided greater structure to the program and developed guidelines for levels of athletes that should be exposed to certain ergogenics based on their development pathway. Other sports are in the process of developing similar programs. This framework provides administrators, coaches and parents with guidelines for which stage of athletic development the addition of ergogenics should be undertaken. It is recommended that Cricket Australia consider looking at what other NSO’s are undertaking to ensure athlete supplement usage is safe. Cricket Australia could begin by adopting the AIS supplement program and develop suitable usage structures similar to other NSO’s.

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References Baylis A, Cameron-Smith D, Burke L., Inadvertent Doping through supplement use by athletes: assessment and management of the risk in Australia. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab (2001) 11;365383 Burke L and Deakin V. Ch16: Supplements and sports foods, Clinical sports nutrition 4th ed. (2010) McGraw-Hill, Sydney, Aus. Dascombe BJ, Karunaratna M, Cartoon J, Fergie B, Goodman C. Nutritional supplementation habits and perceptions J Sci Med Sport. 2010 Mar;13(2):274-80.

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A Novel Training Tool for Batters to ‘Watch the Ball’ David Mann1,2, Bruce Abernethy3, Damian Farrow1,4 1

Skill Acquisition, Australian Institute of Sport School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales 3 Institute of Human Performance, University of Hong Kong 4 School of Sport and Exercise Science, Victoria University 2

Correspondence: [email protected] The mantra to ‘watch the ball’ is one of the most fundamental and often-heard instructions in the game, but are coaches actually able to coach it? This presentation will address a series of studies which have examined the role of vision in cricket batting, and in particular how good vision must be for successful batting, and the role of implicit visual skills in the development of expertise in batting. As a result of these studies, a novel training tool will be proposed to implicitly enhance the concentration of skilled cricket batters. Vision is clearly important for the performance of hitting skills like those demonstrated by elite cricket batters. This has lead to the natural assumption that excellent cricket batters may have some form of ‘above-normal’ vision, and that any action taken to improve their visual skills would result in direct improvements in batting performance. This assumption has been challenged by studies of sporting expertise which typically advocate vision to be a poor predictor of sporting success. Rather than relying on superior visual skills, these studies suggest that excellent cricket batting is more likely to be underpinned by highly developed perceptual-cognitive, psychological, and motor skills. This viewpoint is supported by the relatively common occurrence of anecdotal stories of sportspeople, including cricketers, who have been highly successful performers despite displaying patently poor levels of vision. To examine this discordance in the role of vision in cricket batting, a series of studies were performed to examine how good vision must be for optimal batting performance. The vision of grade level cricket batters was blurred using contact lenses (four increasing levels: plano, +1.00, +2.00, +3.00; see Figure 1) in each of two experimental phases. In the first phase batters faced a bowling-machine and live bowlers to examine the effect of blur on batting performance. It was revealed that the highest level of blur (+3.00) was required to produce a significant decrease in batting performance when facing the bowling-machine at medium-paced ball-velocities (105-115 kph; Mann, Ho, De Souza, Watson, & Taylor, 2007). This finding indicated that somewhat surprisingly, vision was required to be blurred to the level of legal blindness before there was a significant decrease in batting performance.

Figure 1. Four increasing levels of blur experienced by batters

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A viable interpretation of the inability of blur to decrease batting performance may have, in part, been that facing a bowling-machine was a highly predictable task; however a similar effect of blur was found when facing live bowlers of comparable ball-velocity. Once again, the highest level of blur (+3.00) was required before there was any measurable decrease in performance when facing medium-paced bowlers. Only when batters faced faster-paced ball-velocities (120-130 kph) did a lower level of blur (+2.00) affect performance (Mann, Abernethy, & Farrow, in press-a). Even when batters were tested in a situation simulating the batting conditions experienced at the higher levels of competition, the +1.00 level of blur was concluded to have no measurable effect on batting performance. The second phase of testing sought to investigate anticipation: a perceptual skill established to be an important component of expertise in many interceptive sports such as cricket batting. Skilled batters are able to predict ball-flight characteristics such as the type of swing or spin of the delivery prior to ball-release by the bowler (Müller, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2006; Renshaw & Fairweather, 2000). We sought to examine whether skilled grade-level batters could predict the line of the delivery prior to ball-release, and in particular whether this was an explicit skill which could be verbalised, or that is was a more implicit one that was embedded in movement. Skilled batters observed balls being bowled towards them and attempted to predict the line of those deliveries when decisions were made based only on the visual information available prior to ball-release. With vision occluded at the moment of ball-release, batters predicted the direction of the ball either (i) verbally, (ii) by moving their foot towards the ball, (iii) by playing a ‘shadowed’ shot, or (iv) by attempting to hit the ball. It was shown that batters were unable to verbally predict the anticipated direction of the ball; performance in this task was no better than levels achievable by chance guessing. When producing a predictive movement, skilled batters were, in some cases, able to predict the line of the delivery prior to ball-release. Only when attempting to hit the ball did the batters reach their maximal performance in predicting the line of the delivery prior to ball-release (Mann, Abernethy, & Farrow, 2010). These findings demonstrate that, although when trying to hit the ball, skilled batters are able to predict ball-direction based on the movements of the bowler, they do not appear to have the explicit knowledge of how they do so. This provides some evidence to suggest that the ability to predict line is an implicit skill which has developed over many years of batting practice. It is clear that not all elements of batting expertise can be verbalised; in this case skilled batters were able to perform a skill, but they did not appear to have the declarative knowledge to replicate this when explaining the outcome. The implication for coaching is that first, skilled batters cannot explicitly verbalise or explain some of the skills that they demonstrate on a daily basis. Second, these findings highlight that practice design must simulate real-life conditions as closely as possible, otherwise these more implicit skills may not develop; in particular, these findings highlight that a bowling machine will be detrimental in seeking to develop these implicit anticipatory skills. The vision of skilled batters was manipulated by the same four levels of blur used in the first phase of testing (plano, +1.00, +2.00, +3.00) to examine the level of vision required for the successful anticipation of ball-flight characteristics based on pre ball-flight information. Skilled batters predicted the line of deliveries based on the vision of live bowlers occluded at the moment of ballrelease in each of two different response conditions: (i) a coupled condition where batters attempted to hit the ball, and (ii) an uncoupled condition where batters verbally predicted the direction of the ball. Coupled anticipation demonstrated velocity-dependent resilience to blur; +3.00 and +2.00 levels of blur were required for respective decreases in the anticipation of medium- and fast-paced ball-velocities (Mann, Abernethy, & Farrow, in press-b), replicating the resilience to blur found in the first phase of testing. Remarkably, the results for the uncoupled anticipation suggest that blur may actually enhance anticipation according to the movement velocity of the bowler. It has been proposed that visual blur may ‘filter out’ information of highdetail which has the potential to distract the observer from the visual information (of lower detail) that is most useful for the detection of movement. Further work is required to test this rather speculative suggestion.

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Collectively, these results lead to the conclusion that clear vision is not necessarily required for the performance of a task like cricket batting, even when the demanding spatio-temporal task simulates the conditions experienced at the higher levels of competition. Although clear vision may be an advantage for related tasks such as detecting grip of the bowler’s hand prior to ball-release, or in identifying the position of the seam in ball-flight, on this basis of these findings it should not be so surprising that players have reached elite levels of performance despite possessing belownormal levels of vision. The findings also suggest that the training of ‘supra-normal’ levels of vision is unlikely to result in improvements in performance. Rather than blur acting as an impediment for cricket batting, it has been proposed that visual blur in some cases may provide a relative advantage as a potential tool to be used in the training environment. A number of batters who took part in this series of testing expressed an anecdotal preference for batting with a low level of visual blur, particularly when using the +1.00 lenses. On further investigation it was found that some batters felt that they - with the introduction of blur were more active in visually searching for the ball out of the bowler’s hand. It has been proposed that visual blur may prove to be a useful tool to be used in training to modify visual attention. Many batters when out of form tend to focus internally (particularly on their kinematic body movements) rather than focussing externally on the ball and bowler; this internal focus of attention is thought to decrease performance in skilled athletes (Beilock, Carr, MacMahon, & Starkes, 2002). Visual blur in the form of spectacles or contact lenses may prove to be a useful tool as an intervention, in particular for those batters experiencing a ‘form slump’, by implicitly forcing batters to focus externally on the ball, and allowing what are well-learned batting movements to ‘flow’ in a more natural manner. This presentation will address in which conditions this training tool is most likely to be useful and how coaches can go about applying it in the daily training environment. Acknowledgments: the work performed in this series of studies was funded by a Cricket Australia Sport Science Sport Medicine Research Grant and by AIS Discretionary Research Funding. Contact lenses used in these studies were kindly supplied by Johnson & Johnson Vision Care. References Beilock, S. L., Carr, T. H., MacMahon, C., & Starkes, J. L. (2002). When paying attention becomes counterproductive: impact of divided versus skill-focused attention on novice and experienced performance of sensorimotor skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 8(1), 6-16. Mann, D. L., Abernethy, B., & Farrow, D. (2010). Action specificity increases anticipatory performance and the expert advantage in natural interceptive tasks. Manuscript submitted for publication. Mann, D. L., Abernethy, B., & Farrow, D. (in press-a). The resilience of natural interceptive actions to refractive blur. Human Movement Science. Mann, D. L., Abernethy, B., & Farrow, D. (in press-b). Visual information underpinning skilled anticipation: the effect of blur on a coupled and uncoupled in-situ anticipatory response. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics. Mann, D. L., Ho, N., De Souza, N., Watson, D., & Taylor, S. (2007). Is optimal vision required for the successful execution of an interceptive task? Human Movement Science, 26, 343-356. Müller, S., Abernethy, B., & Farrow, D. T. (2006). How do world-class cricket batsmen anticipate a bowler's intention? Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology: Section A, 59(12), 2162-2186. Renshaw, I., & Fairweather, M. M. (2000). Cricket bowling deliveries and the discrimination ability of professional and amateur batters. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 951-957.

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A Constraint-Led Approach to Coaching Cricket Ian Renshaw1 and Darren Holder2 1 2

School of Human Movement Studies, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane Brisbane Grammar School, Brisbane

Correspondence: [email protected] Traditional approaches to skill development in cricket have been based around the ubiquitous net session and in particular an emphasis on the acquisition of the perfect technique. More recently, some coaches have taken ideas from sports science and attempted to use them to guide their practice. Some of these mono-disciplinary strategies have resulted in a reduction of ‘performance’ into separate building blocks (e.g. technical, tactical, physical and mental skills), which can be worked on in isolation before the whole (performance) is stitched back together again. Each of these units is then broken down again. For example, batting is broken down into sub-phases to develop ‘hitting mechanics’ via use of drop feeds, throw-downs and by use of bowling machines, while, for bowlers the run-up and bowling action are practiced separately. A major problem of this approach is the strong focus on technique development at the expense and in isolation from perception and decision-making skills. Although, for many coaches this intuitively makes sense because it simplifies learning into manageable bites, some experienced high level coaches have been highly critical of this specific contribution of sport scientists and suggested that cricket needed a serious debate to determine whether these new methods are in fact more efficient and better than the methods of the past (e.g., Chappell, 2004). In 2004 we responded to these comments and were in general agreement with the sentiments of Chappell. We pointed out that perhaps the main problem with the approach of the scientists was the relative usefulness of the theoretical model they were basing their work upon and that recent research was highlighting the importance of a holistic, multi-disciplinary approach to skill development (Renshaw et al., 2004). Since then, our research using cricket bowling and batting has shown us that the development of appropriate technique requires learners to practice tasks where perception and action are maintained via environments representative of the competitive performance (Renshaw & Davids, 2006; Renshaw et al., 2007). This view suggests that performance is a function of the interaction of unique individuals with specific task and environmental constraints. In the rest of this article we describe the constraint-led approach and suggest that it is a suitable theoretical model that coaches and scientists can utilise to underpin learning design. Constraints are boundaries that shape a learner’s self-organising movement patterns, cognitions and decision-making processes (Renshaw et al., 2010). Three categories of constraints have been proposed. 1. Performer constraints include physical and mental factors such as height, limb length, fitness levels, technical skills, attentional control and intrinsic motivation. All of these factors can influence decision-making behaviours. 2. Environmental constraints include: physical environmental constraints such as weather conditions, pitch conditions, quality practice facilities and perhaps the structure of the backyard or locality in which a player was raised; and cultural constraints such as family, team mates, the culture of a sport club and access to high-quality coaching. 3. Task constraints include the goal of the task, rules of the game, equipment available and the relative state of the game. The ideas underpinning the constraint-led perspective have important implications for the coach. Adopting a constraint-led approach requires coaches to understand that performers have the potential to solve performance problems in a number of ways and therefore there is a rejection of the concept of one optimal movement solution. This change of thinking is perhaps one of the greatest challenges for coaches as the traditional approach to developing skill is the concept of demonstrations and feedback. In effect we ‘instruct’ players how to bat, bowl or field. However, evidence from motor learning is showing that the natural way to learn most movement skills is at a

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sub-conscious level and forcing players to ‘think’ via explicit instructions leads to performance decrements (Beek, 2000). Indeed, Glenn McGrath and Craig McDermott both report singing as they ran into bowl in order to “stop the voices” from interfering with performance. If instruction is not necessarily helping players to improve, what strategies can be adopted by the coaches? As behaviours emerge as a result of self-organisation under constraints, coaches can deliberately manipulate the surroundings of players to create the conditions that lead to changes in organisation states. For example, the coach could create rule changes in small-sided games that reward taking of singles or encourages bowlers to bowl in specific areas (Renshaw & Holder, 2010). However, manipulating constraints should not just be limited to changing rules. Coaches could change the environment by ‘doctoring’ specific areas of the pitch by roughing it up or leaving on more grass. These types of manipulations force players to adapt their strategies and can lead to changes in perceptual, decision-making and action skills. Similarly, the development of strength and conditioning and mental skills should not be seen as something that sits separately to skill acquisition as an apparent technical fault may in fact be due to poor strength, concentration or decision making. For example, a common problem for many young batters is that the top-hand is ‘weaker’ than the bottom hand which leads to difficulties in ‘playing the ball straight’. Some coaches have recognised this problem as the key factor limiting performance and have developed strategies to help. For example, Indian batsman Virender Sehwag’s first coach made him use just his top hand to swing a bat in a case filled with sand repeatedly in order to strengthen the arm. Secondly, because a consequence of a weak top hand in batting is often the inability to swing the bat in a straight line, in order to make him pick his bat up straight, Sehwag’s coach stuck a piece of bamboo in the ground just outside off stump. If the bat was not picked up straight he would hit the bamboo (Renshaw et al., 2010). This practical example neatly demonstrates how a cricket coach can use an understanding of the interaction of individual, environmental and task constraints in order to shape behaviour. One final point that needs to be made is that the unique interactions between the individual, task and environment constraints means that variability is a key feature in enhancing performance. This is related to both movement variability and variability of practice. Contrary to popular belief expert performers are not able to ‘repeat’ their movements invariantly, but use functional adaptability in their movement patterns to achieve high levels of accuracy and adaptability to solve problems in constantly changing performance landscapes. Consequently, practice tasks must of course provide high levels of variability. In summary, adopting a constraints-based perspective to cricket provides coaching with a framework for understanding how performer, task and environmental constraints shape each individual’s performance. By adopting an athlete–centred approach which is harmonious with constraint-led coaching, coaches can base learning design on the needs of individuals. Crucially, there is no one ideal movement model that each player needs to be able to achieve and the unique interactions between individual, environmental and task constraints means that each player will solve distinctive performance problems in ways best suited to their own strengths and weaknesses.

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References Beek, P. J. (2000). Toward a theory of implicit learning in the perceptual motor domain. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 547-554. Chappell, G. (2004). Some thoughts to end a tremendous year of learning. Thanks to all who took part. In N. (Ed.). Renshaw, I., Davids, K., Oldham, A. R., & Glazier, P. (2004). Why sport scientists need a theoretical model of the performer for applied work. Sport & Exercise Scientist, 1(1), 24. Renshaw, I., Davids, K., & Savelsbergh, G. (Eds.). (2010). Motor Learning in Practice: A constraints-led approach. London: Routledge. Renshaw, I., & Davids, K. (2006). A comparison of locomotor pointing strategies in cricket bowling and long jumping. International Journal of Sports Psychology, 37(1), 1-20. Renshaw, I., Oldham, A. R., Golds, T., & Davids, K. (2007). Changing ecological constraints of practice alters coordination of dynamic interceptive actions. European Journal of Sport Sciences, 7(3), 157-167. Renshaw, I., & Chappell, G. S. (2010). A Constraints-led Approach to Talent Development in Cricket. In L. Kidman & B. Lombardo (Eds.), Athlete-Centred Coaching: Developing Decision Makers (2nd ed., pp. 151-173). Worcester: IPC Print Resources. Renshaw, I., & Holder, D. (2010). The Nurdle to leg and other ways of winning cricket matches. In I. Renshaw, K. Davids & G. Savelsbergh (Eds.), Motor Learning in Practice: A constraints- led approach. London: Routledge.

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Day 2: Wednesday 2 June

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WEDNESDAY 2 JUNE 9.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 6: Afterburner Flawless execution Grand Ballroom 2

10.00 am

KEYNOTE ADDRESS 7: Dr. Stuart Cormack Managing workloads, fatigue & performance Grand Ballroom 2

11.00 am 11.30 am

Morning Tea KEYNOTE ADDRESS 8: Jon Deeble Talent identification: lessons from a life in the business Grand Ballroom 2

12.30 pm

Lunch Parallel Seminars

1.30 pm

Identifying & Developing Talent

Cricket Injuries & Medicine

Invited Speaker: Scott Clayton (45 mins)

John Orchard – Injury Surveillance (30 mins)

Geoff Woolcock – Talent Hotspots (15 mins) Panel: Brian McFadyen, Geoff Woolcock, Scott Clayton, Jon Deeble (30 mins) Moderator: Sonya Thompson

Alex Kountouris – QL Research (15 mins) Panel: Peter Harcourt, John Orchard, Alex Kountouris, Trefor James, Kevin Sims (45 mins) Moderator: Dr. Simon Carter

Workload & Wellbeing

Illegal Bowling Actions

Invited Speaker: Dr. Scott Cresswell (45 mins)

Panel: Troy Cooley, Bruce Elliott, Damian Farrow, Rene Ferdinands, Tim McCaskill, Wayne Spratford, Andrew Wixted

Stuart Karppinen – Planning & Monitoring Workloads (15 mins) Panel: Stuart Cormack, Scott Cresswell, Stuart Karppinen, Shona Halson (30 mins)

Moderator: Dr. Marc Portus Grand Ballroom 5

Moderator: Aaron Kellett Grand Ballroom 1

Grand Ballroom 4

Grand Ballroom 2 3.00 pm

Afternoon Tea Free Paper Parallel Sessions Grand Ballroom 1

Grand Ballroom 2

Grand Ballroom 4

Grand Ballroom 5

Grand Ballroom 6

3.30 pm

Marc Portus Batting Skills Test

Wayne Spratford Bowling Left & Right

Elissa Phillips Expert Views Talent

Stephen Timms Squat Kinematics

Adrian Gray GPS & Cricket

3.45 pm

Gerard Dias Batting Biomechanics

Chris Bishop Bowling Footwear

Michael Lloyd Goal Setting

Ian Heazlewood Multivariate Stats

Aaron Kellett Training Responses

4.00 pm

Laurence Houghton Simulated Batting

Elissa Phillips Generating Pace

Gregory Reddan Recovery Model

Wayne Spratford Ball Flight Measures

Geoff Minett Precooling Effects

4.15 pm

David Mann Eyes & Vision

Rene Ferdinands Bowling Spine Loads

Kevin Sims Physio & S&C Links

Peter Milburn Bowling Underuse

Stuart Karppinen Strength Training

4.30 pm

Sean Muller Learning Transfer

Stephen Timms Bowling Skills Test

Wayne Spratford Spin Research

Elissa Phillips Technique Variability

Jonathon Freeston Exercise & Throwing

4.45 pm

Day Concludes

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Monitoring and Managing Training Load and Fatigue in Elite Team Sport Athletes Stuart Cormack Essendon Football Club Correspondence: [email protected] A commonly accepted principle of training is that a period of loading followed by adequate rest results in improved performance (Lambert and Borresen 2006). Due to this, monitoring the fatigue response to a training stimulus has become an important area of focus for many practitioners and researchers (Coutts, Slattery et al. 2007; Cormack, Newton et al. 2008; Borresen and Lambert 2009). The general aim of this work has been to develop tools to assist in optimising the training program and minimising negative outcomes, both in the form of injury and undue fatigue. Numerous methods have been proposed to assist in this process. These include a variety of self reporting questionnaires (Foster, Florhaug et al. 2001; Main and Robert 2009) and potentially useful objective markers such as hormonal and neuromuscular status (Cormack, Newton et al. 2008; Cormack, Newton et al. 2008). The challenge for the practitioner is the implementation and interpretation of data from valid and reliable measurement devices. It is arguable that the greatest benefits from monitoring and manipulation of training programs are achieved when all stakeholders (players, coaches, sport scientists and administrators) understand and commit to a particular approach. Fatigue has been variously defined as a reduction in the ability to produce force or the inability to continue performance at a given workload (Lopes-Martins, Marcos et al. 2006). Multiple models have been proposed to describe fatigue, including the Cardiovasuclar, Energy Supply/Depletion, Biomechanical, Thermoregulatory and Neuromuscular models (Noakes 2000). Each model suggests a slightly different origin of fatigue and it is likely that each one has a varying level of contribution to the fatigue state depending on the activity being undertaken. Fatigue has also been classified along a severity and time continuum. Acute or transient fatigue results in homeostasis being returned within minutes or hours whilst functional overreaching describes fatigue that occurs as part of planned training overload. Non-functional overreaching occurs outside the planned response of the training program and can persist for weeks (Meeusen, Duclos et al. 2006; Coutts, Reaburn et al. 2007). The most severe stage is overtraining. This occurs where, despite reductions in training load, physical and psychological fatigue symptoms continue, sometimes for several months (Grant 2004). Arguably the greatest challenge for the practitioner is to implement a system of monitoring load and fatigue that allows early detection of unplanned responses to the training stimulus and allows initiation of interventions aimed at minimising negative outcomes. The most suitable monitoring tools will vary depending on individual program requirements, however a common starting point should be an agreement by all stakeholders that a particular system or philosophy will be adopted and adhered to. The following example (Figure 1) currently in use in an elite program, provides a guide to the type of system that can be implemented. A critical component of this model is agreement by all involved regarding the approach to fatigue monitoring and load modification. The annual plan is varied for individual athletes (regardless of acute fatigue status) in accordance with previously agreed criteria. Acute training load variations are made on the basis of valid and reliable assessment items. Importantly, scores on each measurement tool are analysed using appropriate statistical techniques (Hopkins 2000; Pettit 2010) including the establishment of appropriate baseline values from which comparisons can be made. In general, the current model uses magnitude based inferences and standard difference scores to determine the practical importance of any change on

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an individual basis (Hopkins 2000; Pettit 2010). This occurs on both a weekly and rolling average basis. Although gaining popularity, values from individual items are not currently combined to produce a single number representing overall fatigue status or risk of injury. Whilst this is theoretically possible (and under investigation in the current model) and potentially attractive via multiple regression equations or mixed modelling, such an approach may carry the risk of oversimplifying complex biological processes and result in a diluted understanding of an athlete’s response. Table 1: Load and Fatigue Monitoring Program currently in place in an elite football setting. Frequency Annually

•

Monthly Weekly

• • • • •

Sessional

Monitoring/Measurement Tool Agreed Training Philosophy→ load selection → interventions Periodisation Multi-component Training Distress Questionnaire Neuromuscular fatigue (1 x wk) Hormonal status (1 x wk) Load, Monotony & Strain (calculated from RPE)

•

Pre training Wellness Questionnaire (3 x wk) with follow up → Physio → Dietitian →Sleep assessment

•

RPE

Whilst the system outlined above should by no means be considered perfect, it combines both subjective and objective measures in an attempt to optimise the training stress. A key feature is the “buy in” from all involved in the training process (coaches, players, sports science/medicine staff) combined with a substantial allocation of resources. It is important to note that data is analysed with appropriate statistical techniques in order to identify potential problems and a pro-active approach is taken to training load modifications. Although it may be argued that the measurement tools utilised in the current model could be substituted for other markers (eg. Heart rate variability, muscle damage, inflammatory response etc), the concepts employed may have merit in numerous elite environments. References Borresen, J. and M. I. Lambert (2009). "The Quantification of Training Load, the Training Response and the Effect on Performance." Sports Med 39(9): 779-795. Cormack, S. J., R. U. Newton, et al. (2008). "Neuromuscular and Endocrine Responses of Elite Players to an Australian Rules Football Match." Int J Sports Physiol and Perf 3: 359-374. Cormack, S. J., R. U. Newton, et al. (2008). "Reliability of Measures Obtained During Single and Repeated Countermovement Jumps." Int J Sports Physiol and Perf 3(2): 131-144. Coutts, A. J., P. Reaburn, et al. (2007). "Monitoring for overreaching in rugby league players." Eur J Appl Physiol 99(3): 313-324. Coutts, A. J., K. M. Slattery, et al. (2007). "Practical tests for monitoring performance, fatigue and recovery in triathletes." J Sci Med Sport In press(doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2007.02.007).

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Foster, C., J. A. Florhaug, et al. (2001). "A New Approach to Monitoring Exercise Training." J Strength Cond Res 15(1): 109-115. Grant, A. (2004). "Overtraining syndrome - Part 1." Sports Coach 27(1): 36-37. Hopkins, W. G. (2000). "A New View of Statistics." http://www.sportsci.org/resource/stats/procmixed.html/#indif.

Retrieved Feb 2007, from

Lambert, M. and J. Borresen (2006). "A Theoretical Basis of Monitoring Fatigue: A Practical Approach for Coaches." Int J Sports Sci and Coaching 1(4): 371-388. Lopes-Martins, R. A. B., R. L. Marcos, et al. (2006). "Effect of low-level laser (Ga-A1-As 655nm) on skeletal muscle fatigue induced by electrical stimulation in rats." J Appl Physiol 101: 283-288. Main, L. and G. J. Robert (2009). "A multi-component assessment model for monitoring training distress among athletes." Eur J Sp Sci 9(4): 195-202. Meeusen, R., M. Duclos, et al. (2006). "Prevention, diagnosis and treatment of Overtraining Syndrome." Eur J Sport Sc 6(1): 1-14. Noakes, T. D. (2000). "Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance." Scan J Med Sci Sports 10: 123-145. Pettit, R. W. (2010). "The Standard Difference Score: A New Statistic for Evaluating Strength and Conditioning Programs." J Strength Cond Res 24(1): 287-291.

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Cricketers’ Hotspots & Coldspots: Talent Tracking the Key Development Geographies of Australia’s Elite Cricketers Geoffrey Woolcock, Dwight Zakus, Murray Bird, Emily Hatfield Nathan Campus, Griffith University, Brisbane Correspondence: [email protected] There is a dearth of spatial and social data that addresses causal factors in the identification and development of sporting talent (Baker & Horton 2004; Abernethy & Farrow 2005). It is generally acknowledged that critical social factors such as family upbringing and the socio-economic status of resident communities are likely predictors of sporting talent development but in Australia, aside from a few ad hoc and sport-specific case studies, little rigorous and longitudinal empirical data has been collected and collated to advance causal claims in this area. Most sporting commentary draws attention to The "Wagga Effect", a term that has been used frequently in the Australian media to describe the disproportionately large number of elite sportsmen and women that originate from the city of Wagga Wagga in southern New South Wales. It is speculated that the phenomenon may arise in rural areas where the population is large enough to sustain the presence of a large number of sporting codes, but small enough to ensure that talented individuals are exposed to adult-level competition at an earlier age. However, this speculation remains just that in the absence of rigorous data collection and analysis across a range of sports. To address this deficiency, an Australian Research Council (ARC) Linkage grant - awarded in late 2009 and including Cricket Australia as one of four industry partners – is focusing on multiple aspects of sporting talent ID and development pathways. This research will be unique in aligning key spatial, geographical and environmental characteristics with the development of sporting talent. In particular, it seeks to scrutinise the ‘pyramid’ theory that the greater the relative participation in sport, the more likely that sporting talent will emerge. The first research stream on geospatial determinants has commenced in early 2010 and specifically focuses on the key developmental location for elite Australian sportspeople. This location is defined as where the athlete was resident for a majority of time in their late primary and early high school period. The specific focus on elite cricketers will mimic the methodological effectiveness of a pilot study conducted by the same researchers in 2009 of all Australian Football League (AFL) draftees 1997-2009, using three banks of data: (a)

the main junior club and/or school of draftees as the basis for both defining talent and in locating players to the key place of development;

(b)

comparison with AFL Auskick (5-12 y.o.) annual participation data for relevant regions (95 across Australia) averaged between 2000 and 2008 participation figures;

(c)

comparison with Census population figures for 5-12 y.o. matched to Auskick regions;

The data was thus able to draw attention to AFL talent ID ‘hotspots’ and ‘coldspots’ by using three different calculations. These three different ratios, where Talent = the number of players drafted from the Auskick region that matches to their main junior club and/or school, were: (i) (ii)

Talent / AFL Auskick (5-12 y.o.) participation averaged between 2000 and 2008; Talent / 2006 Census population (5-12 y.o.) matched to Auskick regions;

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(iii)

Talent / (average annual AFL Auskick (5-12 y.o.) participation / 2006 Census (5-12 y.o.)).

The equivalent ‘talent tracking’ research applied to cricket will specifically focus on any Australian player who has played a first-class cricket match over the equivalent time (i.e., 1997-2010) matched against participation of 12-18 year old boys in each of CA’s 81 regions, in turn matched (through Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technologies) to overall population of 12-18 year old boys in these regions. Data collation and analysis commenced in March 2010 and preliminary findings will be presented. Acknowledgement: Cricket Australia provided funding for this project, along with other industry partners, which is appreciated. References Abernethy, B & Farrow, D. (2005). Contextual factors influencing the development of expertise in Australian athletes. In Proceedings of the ISSP 11th World Congress of Sport Psychology [CD]. Sydney: International Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP). [ISBN: 1 877040 36 3]. Baker, J. & Horton, S. (2004) ‘A review of primary and secondary influences on sport expertise’, High Ability Studies, 15 (2), 211-228.

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Past, Present and Future of Injury Surveillance in Australian and World Cricket John Orchard, Trefor James, Alex Kountouris, Marc Portus Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, Cricket Australia Correspondence: [email protected] Injury surveillance has been undertaken continuously at elite adult men’s level (international and List A) for the past twelve seasons (Orchard et al., 2006). In the last five of these seasons, there has been more cricket played with most of the growth being the newest form of the game Twenty/20 cricket. Since the introduction of a regular Twenty/20 program, injury incidence rates in each form of cricket have been fairly steady although prevalence (the amount of missed playing time) has risen (Orchard et al., 2010). Because of the short match duration, Twenty/20 cricket exhibits a high match injury incidence expressed as injuries per 10000 hours of play (Orchard et al., 2006). Expressed as injuries per days of play, Twenty/20 cricket injury rates compare more favourably to other forms of cricket. In addition, we now understand that many, if not the majority, of non-contact injuries in cricket are gradual onset overuse injuries. For pace bowlers, a total bowling match workload >50 overs in a first class match is associated with a 1.8 times increased risk of bowling injury (per ball bowled) over the next 21 days (Orchard et al., 2009). Similarly, for pace bowlers, a workload of >30 overs in the second innings of a first class match is associated with a 2.3 times increased risk of bowling injury (per ball bowled) over the next 28 days (Orchard et al., 2009). For bowlers who play both first class and limited overs cricket, an injury which has its genesis in overuse from first class cricket may seem to ‘occur’ during a limited overs game. Although hard data has not been uncovered yet, it is likely that the reverse may occur as well – that a bowling injury may ‘occur’ in a first class match which has its genesis in underpreparation if the bowler has a poorly periodised workload plan or has been involved in a Twenty/20 tournament and does not bowl more than 4 overs at any one stint for a prolonged period. Given the high numbers of injuries which are of gradual onset, perhaps seasonal injury incidence rates (which typically range from 15-20 injuries per team per season) are the best measure of injury incidence (Orchard et al., 2005). The rates for seasonal incidence should be viewed from the perspective of an ‘injury’ definition requiring missed playing time and a ‘team season’ being 25 players and 60 days of participation. Thigh and hamstring strains have become clearly the most common injury in the past three years (greater than 4 injuries per team per season) with a recent increase probably associated with the increased amount of Twenty/20 cricket (Orchard et al., 2010). Hamstring strains in particular can occur in all facets of the game – bowling, batting and fielding – with the non-bowling hamstrings relatively common in Twenty/20 cricket. Expressed as injuries per days of play, there is a trend that Twenty/20 cricket is leading to reduced numbers of bowling injuries, but increased number of injuries batting and fielding, compared to other forms of cricket. Injury prevalence rates have risen in recent years in conjunction with an increase in the density of the cricket calendar. Annual injury prevalence rates (average proportion of players missing through injury) have exceeded 10% in the last few seasons, with the injury prevalence rates for fast bowlers approaching 20% (Orchard et al., 2010). If the status quo persists – in particular a very crowded cricket calendar with all three forms of the game prominent – injury prevalence rates will probably remain high by historical levels. Radical changes in thinking may be required to reduce the injury prevalence amongst pace bowlers. Internally, a move towards a rotation mentality for fast bowlers in first class cricket would represent a culture change but may prolong the health of fast bowlers. Such a mentality is

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completely accepted in Major League Baseball. There are two barrier towards this change: 1) the injury/match payment system in Australian cricket with the grey area of rested/dropped/rotated/injured needing to be cleared up so that certain bowlers do not feel financially disadvantaged by any change; 2) at the elite level there is a perceived performance disadvantage not having the best 3 or 4 fast bowlers playing as many games as possible. With carefully planned fast bowling talent management we believe that there would actually be significant medium to long term competitive advantages stemming from the necessity of needing 8 fast bowlers of international calibre rotating through the team. To some extent, perhaps as much through necessity than deliberate strategy, we are already slowly moving in this direction. Externally, consideration should be given to rule changes which may reduce the impact of injury, such as allowing the 12th man to play as a substitute in first class cricket. Cricket is the only major sport which does not allow full injury substitution. It is clear now that over-bowling has significant late injury consequences so there is a strong argument to modernise the rules of cricket in this respect. Uptake of the AMS (Athlete Management System) represents an improvement in injury management in terms of communication and standardised recording. It also sets a framework under which injury surveillance could realistically be expanded in the near future to include junior and women’s teams. Although there are limitations to injury surveillance in Australia currently, we clearly remain the world leader in this area and have published the majority of the cricket injury surveillance literature, although other countries have also published limited surveillance data (Newman 2003; Stretch 2003; Mansingh et al., 2006). It is hoped that the time is not far away that the ICC is able to assist the majority of Test playing nations in the development of injury surveillance. From an Australian perspective it almost should be insisted that injury surveillance is conducted on our contracted players playing in overseas competitions. An injury passport system whereby a report is prepared and transferred between treating medical teams will become increasingly needed for players who move between competitions and countries throughout the year. References Mansingh, A., L. Harper, et al. (2006). "Injuries in West Indies Cricket 2003-2004." British Journal of Sports Medicine 40: 119-123. Newman, D. (2003). A prospective study of injuries at first class counties in England and Wales 2001 and 2002 seasons. Second World Congress of Science and Medicine in Cricket, Cape Town. Orchard, J., T. James, et al. (2006). "Injuries to elite male cricketers in Australia over a 10-year period." Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 9(6): 459-467. Orchard, J., T. James, et al. (2010). "Changes to injury profile (and recommended cricket injury definitions) based on the increased frequency of Twenty20 cricket matches." Open Access Journal of Sports Medicine 1: May 2010. Orchard, J., T. James, et al. (2009). "Fast Bowlers in Cricket Demonstrate Up to 3- to 4-Week Delay Between High Workloads and Increased Risk of Injury." American Journal of Sports Medicine 37: 1186-1192. Orchard, J., D. Newman, et al. (2005). "Methods for injury surveillance in international cricket." Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 8(1): 1-14. Stretch, R. (2003). "Cricket injuries: a longitudinal study of the nature of injuries to South African cricketers." British Journal of Sports Medicine 37: 250-253.

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The Relationship between Quadratus Lumborum Asymmetry and Lumbar Spine Injury in Junior Cricket Fast Bowlers Alex Kountouris1,2, Jill Cook², Marc Portus3, Howard Galloway4, John Orchard3,5 1

Physiotherapist, Australian Cricket Team, Cricket Australia, Melbourne School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Melbourne 3 Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, Cricket Australia Centre of Excellence, Brisbane 4 Department of Medical Imaging, The Canberra Hospital, Canberra 5 School of Public Health, The University of Sydney, Sydney 2

Correspondence: [email protected] Bowling side quadratus lumborum (QL) asymmetries have been previously reported in junior and senior cricket fast bowlers using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (Engstrom, Walker, Kippers, & Mehnert, 2007; Hides, Stanton, Freke, McMahon, & Richardson, 2008; Ranson, Burnett, O'Sullivan, Batt, & Kerslake, 2008). Additionally, Engstrom et al (2007) found a strong relationship between bowling side QL asymmetries and lumbar spine stress fractures in junior cricket fast bowlers that were followed over four consecutive seasons. Hides et al (2008) also reported that adult fast bowlers with low back pain (not specifically lumbar stress fractures) had greater QL asymmetries than bowlers who did not have low back pain. These studies have the potential to promote funding and research into intervention programs targeting QL asymmetries. As such, the purpose of this study was to investigate and confirm the presence of QL asymmetries in junior fast bowlers and to determine whether there is a relationship between QL size and lumbar spine injury over a single cricket season. Additionally, we aimed to evaluate the methods involved in measuring paraspinal asymmetry using MR imaging and outline the potential problems associated with these measures as this is a relatively new area of research. Lumbar spine magnetic resonance (MR) imaging of 48 junior male fast bowlers, with a mean age of 14.8 years (range 12-17 years), were performed prior to the beginning of the 2002/2003 Australian cricket season as part of a larger research project. All bowlers were injury free at the time of MR imaging. These baseline MR images were performed at a single radiology clinic, using the same MR machine and protocol. The MR protocol implemented was similar to that used in previous research (Engstrom, et al., 2007). Each MR image slice was evaluated by a single investigator (AK) to determine whether the QL muscle boundaries were clearly visible for inclusion in the study. The cross-sectional area of each QL image was measured and compared with the corresponding image on the other side of the spine to determine side to side difference (asymmetries). A single musculoskeletal radiologist (HG) evaluated the baseline MR images of each participant to determine whether there was radiological evidence of injury. Any player who reported pain during the season was referred to an experienced sports medicine physician who confirmed the injury diagnosis using a combination of clinical judgment and appropriate radiological procedures. Only lumbar spine injuries were included in this study, with participants being placed in one of the following three categories; 1. 2. 3.

Lumbar spine bone stress injury (lumbar stress fracture or stress reaction); Soft tissue lumbar spine injury (disc, muscle or ligament injury etc); No lumbar spine injury .

Ethics approval for this project was obtained from Deakin University Human Research Ethics Committee. Of the 48 players who had lumbar MR imaging at baseline, 10 participants were excluded from the final analysis because there were no MR image slices where QL could be measured. Only twentyfive per cent of MR images, where QL was in the field of view, met the inclusion criteria. The

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reasons for exclusion included the overlapping of muscle boundaries and movement artifact. In the current study, QL could only be measured between the L2 and L4 vertebral levels, which is consistent with previous research (Ranson, Burnett, Kerslake, Batt, & O'Sullivan, 2006; Ranson, et al., 2008). The 38 participants who remained in the study had a mean age of 14.9 years (range 12-17 years, SD 1.34), height 176 cm (range 148-192cm, SD 9.79) and weight was 66 kg (range 35-92kg, SD 12.71). The average QL asymmetry was 13%, which is similar to previous findings in junior fast bowlers (Engstrom, et al., 2007). Fifty-five per cent of participants had asymmetries greater than 10%. There was no significant difference in the number of participants with dominant and nondominant side QL asymmetry. However, there was a significant difference in the magnitude of asymmetry between the dominant side (10.5%) and non-dominant (16.4%) asymmetries. Pearson r correlation of repeat measurements of QL asymmetry for randomly selected images (18%) was r=.968. During the cricket season, a total of eight players (21%) developed pain due to lumbar spine bone stress injury (stress fractures and stress reactions of the pars interarticularis or pedicle). The mean age, height and weight of players who developed lumbar bone stress injuries was 15.5 years (range 13.4-17.4 years, SD 1.51), 179 cm (172-189 cm, SD 5.23) and 73 kg (62-82 kg, SD 7.67), whereas participants who did not sustain a lumbar bone stress injury were 14.8 years (12.5-17.1, SD 1.29 ), 175 cm (148-188cm, SD 10.59) and 64 kg (35-92 kg, SD13.23). There was no significant difference between participants who were injured and not injured in terms of age (MannWhitney Z=-.950, p=.342) and height (Mann-Whitney Z=-.609, p=.543). Participants weight was also not significantly different (Mann-Whitney Z=-1.755, p=.79), although there was a trend towards significance, with those injured having the lower body weight. There were four participants who had radiological evidence of lumbar bone stress (and asymptomatic) at baseline and all four went on to become symptomatic during the cricket season with lumbar stress fractures. The magnitude of asymmetry was divided into three groups (0-10%, 11-20% & >20%) and compared to injury status. There was no significant difference in the number of players in each of three asymmetry groups when compared to injury status (χ2 (4) = 6.28, p= .180). Additionally, there was no significant difference between the average asymmetry for players who sustained lumbar spine injury (soft tissue and bone stress) and those players who were uninjured during the cricket season ((χ2 (2) = 1.242, p=.537). When the participants were grouped as either having a lumbar stress fracture (mean asymmetry 15.7%) or no lumbar stress fracture (mean asymmetry 12.4%), there was still no significant relationship (Mann-Whitney Z= -1.11, p=.267). Conclusion; Contrary to previous research, this study demonstrated that there was a similar distribution of asymmetry between the dominant and non-dominant sides. As this study completed image analysis only on clear QL images, the presence of only dominant side asymmetry must be questioned. Additionally, we did not find a relationship between lumbar stress fractures and QL asymmetry, as reported previously (Engstrom, et al., 2007). Another important finding from the study was that quadratus lumborum was not adequately visible, in a high percentage of MR images, to allow adequate measurement without creating doubt about the validity of the measurement. This study demonstrated the inherent difficulties of measuring three-dimensional structures using two-dimensional imaging methods. Acknowledgements: This project was funded by Cricket Australia. The authors would like to acknowledge David Pyne (Australian Institute of Sport) for anthropometry measurements in this study and Patrick Farhart for his involvement in the injury surveillance of the participants.

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References Engstrom, C., Walker, D., Kippers, V., & Mehnert, A. (2007). Quadratus lumborum asymmetry and L4 pars injury in fast bowlers: A prospective MR study. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(6), 910-917. Hides, J. A., Stanton, W. R., Freke, S., McMahon, S., & Richardson, C. A. (2008). MRI study of the size, symmetry and function of the trunk muscles among elite cricketers with and without low back pain British Journal of Sports Medicine, December. Ranson, C., Burnett, A., Kerslake, R., Batt, M., & O'Sullivan, P. (2006). An investigation into the use of MR imaging to determine the functional cross sectional area of lumbar paraspinal muscles. European Spine Journal, 15, 764-773. Ranson, C., Burnett, A., O'Sullivan, P., Batt, M., & Kerslake, R. (2008). The lumbar paraspinal muscle morphometry of fast bowlers in cricket Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 18(1), 31-37.

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Psychological Aspects of Workload Management in Elite Sport Scott Cresswell School of Sport Science, Exercise & Health, The University of Western Australia Correspondence: [email protected] Elite players are, by definition, a valuable and limited resource. An elite player’s role routinely exposes the athlete to mental and physical demands across the cricketing year that represent a significant workload. Effective management of this workload can result in positive adaptation and high performance, whereas ineffective management can have a number of negative outcomes for both player performance and welfare. As a result effectively managing player workload is an important and necessary task for all management and support staff involved with elite sport. This presentation will summarise findings from a series of projects with professional sport highlighting implications for the management of player workload. Player workload involves the interaction of observable (often physical) as well as psychological factors. The psychological aspects of player workload (i.e. antecedents, processes and consequences) are often overlooked in favour of more visible, physical aspects of workload and their directly observable consequences. This presentation will build on a model of these easily observable workload factors introducing psychological aspects of workload management (Smith, 1986, Cresswell & Eklund, 2003). Psychological and observable (physical) factors associated with workload don’t always work in sync with each other as expected (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2007a). The unpredictable nature of these relationships is often due to psychological processes, such as the appraisal of demands, the appraisal of ability to deal with these demands and attempts to cope. The presentation will use case studies of elite athletes to demonstrate the nature and role of these psychological aspects (Cresswell & Eklund 2007c). The effective management of workload requires accurate and reliable measurement. Commonly identified indicators of workload in elite sport include the number of games played and hours trained. While easily quantifiable, past research suggests these indicators are not as consistently and strongly associated with workload outcomes as first thought. Key factors researchers have identified as being related to the impact workload has on performance and welfare include travel demands, injury, non selection, playing position, experience, an anti-rest culture, pressure to comply with demands as well as media/public expectations (Cresswell & Eklund, 2006a; 2007b; 2007c). Consistently across this research: •

Professional rugby players who reported higher levels of injury reported higher levels of chronic exhaustion

•

Players who were not consistent starters reported higher levels of reduced accomplishment and frustration, sometimes resulting in exhaustion.

While a number of these findings are directly applicable to cricket, there are also some unique challenges to consider, such as the length of competitive events and unique physical demands. Factors that could be considered unique to cricket include the length of games and tours, travel demands, repetitive physical tasks as well as emotional labour due to strict on-field conduct rules. These unique demands highlight the need to measure and assess workload that is specific to your cricket environment.

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To avoid erroneous conclusions and poor management a comprehensive and integrated approach to measuring workload is required. Past research also indicates the effective measurement of workload needs to take regular seasonal variations into account (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2006b). The measurement of workload impact from a psychological perspective can be assessed through a number of multi-choice questionnaires that assess different timeframe impacts. The Profile of Mood States (POMS; McNair, Lorr & Droppleman, 1992) can be used as a relatively immediate state measure of workload impact, where as the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2009) is designed to assess more long term chronic impacts of workload. The RecoveryStress Questionnaire for Athletes (RESTQ Sport; Kellmann, 2002) is designed to assess the extent to which athletes are physically and/or mentally stressed in order to manage the training process and avoid negative workload impacts. Practical application of these measures is restricted by the length of the questionnaires, RESTQ – 76 items, POMS – 12 items, ABQ – 15 items, and the potential for regular or too frequent measurement resulting in poor data quality. As a result it is recommended a mix of these three measures is applied, including an abbreviated version of the RESTQ, and correlated with existing physical measures of training/plating load and fitness testing. Currently there are no widely identified best practice solutions for monitoring and managing the workload of elite athletes. Research, however, indicates players in some team environments report significantly less negative workload outcomes (e.g., Cresswell & Eklund, 2005) highlighting that not all current practice is equal. Team environments that encountered the least negative impacts from workload employed a number of strategies including: •

Investment in a large number of high quality support staff. This was seen by players as a positive and strategic move within player salary capped environments.

•

High quality of physical training and individual monitoring

•

Consistent and accurate management of weekly schedules (schedule posted in advance, rare changes)

•

Recovery team sessions and individual strategies such as time out from the environment and extra individual recovery sessions

•

Supporting meaningful work outside sport – designing weekly structures to enable outside activities to be planned around sport

Interestingly, performance as measured by win/loss ratio was shown to impact on teams differently. While some teams reported negative workload impacts others indicated positive impacts in response to the same performance ratios. Performance expectations clearly play a role in this relationship, but it was also noted that management teams often adjusted schedules in different directions based on similar game results. In this presentation the range of strategies applicable at the individual and organisational level to prevent and manage player workload will be highlighted. Specifically, findings of a season long study conducted with two professional English rugby clubs to assess the effectiveness of a player level educational intervention designed to prevent negative consequences associated with workload will be reviewed. A research based educational intervention was designed and customised to the specific team environments in an effort to prevent and manage the negative impact of player workload. Players were taught mental skills to cope with demands such as injury, non-selection and physical training load. Specifically the program consisted of five group sessions of 20 to 30 minutes duration, summarised in Table 1.

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Table 1: Player intervention program – content summary Session Program Content ƒ Extended surveyed including potential burnout causes 1 - Introduction ƒ Purpose of the program ƒ Burnout characteristics & causes ƒ Past Results for your team ƒ Positive Factors 2 - Results & Discussion o Social Support, o Sense of community o Rugby tasks*** o Rewards*** o Team atmosphere*** ƒ Factors Contributing to Burnout* o Workload o Injury o Money Hassles o Contract Negotiation o Non-selection o Time changes** ƒ Cognitive Appraisal 3 - Player Strategies ƒ Thought Management o Reframing o Countering ƒ Scenarios/Role play o Injury o Non-selection ƒ Team values 4 - Team Strategies ƒ Team support ƒ Follow up on actions identified 5 - Summary ƒ Application of strategies ƒ Review via case study ƒ Questions Note* = as identified from extended survey items, **=London Irish only, ***=Wasps only While the program received positive feedback from players and coaches it did not result in a statistically significant reduction in negative consequences associated with player workload. The London Irish and London Wasps teams were matched with other Premiership teams who had similar performance outcomes during the season, but did not participate in the player program designed to prevent and manage burnout. London Irish was matched with Harlequins, London Wasps was matched with Gloucester. Results again indicated the player program failed to have a beneficial effect on the level of exhaustion, sport devaluation or reduced accomplishment reported by players. A statistical comparison was not possible between players who did and did not participate within the same club because of the small numbers of players who did not complete the program. It was concluded that in this environment a player level intervention is unlikely to prevent the negative impact of player workload without corresponding organisation level strategies. Finally, a review of the organisation level strategies employed in the English and New Zealand rugby environment designed to reduce the potential negative impact of player workload will be explained. Strategies considered in the England rugby environment are summarised in Table 2.

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Table 2:Workload strategies considered by England Rugby Stressor/Factor Strategy ƒ Implementation of a minimum ratio of support staff to players Injury ƒ A review of injury management strategies, including the appointment of an independent medical adviser ƒ Players develop Coping skills through the Professional Development Program High number of games with ƒ Minimum rest periods – between games and in the off season little rest/recovery ƒ Maximum game limit to apply to all players and a review of monitoring (games less than 39 minutes should count) ƒ Decompression time pre and post Internationals ƒ Education for coaches and management regarding workload management ƒ Registration of player agents Contract negotiation ƒ Negotiation skills training for players ƒ Education for coaches and players regarding non-selection Non-selection ƒ Improve Professional Development Manager ratio Life outside the game ƒ ½ a day for professional development fixed in the calendar In conclusion, the monitoring and management of player workload is essential given the limited resource that is the elite player talent pool. Strategies currently identified are limited in their effectiveness if used in isolation. As a consequence a combination of these strategies fitted to your unique situation is recommended. References Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2003). The athlete burnout syndrome: A practitioner’s guide. New Zealand Journal of Sports Medicine, 31(1), 4-9. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2004). The athlete burnout syndrome: Possible early signs. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 7(4), 481-487. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2005). Changes in athlete burnout and motivation over a 12-week league tournament. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 37(11), 1957-1966. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2006a). The nature of athlete burnout: Key characteristics and attributions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18, 219-239. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R..C. (2006b). Changes in athlete over a 30-week “rugby year”. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 9, 125-134. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2007a). Athlete Burnout and Immune Function. New Zealand Journal of Sports Medicine, 34, 5-11. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C. (2007b). Athlete Burnout and Organizational Culture: An English Rugby Replication. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 38, 365-387. Cresswell, S.L. & Eklund, R.C (2007c). Athlete Burnout: A longitudinal qualitative investigation. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 1-20. Cresswell, S.L. (2009). Possible early signs of athlete burnout: A prospective study. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12, 393-398.

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Kellmann, M. (2002) Psychological Assessment of Underrecovery. In Enhancing Recovery: Preventing Underperformance in Athletes. Champaign IL: Human Kinetics. McNair, D., Lorr M. & Droppleman, L.F. Educational and Industrial Testing Service.

(1992). Profile of Mood State Manual. San Diego:

Raedeke, T.D. & Smith A.L. (2009). The Athlete Burnout Questionnaire Manual. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology. Smith, R.E (1986). Toward a cognitive-affective model of athletic burnout. Journal of Sport Psychology, 8, 36–50.

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Planning & Monitoring Workloads: Identifying Performance Limiting Factors and Developing Solutions Stuart Karppinen Australian Team Strength & Conditioning Coach, Cricket Australia, Melbourne Correspondence: [email protected] Most people involved in elite level sport would be aware of the concept of traditional periodisation, which starts with identifying a number of discrete competitions over the year that the athlete or team is required to peak for. Typically organisation of the annual training program starts with those important competitions and works forwards from there. From a physiological perspective, it is not possible to improve the level of conditioning in several areas at one time; so that at certain times of year the emphasis is on improving one parameter while other areas are simply maintained. Periodisation is usually partitioned into cycles (meso, micro & macro) to allow the prescription of training to change from a broad to a more precise focus But how does this model fit within the Australian cricket team that has recently completed a 47 week period of competition with the longest preparatory period being 13 days in length. Opportunity to improve physical performance in a traditional manner is difficult, given the limited time available. The traditional approach of program progression was most suitable to preparing athletes for one major event, but with the need for members of the Australian cricket team to compete at high levels for extended periods of time over the competitive season, another approach is required. Managing the playing and training workloads for the Australian cricket team requires an adaptive and flexible approach that allows for individual skill preparation whilst reinforcing key physical components. The impact of the stress recovery cycle as the result of competition and training can vary enormously within the playing group, due to numerous factors such as age, position, fitness, recent training history, and performance. The model of monitoring and managing player workloads comprises three components: Match hardness, Workload monitoring and Physical monitoring. This model may prove useful for other strength & conditioning professionals and coaches to manage player workloads in team sports during competition periods. Match hardness is an assigned numerical value that estimates the potential difficulty of scheduled competition. Through the weighting and scaling of numerous factors, an estimate on the perceived difficulty of upcoming competition directly determines the volume and intensity of physical and skill preparation. This approach is achieved by identify factors that are rigid and cannot be influenced, with the outcome resulting in modification to the factors that can be influenced. Uncontrollable Factors • Opposition. • Country. • Match format. • Climate. • Hours of travel. • Number of days for recovery between matches Controllable Factors • Training duration. • Training intensity. • Training modality.

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Team selection.

Workload monitoring measures the actual impact of training and match performance of each individual player, and comprises both objective and subjective information. Session RPE values are taken for each match and training session, and heart rate data is used at all training and conditioning sessions. Objective Measures • Number of deliveries. • Heart rate (TE, EPOC). • Duration. Subjective Measures • RPE. Physical monitoring measures the change that occurs as a result of competition and the impact that the match performance has on the individual athlete’s rate of recovery. As with the workload monitoring, the process of physical monitoring comprises objective ad subjective ratings. Objective Measures • Knee to wall. • Internal rotation. • Counter movement jump (single & repeated). • Reactivity test. • Illness. • Injury. Subjective Measures • Energy levels. • Muscle soreness (passive). • Muscle soreness (active). The outcome of these measurements, combined with assessment of the match hardness, determines what the primary objectives are for that period of preparation. During periods of high match hardness and high workloads, training is modified to reduce low stress response with a high focus on skill execution and recovery strategies. During periods of low match hardness and low workloads, training is altered to elicit adaptive responses with a greater emphasis on improving physical performance. Conclusion: Numerous factors influence the management of athletic performance during period of competition. By identifying potential performance limiting factors throughout the duration of season both strength & condition professionals and coaches can potentially limit the adverse effects of over training and overuse injuries in an attempt to improve performance. Acknowledgements: Thanks to Mark Cameron from Elite Athlete Management Systems.

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Day 2: Wednesday 2 June FREE PAPER ABSTRACTS PRESENTED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER BY LEAD AUTHOR SURNAME

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The Effect of Footwear on the Lower Limb Biomechanics during the Fast Bowling Delivery Stride: A Single Subject Case Study Chris Bishop1, Dominic Thewlis1, Wayne Spratford2,3, Simon Bartold4, Marc Portus2, Nick Brown3 1

University of South Australia, Adelaide Sport Science Sport Medicine Unit, Cricket Australia Centre of Excellence, Brisbane 3 Biomechanics Department, Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra 4 University of Melbourne, Melbourne 2

Correspondence: [email protected] The effect of cricket footwear on fast bowling biomechanics and injury risk is not well understood. As a result, ranges of footwear from custom made to sports-specific bowling shoes are commonly used. A trend amongst elite fast bowlers is to “spike-up” cross trainer shoes instead of wearing conventional commercially available cricket shoes. Although the intentions and reasoning for the modification of cricket shoes remain poorly understood, more importantly, the biomechanical effect of footwear on lower limb biomechanics of elite fast bowlers remains unknown. Bishop & Thewlis 2009 explored the relationship between footwear and two-dimensional lead limb knee and ankle joint orientation, and whether this changes between three cricket shoes commonly worn by the fast bowler. The authors found a significant difference in front knee joint extension/flexion angle between the three footwear environments at heel strike (P