1.4. Grid Code Regulations for the Integration of Wind Generation. References. 2. Power Electronics for Wind Turbines. 2.1. Soft-starter for FSIG Wind Turbines.
WIND ENERGY GENERATION Modelling and Control Olimpo Anaya Lara, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Nick Jenkins, Cardiff University, UK Janaka Ekanayake, Cardiff University, UK Phill Cartwright, Rolls-Royce plc, UK Mike Hughes, Consultant and Imperial College London, UK -
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A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publicat on
Contents About the Authors
xi
Preface Acronyms and Symbols
xv
1 1.1 1.2
1 2 3 3 7 10 11 13 14 17
Electricity Generation from Wind Energy Wind Farms Wind Energy-generating Systems 1.2.1 1.2.2
1.3
Wind Turbines Wind Turbine Architectures
Wind Generators Compared with Conventional Power Plant 1.3.1 1.3.2
Local Impacts System-wide Impacts
1.4
Grid Code Regulations for the Integration of Wind Generation References
2 2.1 2.2
Power Electronics for Wind Turbines Soft-starter for FSIG Wind Turbines Voltage Source Converters (VSCs) 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 2.2.8
2.3
The Two-level VSC Square-wave Operation Carrier-based PWM (CB-PWM) Switching Frequency Optimal PWM (SFO-PWM) Regular and Non-regular Sampled PWM (RS-PWM and NRS-PWM) Selective Harmonic Elimination PWM (SHEM) Voltage Space Vector Switching (SV-PWM) Hysteresis Switching
Application of VSCs for Variable-speed Systems 2.3.1
VSC with a Diode Bridge
19 21 21 21 24 25 27 28 29 30 33 33 34
Contents
vi
2.3.2
Back-to-Back VSCs
References 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4
Modelling of Synchronous Generators Synchronous Generator Construction The Air-gap Magnetic Field of the Synchronous Generator Coil Representation of the Synchronous Generator Generator Equations in the dq Frame 3.4.1
3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9
Generator Electromagnetic Torque
Steady-state Operation Synchronous Generator with Damper Windings Non-reduced Order Model Reduced-order Model Control of Large Synchronous Generators 3.9.1 3.9.2
Dynamic Performance of FSIG Wind Turbines 4.5.1 4.5.2
5
Two-speed Operation Variable-slip Operation Reactive Power Compensation Equipment
Induction Machine Modelling 4.4.1
4.5
Variations in Generator Terminal Voltage
FSIG Configurations for Wind Generation 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3
4.4
Squirrel-cage Rotor Wound Rotor
34 36
Small Disturbances Performance During Network Faults
vii
Contents
5.2 5.3 5.4
Steady-state Characteristics
77
5.2.1 5.2.2
80 81 83 84 84 89 90 91 94 96
Control for Optimum Wind Power Extraction Control Strategies for a DFIG 5.4.1 5.4.2
5.5
Active Power Relationships in the Steady State Vector Diagram of Operating Conditions
Current-mode Control (PVdq) Rotor Flux Magnitude and Angle Control
Dynamic Performance Assessment 5.5.1 5.5.2
Small Disturbances Performance During Network Faults
References 6 6.1
6.2
7 7.1 7.2
7.3 7.4
8
8.1 8.2
99 100 100
Fully Rated Converter based (FRC) Wind Turbines FRC Synchronous Generator-based (FRC-SG) Wind Turbine Direct-driven Wind Turbine Generators 6.1.1 Permanent Magnets Versus Electrically Excited 6.1.2 Synchronous Generators Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator 6.1.3 Wind Turbine Control and Dynamic Performance 6.1.4 Assessment FRC Induction Generator-based (FRC-IG) Wind Turbine Steady-state Performance 6.2.1 Control of the FRC-IG Wind Turbine 6.2.2 Performance Characteristics of the FRC-IG Wind 6.2.3 Turbine References
119 119
Influence of Rotor Dynamics on Wind Turbine Operation Blade Bending Dynamics Derivation of Three-mass Model Example: 300 kW FSIG Wind Turbine 7.2.1 Effective Two-mass Model Assessment of FSIG and DFIG Wind Turbine Performance Acknowledgement References
121 122 123 124 126 128 132 132
Influence of Wind Farms on Network Dynamic Performance Dynamic Stability and its Assessment Dynamic Characteristics of Synchronous Generation
135 135 136
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101 101 103 113 113 114
Contents
viii
A Synchronizing Power and Damping Power Model of a Synchronous Generator Influence of Automatic Voltage Regulator on Damping 8.4 Influence on Damping of Generator Operating Conditions 8.5 Influence of Turbine Governor on Generator Operation 8.6 Transient Stability 8.7 8.8 Voltage Stability 8.9 Generic Test Network 8.10 Influence of Generation Type on Network Dynamic Stability 8.3
Power Systems Stabilizers and Network Damping Capability of Wind Farms A Power System Stabilizer for a Synchronous Generator 9.1.1 9.1.2
9.2
A Power System Stabilizer for a DFIG 9.2.1 9.2.2
9.3
Requirements and Function Synchronous Generator PSS and its Performance Contributions Requirements and Function DFIG-PSS and its Performance Contributions
A Power System Stabilizer for an FRC Wind Farm 9.3.1
The Integration of Wind Farms into the Power System 10 10.1 Reactive Power Compensation Static Var Compensator (SVC) 10.1.1 10.1.2 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) 10.1.3 STATCOM and FSIG Stability
10.4 Example of the Design of a Submarine Network 10.4.1 Beatrice Offshore Wind Farm Onshore Grid Connection Points 10.4.2 Technical Analysis 10.4.3 Cost Analysis 10.4.4 10.4.5 Recommended Point of Connection
Acknowledgement References
Wind Turbine Control for System Contingencies 11 11.1 Contribution of Wind Generation to Frequency Regulation Frequency Control 11.1.1 Wind Turbine Inertia 11.1.2 Fast Primary Response 11.1.3 11.1.4 Slow Primary Response
11.2 Fault Ride-through (FRT) FSIGs 11.2.1 11.2.2 DFIGs 11.2.3 FRCs VSC—HVDC with FSIG Wind Farm 11.2.4 11.2.5 FRC Wind Turbines Connected Via a VSC—HVDC