WP1 Report Status Quo Electric Propulsion final-update M18 ...

State of the Art Electric Propulsion: Vehicles and Energy Supply

Work Package 1 Report December 2013

Imprint Leader of Work Package 1: Robin Krutak /Bettina Emmerling, Austrian Energy Agency Authors of the report: Austrian Energy Agency: Robin Krutak, Willy Raimund, Reinhard Jellinek, Christine Zopf-Renner, Bettina Emmerling Institute of Transport Economics: Erik Figenbaum, Randi Hjorthol Danish Road Directorate: Hans Bendsen, Gerd Marbjerg, Rasmus Stahlfest Holck Skov Layout: Andrea Leindl, Austrian Energy Agency Quality management: Margaretha Bannert, Austrian Energy Agency Project Coordinator: Erik Figenbaum, Institute of Transport Economics Cover picture: www.vlotte.at

Preface This report is a part of the project COMPETT (Competitive Electric Town Transport), which is a project financed by national funds which have been pooled together within ERA-NET-TRANSPORT. In January 2011 ERA-NET-TRANSPORT initiated a range of projects about electric vehicles under the theme ELECTROMOBILITY+ concerning topics from the development of battery and charging technology to sociological investigations of the use of electric vehicles. 20 European project consortia have now been initiated including the COMPETT project. COMPETT is a co-operation between The Institute of Transport Economics in Norway, The Austrian Energy Agency, The University College Buskerud in Norway, Kongsberg Innovation in Norway and the Danish Road Directorate. The objective of COMPETT is to promote the use of electric vehicles, particularly with focus on private passenger cars. The main question to answer in the project is “How can e-vehicles come in to use to a greater degree?” Read more about the project on. www.compett.org

The COMPETT project is jointly financed by Electromobility+, Transnova and The Research Council of Norway, FFG of Austria and The Ministry of Science, Innovation and Higher Education (Higher Education Ministry) in Denmark.

Table of Content 1

Energy storage for electric propulsion ................................................................................................. 7 1.1 1.2

2

Electric Propulsion Systems................................................................................................................ 13 2.1 2.2

3

Electric Propulsion Principle ....................................................................................................... 13 Advantages of Electric Engines ................................................................................................... 13

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS ...................................................................................................... 15 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7

4

Batteries ....................................................................................................................................... 7 Hydrogen .................................................................................................................................... 10

Battery Electric Vehicles ............................................................................................................. 15 Hybrid Electric Vehicles .............................................................................................................. 16 Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles .................................................................................................. 19 Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV) .................................................................................... 20 Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles ........................................................................................................... 20 2-wheeler propulsion systems ................................................................................................... 21 Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles............................................................................................. 23

Specifications of vehicles.................................................................................................................... 24 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4

Vehicles on the market............................................................................................................... 26 Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects) ............................................................................ 39 Outlook: Vehicles to come ......................................................................................................... 40 Future costs of vehicles .............................................................................................................. 44

5

Locations for Charging Points ............................................................................................................. 49

6

Description of charging systems......................................................................................................... 53 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Normal charging ......................................................................................................................... 53 Double speed charging ............................................................................................................... 56 22 kW semi fast charging ........................................................................................................... 56 43-50 kW fast charging............................................................................................................... 57 Ultra fast charging ...................................................................................................................... 58 Battery exchange ........................................................................................................................ 58

7

Vehicle to Grid .................................................................................................................................... 61

8

Charging and hydrogen infrastructure ............................................................................................... 63 8.1 8.2 8.3

9

Infrastructure in Austria ............................................................................................................. 63 Infrastructure in Denmark .......................................................................................................... 66 Infrastructure in Norway ............................................................................................................ 68

Costs of infrastructure ........................................................................................................................ 73 9.1 9.2 9.3

Normal charge ............................................................................................................................ 73 Fast charge ................................................................................................................................. 75 Battery swap and charge stand access cost ............................................................................... 76

9.4

Summary of charging station costs ............................................................................................ 77

Abbreviations: ............................................................................................................................................ 79 Table of Literature ...................................................................................................................................... 82

1

Energy storage for electric propulsion

1.1

Batteries

The energy for electric vehicles is provided from batteries. The performance of the battery defines both power and range of the car. As especially “limited range” is one of the most criticised attributes of electric vehicles, a lot of concepts have been and still are developed to boost the performance of the batteries and hence the cars. During the last decades a wide range of battery types was developed, the following shows an overview of the most important types:

Lead-Acid Battery (Pb-Gel)

Lead batteries were used from the very beginning for electric vehicles, like in the Lohner Porsche (1899). Lead-acid batteries are a technology that has proven itself in the market over many decades. Starter batteries for vehicles with internal combustion engine are usually also lead-acid batteries. The batteries are relatively inexpensive and reliable, but have only little energy density. Therefore the range of vehicles with lead acid batteries lies well below 100 km. Life of these batteries in electric vehicle applications is limited and thus one needs to replace the batteries over the life of the vehicle. Another problem is disposing of used batteries, even when high recycling rates are achieved. Today this battery type still is used for vehicles that don’t need a wide range nor high power like vehicles for gardening support in parks. ZEBRA (Na-NiCl2)

The abbreviation ZEBRA stands for “Zero Emission Battery Research Activities“ and was invented in the 1980ies. Advantages include a relatively high energy density and no memory effect. The ZEBRA battery requires an operating temperature of at least 240° Celsius (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a). The disadvantage of this concept is that energy is also needed when the vehicle is not in use, as the battery has to be held at this high temperature. Therefore the battery is especially suitable for vehicles that are used on a daily basis. Fleet trials like in Vorarlberg, Austria show that the battery performs well in comparison to Lithium-Ion batteries in winter time. On the other hand, it was observed (Klima- und Energiefonds, 2012a) that the battery needs more energy than that of a comparable car with LithiumIon battery (35 kWh/100 km to 20 kWh/100 km).

Nickel metal hydride batteries are used primarily in hybrid vehicles like the Toyota Prius or the Lexus 450 h. The battery reaches much higher energy densities than nickel-cadmium and lead-acid batteries, but is more expensive. In hybrid vehicles the NiMH batteries last the whole lifetime of the vehicle. Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-Ion)

Lithium-ion batteries consist of a negative electrode made of lithium and a positive electrode of graphite (carbon). Out of all different types of batteries available on the market, lithium-ion batteries have the greatest energy density and therefore are also suitable for longer ranges. There exist a number of different lithium-ion battery types, as described in the following.


Nickel Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH)

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Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) This type of battery was often used for the first electric cars with lithium-ion batteries, as it is quite safe and delivers a good performance at a reasonable price. But energy density is less than in most other lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-Polymer (Li-Po) This type of battery is also used for laptops and cell phones, as it offers a higher energy density than LiFePO4 batteries. Lithium Titanate This type of battery is based on a LiFePO4 battery, but has an improved anode (lithium titanate) which results in a longer lifetime. The battery provides a very good durability and safety performance which makes it a good choice for fast charging and use at low temperatures. A disadvantage compared to other lithium-ion batteries is the lower energy density. Lithium Silizium With a three times higher energy density than conventional li-ion batteries, this battery type represents the next generation, to be on the market not before 2018.


Lithium Air Lithium air cells contain a catalyst as positive electrode that charges the lithium negatively when getting in contact with air. The potential in terms of energy density is 10-times higher than today’s lithium-ion batteries, reaching levels comparable with the energy density of gasoline. Commercial development is not expected before 2025.

8

Pb-Gel

NiMH

Na-NiCl2

Li-Ion

Energy density (Wh/kg)

20–50

40–80

100–120

110

Power density (W/kg)

80–100

300

-20 to 60

Maintenance free

yes

yes

yes

yes

Lifetime (years)

3–5

Lifetime (cycles) Costs in mass production ($/kWh)

700–800

2000

>600

>2000

50–150

200

200

300–1000

technically mature

fast charging possible

requires a heating and cooling system

needs battery management system

Special feature

Table 1: Comparison of battery types (Hofmann 2010)

Battery Supporting Systems

Battery supporting systems help to improve the performance of batteries: Battery management system A battery for electric vehicles consists of several battery cells. For the efficient use of these cells a battery management system (BMS) is needed. Tasks of the battery management system primarily are: • • • • • •

supervising charging and decharging of cells controlling heating and cooling of cells balancing of cells identification of degree of charging estimation of available range documentation of cell history


Thus the battery management system has a direct influence on the performance and durability of batteries.

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A cooling and heating system can keep the battery in an optimum temperature range and thus help to improve the performance of both, the battery and the vehicle.

35 Energy consumption in kWh/100km

Cooling and heating system The performance of batteries very much depends on the ambient temperature. Especially under cold weather conditions, the performance weakens. Figure 1 shows this correlation for a Mitsubishi i-MiEV equipped with lithium-ion batteries. The optimum temperature in terms of energy consumption is at about 20° C.

30

Mitsubishi i-MiEV

25 20 15 10 5 0 30° C

20° C

10° C

0° C

-10° C -20° C

Ambient temperature

Figure 1: Energy consumption Mitsubishi i-MiEV as a function of the ambient temperature (ÖVK 2012)

Battery packaging The hardware around the battery also has a direct influence on the performance and energy density of the battery pack, these are e.g.: • • • •

1.2

tray retention of modules interconnections interface to vehicle

Hydrogen


Hydrogen offers the potential to operate vehicles with zero emissions on the local level. In general, there are two options how hydrogen is used in vehicles:

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1. Hydrogen combustion engine: Hydrogen is burned in an internal combustion engine. The only direct emission resulting from this process is water in form of steam and very little emissions of nitrogen oxides. The disadvantage of this concept is the engine efficiency: as it is a combustion engine the efficiency is below 30%. 2. Fuel Cell Vehicles: Hydrogen and oxygen react in the fuel cell which produces an electric potential of about 0.6–1 Volt. To achieve a higher voltage a number of these cells are put together to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapor. The efficiency of a fuel cell system reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010). Both concepts need hydrogen, which exists in nature primarily in bound form (e.g. in water and hydrocarbons). Hence hydrogen has to be isolated, which is an energy intensive process. The Life Cycle Assessment therefore depends very much on the source of electricity that is used for the production of hydrogen.

There are different ways to produce hydrogen Stationary production One way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis: by using electricity water (H2O) is disaggregated into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O). If electricity from renewable sources is used for this process, the production generates no CO2 emissions. For most of the hydrogen production nowadays fossil fuels are used to produce hydrogen through a process called steam reforming. 45% of the worldwide hydrogen is thus produced from oil, 33% from methane and 15% from coal. Another 7% result as by-products from various chemical production and manufacturing methods (Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010). Mobile Production Another possibility is to produce hydrogen directly in the car by using a reformer. There are a number of more or less complex hydrocarbons that can be used in a reformer; in particular the following materials are possible (Hofmann 2010): • • • • • • •

CNG LPG Methanol Ethanol Dimethyl ether Diesel modified gasoline

Hydrogen from centralized respectively by-product production can be transported in liquid (LH2) or gaseous (GH2) state. For longer distances pipelines and accordingly LH2 ships are used. For shorter distances special wagons or trucks are used.


The storage of hydrogen is very complex. Hydrogen can be stored in liquid or gaseous state. One way is to store the hydrogen as a gas in high-pressure tanks with up to 700 bar or in metal hydride storage tanks. Another way is to store hydrogen in liquid form in cooling tanks which requires a temperature of 235° C (BMLFUW 2008).

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2

Electric Propulsion Systems

2.1

Electric Propulsion Principle

Electric motors convert electric energy into kinetic energy. An electric motor in general consists of two essential parts: 1. a fixed stator in which a magnetic field is produced 2. a magnetic rotor that moves in this magnetic field Through the interchange of the two magnetic elements the rotor starts to move. This movement is finally used to power the wheels of the vehicle.

Concept of an electric engine

The picture shows an electric engine in parts. The rotor (on the right side in the picture) rotates within the stator.

© AEA

2.2

Advantages of Electric Engines

In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine, vehicles with electric drive show a number of advantages: Recuperation A particularity of the electric motor is that it not only can be used as a motor but also as a generator to produce electric energy. Most of the electric vehicles use this feature when the brake pedal is applied. The kinetic energy of the vehicle is reduced by using the motor as a generator that converts the rotation energy of the rotor (which is attached to the wheels through a gearbox and drive shafts) to electricity which is then stored in the battery and hence can be used to power the wheels of the vehicle again (recuperation).

Electric drives have a motor efficiency of 93–99% (Hofmann 2010) that amounts to a 3 to 4 times higher efficiency factor in comparison to internal combustion engines (ELEKTRA 2009, S.22). Thus the input of energy is much better used to generate a forward movement than in other engines. In comparison to vehicles with an internal combustion engine that provide the energy optimum at a speed of about 70 km/h, the energy consumption of electric vehicles is directly proportional to the rate of velocity (ÖVK 2012).


Energy Efficiency

13

Less emissions Electric vehicles can use electricity from renewable energies like wind- , water- or solar power. Under the assumption of an annual mileage of 10,000 km and an energy consumption of 15 kWh per 100 kilometres, renewable energies can supply energy for the following numbers of vehicles (BMLFUW 2012): • • • •

wind power: a 2 MW wind generator can produce the energy needed to power 2,800 electric vehicles water power: a 10 MW small scale water plant generates about 50 million kWh electricity p.a. and hence is able to supply 33,000 electric vehicles. solar power: 14 m2 of photovoltaic under Austrian sun radiation conditions are enough to run 1 electric car biomass: a 0.25 MW biomass plant produces about 1.75 million kWh electricity, which is enough to run 1,200 electric vehicles.

The life cycle analysis which also includes emissions from the production of the car and the energy needed, direct emissions and recycling, shows an 80% advantage in terms of CO2 for an electric vehicle powered with electricity from renewable energy sources compared to a conventional gasoline car. Besides less greenhouse gas emissions and less air pollutants, electric vehicles also produce less noise, as electric engines run very quiet. No clutch, no gearbox


The energy source for the engine is direct current (DC) electricity from batteries or fuel cells (Hofmann 2010). Whereas combustion engines are only able to deliver torque when idle speed is reached, electric engines deliver torque from the very beginning. Hence a clutch and also a gearbox are not necessary for electric vehicles (Hofmann 2010) which save maintenance costs.

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3

ELECTRIC DRIVETRAIN CONCEPTS

There are a number of different concepts how to use an electric engine in the vehicle. The most important concepts are explained in the following section.

3.1

Battery Electric Vehicles

Wheel hub motor

The electric motor is directly integrated into the wheel. The advantages of this concept are that no gearbox, clutch, driveshaft or differential is needed. This makes the car lighter and thus also more energy efficient. This motor concept was used already in the very beginnings of electric mobility, as e.g. by the famous Lohner Porsche electric vehicle in 1899, having a wheel hub motor in each of the front tyres and performing astonishingly: the maximum vehicle speed was 50 km/h and the range was up to 50 km with a total vehicle weight of 980 kg (BMLFUW 2008). Shortly after the two-wheel drive, Porsche and Lohner also developed a four-wheel drive car with wheel hub motors. One of the big disadvantages of this concept so far was that the tyres became very heavy and thus leading to an uncomfortable driving at least at higher speed on uneven pavement. New concepts try to solve this problem by using light weight material and new suspension concepts.

wheel hub motor

The picture shows the wheel hub concept Active Wheel from Michelin, which arranges break, engine and suspension within the wheel.

© www.michelin.com

Single motor with reducer gearbox and driveshafts

In contrast to the wheel hub motor, this concept does not bring the power directly from the engine to the wheel. Here in fact the electric engine is connected to the wheel by a reducer gearbox and driveshafts. Thus, this concept needs more vehicle parts, but on the other hand does not have the suspension problem, as does the wheel hub motor. This concept is used in most of the electric vehicles currently on the market.


Nowadays the electric wheel hub concept is again used primarily in electric two wheelers like pedelecs and electric scooters. However, car manufacturers (e.g. Volvo) are planning to bring this concept on the market for electric four wheelers, too.

15

4WD system with dual motors with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts

Another concept is to use two electric motors, one for each axis, which enables 4-wheel driving (4WD). Again the motors are connected with reducer gearboxes and driveshafts to bring the power to the wheels. This concept is very seldom used for electric vehicles at the moment, but it is for example the centrepiece of the new Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV. A variation of this concept used in the Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4: the engine for the front axis is a combustion engine and the engine for the rear axis is an electric motor. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods.

3.2

Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Hybrid vehicles are vehicles equipped with two different types of engines. Most of the Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) are equipped both with an electric and a gasoline engine. Meanwhile also HEVs with an electric and a Diesel engine are available.

There exist different types of HEV: Parallel HEV:

Serial HEV:

Both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels Only one of the engines (namely the electric engine) is connected to the drive wheels. The other engine, normally an internal combustion engine (ICE), powers a generator which produces electricity for the electric engine.

Mild HEV:

These are parallel HEVs with a rather small electric unit where a pure electric driving mode is not possible.

Full HEV:

These are also parallel HEVs but equipped with an electric unit where a pure electric driving mode – at least for very short distances – is available.

Plug-In HEV:

These are vehicles that can be charged from an external energy source, mostly a charging station with a grid connection.


Table 2: Types of Hybrid Electric Vehicles

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In the automobile “wording” the term “Micro HEV” is also used often. However, here the term “hybrid” is misleading, as it is not about a vehicle with two different engines. It is rather a vehicle with an internal combustion engine with a start/stop system: the system automatically shuts down when the car stops and restarts the internal combustion engine as soon as the brake pedal is lifted. This helps to reduce the time the engine runs at idle, thereby reducing fuel consumption and emissions. In fact it is a method to increase fuel efficiency but not a HEV concept (TU Wien 2009). In the following section the most important HEV and their concepts will be introduced.

Full HEV Toyota Prius

Toyota Prius is the most famous and also most-sold HEV. It was introduced in 1997 in Japan and in 2003 in USA followed by Europe. Meanwhile more than 2 million cars of this model were sold worldwide. The Toyota Prius is a parallel hybrid, which means that both engines are mechanically connected to the drive wheels. The THS (Toyota Hybrid Concept) is a power split drivetrain (Hofmann 2010) which enables driving just with the electric engine at least for very short distances (Full HEV). It consists of the following components: • • • • • •

4 cylinder gasoline combustion engine starter generator planetary gear set electric engine and generator inverter battery

The combustion engine is connected to the planetary gear set. The sun gear of the planetary gear is connected to the generator. The generator starts the combustion engine and delivers energy to the electric engine and also the battery, thus replacing the classical dynamo. The electric engine directly powers the ring gear which results in forward and backward movements of the car. The second function of the electric engine is to support the combustion engine, especially during acceleration phases. The third function is that the electric engine works as a generator during braking and delivers electricity back into the battery.

Prius 3rd generation

© www.toyota.at

Meanwhile the Prius of the 3rd generation is on the market. It is equipped with a 1.8 litres, 73 kW gasoline engine and a 60 kW electric engine. The fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) 3.9 litres/100 km respectively 89 grams of CO2 per kilometre.

Mild HEV Honda type configuration

The second manufacturer after Toyota that brought a hybrid car on the market is Honda. In 1999 Honda started with the Insight, equipped with the Integrated Motor Assist (IMA) hybrid system. Honda launched further hybrid models like the Civic in 2006 or a new version of the Insight in 2010. This system works as a parallel hybrid – the electric engine is placed between the combustion engine and the clutch.


A special novelty of the 3rd generation Prius is that the heat from the exhaust gases is used to bring the engine to an optimum temperature faster.

17

Engine and fuel consumption The actual Honda Insight is equipped with a 1.3 litres, 65 kW gasoline engine and a 10 kW electric engine. The fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) is 4.4 litres/100 km respectively 101 grams of CO2 per kilometre. © www.honda.at

Peugeot 4WD hybrid concept

A different hybrid concept is used by Peugeot. Peugeot introduced the 3008 HYbrid4 onto the market in 2011, which is especially remarkable for two reasons: 1. It is the first diesel hybrid on the market, and 2. the hybrid concept is used to turn the car into a 4WD. The 119 kW diesel combustion engine powers the front wheels only, whereas the electric engine (27 kW) powers the rear wheels. Hence the electric engine is used to transform the car into a 4WD for short time periods. The price in Austria is about 36,500 EUR including taxes.

Engine and fuel consumption The Peugeot 3008 HYbrid4 is equipped with a 2 litres, 120 kW Diesel engine and a 27 kW electric engine. It reaches a fuel consumption (New European Test Cycle) of 3.8 litres/100 km and 99 grams of CO2 per kilometre, respectively.


© Peugeot.com

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3.3

Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Toyota Prius PHEV type

The next generation of hybrid vehicles on the market are Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV). “PlugIn” indicates that the car can be charged with electricity from the grid. For that reason PHEV vehicles are equipped with a bigger battery than the HEV and hence enable driving over longer distances in pure electric mode. An example of this category is the Toyota Prius PHEV. Car Model

Battery type

Battery capacity

Pure electric range

Toyota Prius III

Nickel-metal hydrid

1.3 kWh

2 km

Toyota Prius Plug-In

Lithium-ion

5.2 kWh

25 km

Table 3: Battery capacity Toyota Prius

The battery of the Prius PHEV exactly has 4 times the capacity of the Prius (5.2 to 1.3 kWh). The Prius PHEV battery can be charged on the grid and enables pure electric driving of up to 25 km. The combustion engine is used in the same way as in the Toyota Prius and charges the battery if a lower level is reached or fuels the car on longer distance trips (> 25 km). Using a home charging station, the Prius PHEV needs 90 minutes to be fully reloaded. The price in Austria is about 37,500 EUR including taxes.

4WD type Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV

EV Drive Mode:

EV Drive Mode is an all-electric mode in which the front and rear motors drive the vehicle using only electricity from the drive battery.

Series Hybrid Mode:

In Series Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine operates as a generator supplying the electric motors with electricity. The system switches to this mode when the remaining charge in the battery falls below a predetermined level and when more powerful performance is required, such as accelerating to pass a vehicle or climbing a steep gradient such as a slope.

Parallel Hybrid Mode:

In Parallel Hybrid Mode, the gasoline engine provides most of the motive power, assisted by the electric motors as required. The system switches to this mode for higher-speed driving when the gasoline engine operates at peak efficiency. 1

Table 4: Driving Modes Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV

1

www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html


Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV consists of two electric engines – one on the front axis and one on the rear axis, a gasoline internal combustion engine and a 12 kWh lithium-ion battery. With this equipment the vehicle provides different modes of driving:

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3.4

Range Extender Electric Vehicles (REEV)

A special concept are electric vehicles that use a combustion engine attached to a generator in order to produce electricity to enable additional kilometres of driving. When the battery is running low, the internal combustion engine is started and powers a generator that feeds electricity to the electric motor and the battery. As the combustion engine always runs in the optimal number of revolutions per minute (rpm), the engine works very efficiently. This concept is for example used in the Opel Ampera, which has an electric range of up to 83 km and – using the internal combustion engine – a combined range of 500 km!

3.5

Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles

Similar to a range extender, also a fuel cell can be used for on-board production of for powering the vehicle. In a fuel cell hydrogen and oxygen react, producing an electric potential of about 0.6–1 Volt in one cell (BMLFUW 2008). To achieve a higher voltage, a number of these cells are assembled to form stacks. The only emission from a fuel cell is water in form of vapour. The engine efficiency of a fuel cell reaches 50% (Hofmann 2010). If a reformer is used, other energy sources can also be used to fuel the car, e.g.: • CNG • LPG • methanol • ethanol • dimethyl ether • Diesel • modified gasoline From these energy sources, the reformer produces hydrogen which is then used in the fuel cell. As the energy sources are not burned as in a combustion engine, no local emissions are produced. In general hydrogen which is produced internally through on-board auto thermal reformers offers little GHG benefit compared to advanced conventional powertrains or hybrids2.


The fuel cell system can be used solitaire to power the electric motor, or in combination with another engine. Hence different types of fuel cell vehicles are constructed:

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• • •

2

Fuel cell electric vehicles Fuel cell hybrid vehicles Fuel cell plug-in hybrid vehicles

Well-to-wheels analysis fo future automotive fuels and powertrains in the European context. Version 2c, march 2007, http://ies.jrc.ec.europa.eu/uploads/media/WTW_Report_010307.pdf

3.6

2-wheeler propulsion systems

Power assist – Pedelec bicycle type

Electric motors are also used in bicycles: a small motor delivers additional power while pedalling. The so called pedelec is the abbreviation of PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle. In Austria meanwhile every 10th bicycle that is sold, is equipped with an electric motor. There are a number of reasons why pedelecs are more and more chosen: • • • •

cycling with a pedelec is less exhausting in comparison to a conventional bike up-hills are easier to manage less sweating in the same time longer distances can be reached

These number of advantages helps to win new target groups for a sustainable way of driving. The electric motor assists when pedalling up to 25 km/h and some pedelecs recharge the batteries when going downhill (recuperation). Pedelecs normally have a range –- of 30–80 kilometres without recharging, depending on the model. The costs for a good quality pedelec are about 1,500–2,500 Euro, whereas energy costs amount only to 0.12 cent/km in comparison to 7.0 cent/km for a car (Koch 2012). Meanwhile there are hundreds of different models of pedelecs available on the market. Hence there have been established some websites to give a market overview, for example: www.extraenergy.org www.topprodukte.at


There are only a few power train producers for pedelecs on the market which are used by all (quality) bicycle manufacturers; these are predominately Bionics, Bosch and Panasonic.

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There exist three different solutions for the construction of pedelecs:

Rear wheel hub engine An electric wheel hub engine is installed in the rear wheel. This leads to better traction on slippery surfaces. On the other side, the handling of the bike is weak, as the engine is mounted in the rear part of the bicycle. © AEA

Middle engine

The engine is placed in the middle of the bike, which makes the handling easier. Costs are in general higher than for wheel hub solutions. © AEA


Front wheel hub engine

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This concept uses a wheel hub engine in the front wheel. The danger of slipping away is higher with this construction, as the front wheel is heavier and has only little traction, in comparison to the rear wheel. The concept is especially useful for bicycles which are used to carry children or also goods, as the front engine balances the bike.

© AEA

3.7

Systems for Scooters/Motorcycles

E-scooters are already mass-produced and are available from various vendors – although the selection from OEM manufactures is still very low. E-scooters have the potential to replace two-wheelers with internal combustion engines and hence reduce noise, CO2 emissions and air pollutants. One of the first e-scooters from an OEM manufacturer available in Europe is the Peugeot e-Vivacity.

Peugeot e-Vivacity

The Peugeot e-Vivacity is equipped with an 3kW electric motor. The range ist between 45 – 60 km. The Scooter is already available in Austria for 4.200,EUR.

© AEA

Also electric motor bikes are available on the market, e.g. the Vectrix or BMW.

BMW C_evolution

The BMW C_evolution is equipped with an 11kW electric motor delivering a peak performance of 35kW. The range of the vehicle is about 100km. It will be available in Austria from April 2013. © AEA

All these vehicles and also the BMW C_evolution use a rear wheel hub motor as an engine.

© AEA


Rear wheel hub motor

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4

Specifications of vehicles

In Austria financial incentives and purchase tax credits are offered for new cars with alternative propulsion systems: e.g. a tax credit of 500 EUR for hybrid vehicles. Electric vehicles are exempted from the purchase tax and the annual motor vehicle tax, resulting in about 4,000 EUR savings over five years. Fleet owners receive a funding if they change from conventional to electric vehicles. The rates of financial support are staggered according to the type of vehicle introduced, the level of CO2 reduction achieved and the amount of renewable energy used: Up to 4,000 EUR are granted for purchasing EVs, if powered with renewable energy, otherwise only 2,000 EUR. Since 2013 also PHEVs and REEVs are eligible within the new funding regime and get subsidies from 500 – 3,000 EUR, depending on the level of CO2 reduction and amount of renewable energy used. Pedelecs are granted with 200 resp. 400 EUR (when powered with green electricity), E-scooters get subsidies from 250 – 500 EUR. In Vienna electric duty vehicles get a subsidy of 10,000 EUR

Denmark has a number of preferential treatments for electric vehicles. BEVs and FCEVs are exempted from the registration tax until the end of 2015. This is an essential bonus, as the current Danish registration tax for passenger cars is very high (up to 180%) and is based on the value of the car plus VAT. Both categories are also exempted from annual tax until 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012). On the other side, there is no tax reduction on hybrid vehicles; therefore they are hardly sold in Denmark (DRD 2012).

Norway: Prices quoted are without destination charges (transportation etc. usually 7,000– 10,000 NOK / 937–1,339 EUR), but including a 2,400 NOK / 320 EUR end-of-life fee which will be returned to those who in the end deliver their vehicle for recycling or scrapping. Electric vehicles and hydrogen vehicles are exempted from VAT as well as from the vehicle purchase tax. Prices for plug-in hybrid vehicles include 25% VAT and the vehicle purchase tax. The vehicles purchase tax is levied on all vehicles with combustion engines. It is based on the weight of the vehicle, the combustion engine maximum power and the CO2 emission of the vehicle. In general, the sum of these taxes on PHEV vehicles is low, compared to gasoline and diesel vehicles. Hybrid vehicles in general, including plug-in hybrids, get a 15% deduction of weight (as of 01.07.2013) prior to the calculation of the weight tax because of the additional weight of the electrical systems and the battery. 24

The annual motor vehicle tax for electric vehicles is 405 NOK / 54 EUR. The tax is 2885-3360 NOK / 386450 EUR per year for vehicles with combustion engine. Electric vehicles are also subject to a reduced company car tax rate (50%).


Mark: Unless otherwise stated, the quoted car prices in the following section are minimum prices for end consumers, including all additional costs (e.g. taxes etc.). As a currency exchange value for NKK and DKK to EUR the average exchange rate in 2012 was used (1EUR=7,5DKK=7,47NOK).

25

4.1

Vehicles on the market

BEV drive

Bolloré Bluecar Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 30 kWh 150–250 km 365-170-161 12,000 EUR + 80 EUR/month for the battery)

©Bolloré

Smart ED Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 17.6 kWh 140 km 270-156-154cm 19,420 EUR

© AEA

Smart ED Brabus Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price


© Daimler

26

BEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 150 km 270-156-154cm n.a.

German E-Cars Stromos Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 19.5 kWh 120 km 372-166-159 cm 31,500 EUR

© AEA

Mia Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price

© mia electric

BEV Lithium-Ion 8/12 kWh 80/125 km 287-164-155 cm 27,952 EUR* 159,900 NOK (21,406 EUR) 186,900NOK** (24,920 EUR)

*) including 4.490 EUR for the battery **) version with 12 kWh battery

Mia L Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price

*) including 4.490 EUR for the battery **) version with 12 kWh batter


© mia electric

BEV Lithium-Ion 8/12 kWh 80/125 km 319-164-155 cm 30,036 EUR* 165,900 NOK (22,209 EUR) 192,900NOK** (24,920 EUR)

27

Citroen C-Zero Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 16 kWh 150 km 348-148-161 cm 27,588 EUR 169,900 NOK (22,653 EUR) 215,990 DKK (28,799 EUR)

Mitsubishi I-MiEV Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price © AEA

Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 16 kWh 150 km 348-148-161cm 29,500 EUR 168,300 NOK ( 22,440 EUR) 209,995 DKK (27,999 EUR)

BMW i3 Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price Price


© BMW

28

BEV Lithium-Ion 49 kWh 160 km 11/2013 35,700 EUR From 250,300 NOK (33,373 EUR)

Tesla Model S Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Price Price © Tesla

Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 60-85 kWh 390-502 km from 72,000 EUR 446,600 NOK (59,786 EUR) 563,000 DKK (75,067 EUR)

Renault Zoe Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h)

BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kWh 160 km 409-179-154

Price

20,780* EUR

Price

161,400** DKK (21,520 EUR)

© AEA

*) Battery for rent only: 79 Euro/month **)Battery for rent only starting by: 93 Euro/month

Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kWh 170 km 423-183-182 cm 24,360* EUR 204,000* NOK (27,200 EUR) 158,900* DKK (21,187 EUR)

© Renault *) Battery for rent only starting by 86,40 EUR, 715 NOK (96 EUR) or 789DKK (105 EUR)


Renault Kangoo ZE

29

Ford Focus BEV Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 23 kWh 160 km 436-186-148 cm 39,990 EUR 259,900 NOK (34,653 EUR)

Nissan Leaf Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price © AEA

Price


Renault Fluence ZE Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price


© AEA

30

*) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month

BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kWh 170 km 475-183-146 cm 25,950* EUR

Peugeot I-On Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price Price


VW E-up Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Available from Price Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 18.7 kWh 150 km 354-164-147 cm Autumn 2013 ~ 22,500 EUR 182,700 NOK (24,360 EUR)

© AEA

Plug-in Hybrid

Toyota Prius Plug-in Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price

PHEV Lithium-Ion 5.2 kWh 20 km (electric only) km in total n.a. 448-175-149 cm 37,920 EUR 327,300 NOK (43,640 EUR) Specifications of vehicles

© AEA

31

Volvo V60 Plug-in Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price

PHEV Lithium-Ion 12 kWh 50 km electric only km in total n.a. 463-186-148 cm 58,900 EUR 610,400 NOK (81,387 EUR)

© AEA

Range Extender Electric Vehicles

Opel Ampera Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price © AEA

REEV Lithium-Ion 16 kWh 83 km electric only 500 km in total 450-179-144 cm 45,900 EUR 369,900 NOK* (49,518 EUR) *) Campaign model sold fall 2013 for 349,900 NOK, this model used to cost more than 400,000

Chevrolet Volt Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price


© Chevrolet

32

REEV Lithium-Ion 16 kWh 61 km electric only 610 km in total 450-212-144 cm 42,950 EUR

Mitsubishi Outlander Plug-in RE Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price © AEA

Price

REEV Lithium-Ion 12 kWh 880 km in total 55 km electric only 465-180-168cm 48,000 EUR From 434,900 NOK (57,987 EUR)

Fisker Karma Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) © AEA

Price

REEV Lithium-Ion 20 kWh 83 km electric only 480 km in total 499-198-133 cm no longer sold

Quadricles

Renault Twizy 45/80*)

Size (l-b-h) Price Price Price

© AEA

BEV Lithium-Ion 6.1 kWh 120/100 km 234-124-145 cm 69,300 NOK (9,240 EUR) 6,990/7,690 EUR **)

58,540*** DKK (7,786 EUR) *) maximal Speed **) Battery for rent only: 50 to72 Euro/month *** Battery for rent only: 70 to 91 Euro/month


Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range

33

Buddy Electric Buddy Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price

BEV Ni-Mh n.a. 120 km 244-149-151 cm 169,900 NOK (22,744 EUR)

© AEA

Tazzari Zero Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price Price


© Moser Parts

34

BEV Lithium-Ion 14 kWh 150 km 288-155-140 cm 19,000 EUR 162,490 NOK (21,752 EUR)

Light Duty Vehicles

Goupil Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price © AEA

BEV Lead-Acid 8.6–19.2 kWh 60–100 km 322*-110-200 cm 4 m³/ n.a. kg 20,000 EUR

*) large edition: length 370 cm

Piaggio Porter Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Lead-Acid n.a. 110 km 337-139-187 cm 4 m³/450-540 kg 20,500 EUR

© AEA

Citroen Berlingo Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Zebra 23,5 kWh 120 km 414-172-182 cm 3.3 m³/500 kg 43,000 EUR

© Citroen

Peugeot Partner

Price Price

BEV Zebra and Li-Ion 22.5 kWh 170 km 414-196-183 cm 3 m³/ 600 kg 42.000 EUR with ZEBRA Battery

241,000 NOK (32,262 EUR) with Li-Ionen Battery

© Peugeot


Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity

35

Renault Kangoo ZE Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price Price

© AEA

BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kWh 170 km 423-183-182 cm 3.5 m³/650 kg 24,360 EUR* 190,000 NOK* (25,333 EUR)

*) Battery for rent only: 86,4 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114 EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway

Ford Transit Connect Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 28 kWh 130 km 428-180-181 cm 3.8 m³/410 kg n.a.

© AEA

Renault Kangoo MaxiZE Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price Price


© AEA

36

BEV Lithium-Ion 22 kWh 170 km 460-183-182 cm 3.5 m³/650 kg 26.400 EUR* 198,000 NOK (23,810 EUR)

*) Kangoo maxi Length 460 cm, Loading cap. 4,6 m³ **) Battery for rent only: 82 Euro/month in Austria, 855 NOK (114 EUR)/month for 36 month/20000 km lease in Norway

Mercedes Vito E-Cell Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 36 kWh 130 km 500-189-190 cm 600-850 kg n.a.

© Mercedes

Iveco Daily Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 34/51 kWh 90/140 km 508 (548)-188-226(263) cm

7.3–10.2 m³ ~ 100,000 EUR

© APA-OTS/Strasser

German E-cars Plantos Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Loading capacity Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 40 kWh 120 km n.a. 950 kg 79,500 EUR


© German E.cars

37

Electric Scooters

Peugeot e-Vivacity Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Length /Weight Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 3 kWh 60 km 123 cm /115 kg 4,199 EUR

© AEA

IO Scooter 1500 GT Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Price

BEV SiGel 1.7 kWh 60 km 170-88-127 cm 1.850 EUR

© io-scooter

Etropolis Future Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Length /Weight Price

BEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 70 km 180 cm /135 kg 2,195 EUR

© Etropolis


Honda EV-neo

38

Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Length /Weight Price © Honda

BEV Lithium-Ion 0.9 kWh 34 km 183 cm /110 kg n.a.

E-max 90S / 110S Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Length /Weight Price Price Price

BEV Silicon/Silizium4 x 12V / 60Ah 90 km 190 cm /160 kg 2,995 /3,295 EUR DKK NOK

Foto: : www.scooterman.at

4.2

Hydrogen fuel cells vehicles (in test projects)

Mercedes F-Cell 2011 model Drivetrain Max. Range

FCEV 400 km

© Daimler

Hyundai Tucson ix 35 Drivetrain Max. Range

FCEV 588 km


© Hyundai

39

4.3

Outlook: Vehicles to come

Audi e-tron Detroit Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Available from Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 49 kWh 250 km 393-178-122 cm n.a n.a

© AEA

BMW i8 Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

PHEV Lithium-Ion n.a 35 km electric only n.a. ~ 200,000 EUR

© BMW

Ford C-max Energi Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

PHEV Lithium-Ion n.a 32 km electric only n.a. n.a

© Ford


Ford Mondeo Energi

40

Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price © Ford

PHEV n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a. n.a.

Mahindra Reva NXR Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

BEV Lithium-Ion Lead-Acid n.a. 120 /80 km n.a. n.a.

or

© REVA

Mercedes B-class F-Cell Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price © Mercedes

FCEV Lithium-Ion n.a. 350 km n.a 11.500 NOK (1,539 EUR) /month*

*) Norway: Leasing only; excl. VAT

Mercedes SLS E-Cell Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 60 kWh 250 km June 2013 ~ 420,000 EUR


© Mercedes

41

Nissan NV200 van Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

© Nissan

BEV Lithium-Ion 24 kWh 175 km 2013*) n.a.

*) tested by FedEx in London

VW Golf Blue E-Motion Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Size (l-b-h) Available from Price


© AEA

42

BEV Lithium-Ion 26.5 kWh 150 km 420-179-148 cm n.a n.a

picture n.a.

VW Golf Plug-in Hybrid Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

picture n.a.

PHEV Lithium-Ion 8 kWh 50 km electric only 2014 ~ 25,000 EUR

VW Passat Plug-in hybrid Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

PHEV Lithium-Ion n.a 50 km electric only 2014 n.a

VW Caddy E-motion Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 26 kWh n.a 2014 n.a

© Volkswagen

Volvo C-30 BEV Drivetrain Battery Battery Capacity Max. Range Available from Price

BEV Lithium-Ion 24 kWh 150 km n.a. n.a.


© Volvo

43

4.4

Future costs of vehicles

The costs of electric vehicles are a major barrier for a broader market implementation at the moment. Depending on the car model, EVs cost up to 2.5 times more than comparable cars with internal combustion. Segment 1 Segment 2 Segment 3 Segment 4 Vehicle example Fiat 500 I-MiEV VW Polo Nissan Leaf Skoda Octavia EV Mercedes E-Class Opel Ampera Price [€] 10.490 26640 19145 30000 40606 48000 30451 42000 Performance [kW] 49 47 65 80 125 88 90 81 Energy costs [€/km] 0,06 0,03 0,07 0,03 0,097 0,03 0,09 0,03 Maintenance costs [€/km] 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 0,06 0,03 Range [km] > 500 144 > 500 160 > 500 160 > 500 160

Table 5: Indicators for conventional and electric vehicles in the reference scenario for 2013 (Umweltbundesamt 2012)

So the development of the prices will have a major influence on the future market chances of electric vehicles. The most important cost driver is the price of the battery. Source Technical University Vienna (Technische Universität Wien 2009):) Starting at 700 EUR in 2010, the prices decrease to less than one third till 2050.

Figure 1: Development of costs for lithium-ion batteries 2010–2050 (Technische Universität Wien 2009)


In this scenario, the development of fuel cell systems costs starts in 2020, as before this time line no mass market production is expected to happen.

44

Figure 2: Development of costs for fuel cell systems 2020–2050 (Technische Universität Wien 2009)

Source European Hydrogen Association (EHA) Another source regarding the development of costs is the study carried out by the European Hydrogen Association (McKinsey & Company 2011) using data from participating car manufacturers like BMW, Daimler, Ford, General Motors, Honda, Hyundai, KIA, Nissan, Renault, Toyota, and Volkswagen. Whereas the development of battery costs is predicted by EHA quite similar as by the source mentioned before, the development of fuel cell stack costs shows a different and much more optimistic picture, with a mean price for fuel stacks of 43 EUR/kw in 2020. The reason for this is that EHA expects a very soon FCEV mass market uptake with already 100,000 FCEV units installed by 2015 and 1,000,000 FCEV units installed by 2020.

Figure 3: Development of battery costs for batteries and fuel cell stacks (McKinsey & Company 2011)

The same source also shows the development for different types of drivetrains for cars from the Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) perspective. Whether a car seems to be expensive or not, not only depends on the sales price, but on all costs related to buying and running a vehicle. Cost categories considered in a TCO analysis (Österreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag 2012): Financing costs (depreciation, taxes, interest rate) Operating costs for fuel/energy Insurance costs Maintenance costs Administration costs for fleet operators like car selection processes and accounting Other costs (e.g. parking fees, road tolls, car washing etc.) Specifications of vehicles

• • • • • •

45

From this perspective, cars with internal combustion engine remain cheaper than electric vehicles in the near future, but price differences are balancing in the long run:

Figure 4: Total Cost of Ownership development for FCEV, BEV, PHEV, and ICE for C/D segment vehicles (McKinsey & Company 2011)

E-Car-Sharing


A different approach to reduce the costs of (electric) car driving is car sharing. There exist already a number of car sharing services with electric vehicles in Europe:

46

Autolib’ is a public car sharing-service with electric cars in Paris. The service was started in December 2011. The cars can be used for one way trips also. Meanwhile 1740 Bolloré Bluecars are running and are offered for rent at 1100 stations. 5000 charging points were installed. The target is to reach 3000 cars and 6000 charging points until 2020.

Autolib’ rates Package

Member fee

Rate

Autolib' 1 day

0 € / day

9€ per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 week

10€ / week

7€ per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 month

25€ / month

6.5€ per 1/2h

Autolib' 1 Year Premium

120€ / 1 year (10€/month)

5€ per 1/2h

Shared 16h Premium

100€ /month for 8h of shared utilization Number of included subscribers: 4 Package to share between 1 to 4 users, for a 2-month subscription.

Table 6: Rates for Autolib’ www.autolib.eu

Move About was founded in 2007 and has launched according to their own disclosures world's first public car sharing service with EV’s (in Oslo). Till now almost 100 electric vehicles are in operation in Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Germany. Main areas of the service are the cities of Oslo, Gothenburg, Helsingborg, and Copenhagen. Move About operates both public car sharing services and closed systems to corporate customers.

• • • • • • • • •

24/7 access to dedicated vehicles 24 hour roadside assistance a web based vehicle booking system individual contact-less access cards vehicle insurance maintenance and service change to summer / winter tires fill wiper fluid, check tire pressure, etc. regular cleaning – inside and out

www.moveabout.net


For a fixed monthly fee, Move About provides complete financing and service for companies, including:

47

Car2go is a subsidiary of Daimler AG that provides car sharing services in European and North American cities with Smarts. In Amsterdam Car2go operates 300 electric smarts, which are available for one way trips also. If the battery performance display sinks below 20% (shown on the round instrument on the left), the journey has to be stopped at the nearest charging station for reloading. Customers pay € 0,29 per minute and € 14,90 per hour. If the car is parked between drives the rate is € 0,19 per minute.


www.car2go.com

48

5

Locations for Charging Points

Electric vehicles require different charging habits than we are used from fossil vehicles. Charging electric vehicles takes much more time than filling up a conventional vehicle with gasoline. Thus charging electric vehicles is favourable when long parking times occur, like parking overnight at home or during work on the company site. Being on tour fast charging solutions are planned with a very high charging power to gain additional kilometres in short time. Home charging

Vehicles are charged at home with a standard plug or a wall box.

Figure 5: Wall box for home charging, © AEA

Normally only low charging power is used, as a conventional plug allows a maximum of 3.6 kW. The low charging power often is not a problem as the vehicles park all night long at home. So there is enough time to reload the batteries.

and

charging

New building projects often already consider new mobility. The picture shows a new building project in Vienna offering “Elektrotankstelle bei jedem KFZ-Stellplatz” – a charging facility for electric vehicles at every parking space.

© AEA


New buildings facilities

49

Company charging

Also company sites are well suitable for charging electric vehicles, as vehicles are parked often also for a long time.

Company charging

Picture shows a company parking area with solar modules as sun protection and power source. Electric vehicles can directly be charged with the power from the solar plant. © AEA

Semi-public charging (public garages)

Public garages are also a good place to recharge batteries.


Figure 6: A Toyota Prius Plug-In is charged in a public garage, © AEA

50

Public charging (charging points along the street or in public spaces)

Charging in public is the most critical location for charging electric vehicles and requires safe technical solutions.

Figure 7: Public charging in the model region for electric mobility in Vorarlberg, © AEA

Pathway charging:

Fast charging stations along travel routes bring additional 100 to 150 kilometres in only 20 minutes (VCÖ, 2009).

Fast food – fast charging

© Austrian Energy Agency


A Burger King outlet in Vienna offers fast charging while dining in the restaurant: Electric vehicles can be plugged to a Chademo fast charging station.

51

6

Description of charging systems

The most common way to recharge the batteries of electric vehicles is by connecting to the grid. The charging systems, plugs and sockets are still not completely standardized. Therefore the various options are introduced in the following. Charging systems can be divided according to the speed of charging. Normal charging gives 15–30 km of range per hour of charge, double speed charging 50 km, semi fast charge 120 km and fast charge typically 220–280 km/hour of charge. Ultra fast charge could be more than 400 km/hour of charge. Battery swap systems replace a discharged battery with a fully charged 24 kWh battery in only 3 minutes. For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the charging or battery swap station. In addition, the charging station could be occupied and one would have to wait for the charger (if it is a fast charger) or the battery swap station to be available which adds more time. Or worse, in the case of normal charging it may be necessary to drive to another charging station. This means that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially lower than the theoretical ones. The issue with occupied stations could be mitigated with real-time information and reservations systems.

6.1

Normal charging


Normal charging or slow charging is a term used when charging electric vehicles from standard household sockets or dedicated wallmounted charge stations (popular name wallbox), which gets its power feed from one of the regular household/building circuits.

53

Types of normal charging

Figure 8: Normal charge systems, (TØI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012, supplier websites

There are four types of slow charging, Mode 1, Mode 2 and Mode 3 conductive and inductive charging.


Mode 1 is essentially an electric cable between the vehicle and a power socket mounted on a wall or charge stand inside a garage or outdoors. The power socket will be part of a building installation consisting of a fuse protecting the cable installation and a ground fault interruption device. In older houses in Norway the entire electrical installation is protected with one ground fault interruption device. New installations have one in each fused circuit. This mode of charging has been used on older vehicles but is no longer in compliance with relevant European standards for charging electric vehicles. On the mains side the Schuko socket is used. This is not really rated for 16A continuously over many hours, so charging should be limited to 12-13A.

54

Mode 2 introduces a protection device mounted on the charging cable. This is called an Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE). It consists of a combined ground fault interruption device and circuit breaker, a maximum current limiting function and a pilot signal built into the cable going to the vehicle. The latter verifies that there is a proper ground connection between the vehicle and the EVSE. It also assures that when the vehicle is disconnected, the pilot signal is breached before the power is breached. This makes it possible for the circuit breaker in the EVSE to open before the power is breached and there is no risk of arching. This reduces fire risk and there is less wear on the connectors on the vehicle side. However, the mains side of the EVSE is not protected, so the user must keep in mind to first disconnect the vehicle side. The IEC standard introducing the use of EVSEs for charging electric vehicles specifies that the EVSE should be located within 30 cm of the mains plug of the cable. On the mains side the regular building installation socket (in Norway Schuko) is used. This is not really rated for 16A continuously so charging should be limited to 12-13A for a socket fused with 16A fuse.

Mode 3 conductive charging improves safety even more by moving the EVSE into the charge stand/wall installation making it a charge station. Normally this means that the cable to be used is attached to the charge station, but it is also possible to use a loose cable. The latter requires the use of a connector on the vehicles side and on the charge station side that has a built-in pilot signal circuit. This mode of charging station is the safest one as it protects the entire cable between the vehicle and the mains power. It is also possible to set up a 20A power supply to these charge stations, allowing them to provide 16A charge power continuously. Mode 3 inductive charging station is a device that is being developed and will come on the market in some countries from 2013. The electric power is transferred by inductive coupling across a narrow air gap between the transmitter on the garage floor and the receptacle under the vehicle. This means that charging proceeds without physical connection between the vehicle and the electrical installation of the garage. The system can employ manual or automatic docking to the receptacle device mounted on the floor inside the garage. The data-communication between the vehicle and the charging station uses a wireless protocol.

Infrastructure requirements

Mode 3 conductive charging is rather different in that it provides a dedicated electric vehicle charging infrastructure. The charging station, which often is called the wall box, is permanently attached to the buildings’ electrical installation. It is a requirement in the electrical code that this installation has to be done by an authorized electrician. Normally a dedicated circuit is used, protected by a 20A fuse in the buildings fuse box. In home charging units the cable is often permanently attached to the wall box, while in public places it would be possible to use a loose cable to connect to the wall box. This reduces risk of wear and tear on the public equipment and will probably be the preferred option as it also reduces the cost of the loose cable that comes with the vehicle. In workplaces with closed garage facilities, a wall box with built-in cable could be an option. The charge power will be up to 3.6 kW.


From the infrastructure side, mode 1 and mode 2 are equal. The mains socket that the charging cable is connected to is part of the buildings regular electrical system. Power sockets already installed in garages, outside buildings and in stands for power connection to engine block heaters can be used immediately. This allows a great number of people to start using electric vehicles quickly. There is however an issue with the Schuko plug system, 10A installations use the same socket as 16A installations. Some countries even use 13A. In mode 2 charging this can be solved by making different EVSE units for 10A, 13A and 16A installations, or providing a switch to select charge power on the EVSE unit or inside the car, so that the built-in charger limits it power draw to what the building installation can handle. All electric vehicles delivered today are equipped with a mode 2 charge cable as standard. This is a costly item born by the owner of the vehicle, not the infrastructure provider. The different car manufacturers have different policies. Some only deliver 10A limited cables, others only provide cables that require 16A circuits and that draw 13-14 A from the socket. For the user it is not possible to see if a Schuko socket is rated for 16A or 10A. In general, new installations would be 16A in Norway while older ones could be both. Power rating would be in the 2.3 to 3.2 kW range.

55

Mode 3 inductive charging is the only charging station type that offers the potential of fully automated charging, eliminating the need for a charge cord. From the infrastructure side however this looks the same as the other mode 3 charging systems. The receptacle is mounted on the floor of the parking area. This requires accurate positioning of the vehicle and this can be done manually with visual guidance aids or fully automatically by the vehicle (there are already vehicles on the market with an automated parking capability). The parking area must be dedicated to the electric vehicle. Snowy and icy roads could cause some issues with these systems, even if the power transmitting unit is mounted in a closed garage, as the underside of the vehicle with the receptor unit could be covered with snow. This might limit the systems usage to garages with temperatures kept above freezing.

In general, there could be a capacity issue if many electric vehicles are charged simultaneously in a residential area. The owner of the vehicle has the right to charge it from his existing household installation, as long as he stays within the maximum rating of the installations’ main fuse. Any capacity issue would then be the responsibility of the owner of the electricity distribution network. When installing many public charging stations in the same location, it is possible that the electric distribution network will need to be reinforced. This will have to be covered by the legal entity that sets up the charging stations (in Norway this is regulated by law).

6.2

Double speed charging

Some electric vehicles are equipped with double speed chargers that have to be connected to 230 V, 32A supply networks. This is available in private houses as the main fuse is rated at 32A but could require a higher capacity of the buildings’ electricity supply or require some sort of intelligent load shedding in the building installation (or delay in the charge start-up time to a period with low load on the electric distribution network). Apart from the higher power rating of up to 7.2 kW, the charge station will be a dedicated mode 3 wall box having the same EVSE functions as the 3.6 kW versions. Also an inductive charge station can be used for this charge level.


6.3

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22 kW semi fast charging

This charge mode is essentially the same as the regular fast charging mode with half the available power. The reasoning behind this charge level is that AC power level of 22 kW is readily available in many places (32 Amp, three phase 230 V AC) and that some applications do not require a higher charge rate. This charge power requires the use of mode 3 charging stations. This mode of charging is relevant for public charging stations for example outside shops, restaurants and other places where you would stay for an hour or two. This could also be used in fleet vehicle applications. Depending on the size of the building installation it is attached to, this may require reinforcement of the electric distribution network.

6.4

43-50 kW fast charging

Figure 9: Fast charging systems, (TØI 2013, based on Civitas Stavn 2012)

There are two main directions on fast charging, mode 3 AC with the charger inside the vehicle and mode 4 DC with the charger external to the vehicle. In many cases the installation of fast chargers requires electrical distribution network reinforcement, normally a bigger transformer in the connection point.

Mode 3 AC fast charging is the other main direction. From 2013/2014 vehicles with on-board fast chargers that require 43 kW AC supply (400 V, three phase, 63A) will come on the market. This will be a high power variant of mode 3 charging with dedicated charge stations, with an integrated charge cable for connection to the vehicle. Apart from the power level, the charge stations communicate with the vehicle using the same protocol as normal mode 3 charging and contain the same protective equipment, but off course with a higher power rating. The two options can be combined easily into "combo" chargers capable of delivering both types of AC and DC fast charge power. In Norway it has been reported that fast chargers only deliver about half of the power to the vehicles when it is cold in the wintertime, as the cold batteries are not capable of handling the full 50 kW charge power. This comes in addition to the range being drastically reduced in the winter due to the need to


Mode 4 electric vehicle charger stations are DC fast chargers providing DC power to the vehicles batteries. In this case the charger is external to the vehicle. The Chademo 50 kW DC charge standard is the most commonly used DC fast charging standard. Chargers of this type have been deployed in Norway. Up to 2012, this was the only type of fast charger that could be used by the vehicles sold in Norway. This includes the best-selling electric vehicles, Nissan Leaf, Mitsubishi I-MiEV, Peugeot Ion and Citroen C-zero.

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overcome higher resistive forces when driving and using electric energy to heat the vehicle. In addition the batteries available energy content could be reduced in cold weather conditions. In Norway a range reduction up to 50% in the coldest winter period can be experienced when these factors are combined.

6.5

Ultra fast charging

Charging above 50 kW is termed ultra fast charging. The vehicles need to be prepared for this charge level, as it is for example the Tesla Model S. Tesla Model S will be capable of charging at a charge rate of 90 or 120 kW at dedicated charge stations. The first stations were currently erected by Tesla in North America (23 stations) and Norway (6 stations)so far by october 2013. Only the Model S vehicles with the largest (85 kWh) battery packs or Supercharging -enabled 60kWh vehicles can use these stations. Tesla Superchargers are capable delivering up to 50% battery capacity in about 20 minutes and are, for Tesla drivers, free of charge.The charging stations are similar to the ones rated at 50 kW, apart from the higher power output. On the vehicle side this requires very efficient cooling of the battery. A quick roll-out of further Supercharge stations is planned in North America and Europe. In 2014 the network will according to Teslas plans expand into Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg, Austria, Switzerland and the UK.

6.6

Battery exchange

Rather than fast-charging electric vehicles, the infrastructure development company Better Place proposed to swap out the battery and replaced it with a fully charged one when the vehicle was undertaking a longer journey. Unfortunately Better Place went bankrupt and the battery swapping system is not in use anymore. The future development will show if there is a new chance for this idea, for the sake of completeness the system is explained in the following:


Better Place has developed battery swap stations that can replace batteries in less than 3 minutes. The advantage of the system was that it was much faster than fast charging. Only one vehicle was available with the battery swap system, the Renault Fluence.

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Better Place sold the vehicle without the battery. The customer then payed for an all-inclusive monthly subscription which includes the battery, access to the charging stations, the set-up of a wall box in the car owner’s garage, the electric energy used by the vehicle and warranty and insurance on the battery pack. The customer monthly fee was depending on the expected mileage driven. In 2013, Better Place was bankrupt and the battery swap system seemed to be closed down. But in autumn 2013 E.ON bought the charging stations as part of a strategic focus on green transportation in Denmark. „Until now, E.ON has been focusing on gas for heavy transportation. By investing in the already established charging infrastructure, the company takes a significant step towards realizing their ambitions for the EV market, which they consider to have an interesting potential in Denmark.“ Further details are unknown until now.

Figure 10: former Better Place Battery swap station, Source: Better Place Denmark

Charge type

Building installation requirement

Charge power (Typical with safety margin)

Normal charge

10A household socket 13A household socket 16A household socket 20A Wallbox charge station 32A Wallbox charge station 400V three phase 32A 400V three phase 63A Chademo charge station Tesla supercharge station Off board charging of swapped battery

2 kW 2.5 kW 3 kW 3.6 kW 7.2 kW 20 kW 40 kW 50 kW DC 90 or 120 kW New 24 kWh battery, which gives vehicle range up to 150 km, replaced in 3 minutes.

Double speed charge Semi fast charge Fast charge

Battery swap

Theoretical maximum km of driving per hour of charge in the summer 15 km 20 km 25 km 30 km 50 km 120 km 220 km 280 km ? 3000 km

For public charging stations one needs to add the time to deviate from the desired route to get to the charger or battery swap stations. In addition one may have to wait for the charging station to be available or drive to the next station if it is expected to be occupied for a long time period. This means that the effective kilometers one can get per hour of charge can be substantially lower than the theoretical ones. This is of course also true for internal combustion engine vehicles that need to deviate from the desired route to fill gasoline or diesel, but this only is needed every 500–1000 km whereas for electric vehicles this would be needed approximately every 100 km. In addition the waiting time is much smaller for the filling of gasoline or diesel as this only takes a few minutes for each vehicle and the network of filling stations is extensive.


Table 7: Summary of charging systems

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7

Vehicle to Grid

Most of the time vehicles are parking, on average 23 hours a day (VCÖ 2012). Energy suppliers see this as a big potential to buffer energy for short periods in vehicles. A big problem for energy suppliers is that electric energy is not always used in the same moment as it is produced. There are different reasons for this, e.g. -

electricity demand is lower than expected good weather conditions for wind or solar plants, which leads to an oversupply of electricity

Electric energy cannot be stored in the grid, so if it is not used it is lost. One way to solve this problem is to deploy pump power stations. In times of energy surplus, electricity is used to pump water uphill. If more energy is needed this water can then be used to produce electricity in a water power plant. Storing surplus energy in electric vehicles would be another option for buffering energy: Electric vehicles which are connected to a charging station receive energy from the grid in times when more energy than needed is produced. At a later time, when more energy is needed in the grid, the energy which was buffered in the vehicles batteries is transferred back into the grid. At the moment this concept is tested in pilot projects in Austria and Denmark.

Austria, Köstendorf In the model region Köstendorf in Austria “vehicle to grid” concepts are actually tested. Therefore about 60 houses were selected as core area for the project. Half of the houses have installed a PV system on the roof and 37 households use an electric car. Target is to demonstrate how the low voltage network can be kept stable if the PV systems are producing energy in combination with the operation of the electric cars. During sunshine periods the photovoltaic systems produce more energy than is consumed by the households in the area, and the electric cars offer an interesting opportunity for energy storage.

SMART LOW VOLTAGE GRID

Project partners: AIT, Salzburg Netz, Energie AG Netz, Linz AG Netz, Siemens, Fronius, TU Wien und BEWAG Duration: March 2011 – February 2014 www.smartgridssalzburg.at

Vehicle to Grid

© Salzburg AG

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Denmark, Bornholm On the island of Bornholm a smart grid concept is tested in a full-scale demonstration with 2000 households. Energy is mainly produced from renewable sources, mainly wind power (30 MW), biomass (16 MW), Photovoltaic (2 MW) and biogas (2 MW). Part of the project is also a vehicle to grid model, to buffer the energy from the different renewable sources in the batteries of the vehicles. By November 2012 there were 1058 registered EcoGrid EU households on Bornholm joining the project.

EcoGrid EU Project partners: The EcoGrid EU Consortium represents 16 partners with global industry experiences and also applied/industrial research competence. Duration: 2011 – 2015 www.eu-ecogrid.net

Vehicle to Grid

© eu-ecogrid.net

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8

Charging and hydrogen infrastructure

8.1

Infrastructure in Austria

An overview on Austrian charging stations is given on the website www.e-tankstellen-finder.com.

e-tankstellen-finder.com CEE 3 polig CEE 5 polig CEE 7 polig Typ2 Plug Home Plug Yazaki Typ1 XLR Stecker CHAdeMO Total

Province Salzburg Carinthia Vorarlberg Upper Austria Vienna Styria Lower Austria Tyrol Burgenland

Normal charge points 101 263 29 269 77 129 334 58 58

313 289 13 161 1,070 4 48 9 1,907

Fast charge points – Chademo 0 0 1 0 4 0 3 1 0

Table 8: Charging points in Austrian provinces

Another platform for charging stations in Austria is on the Website www.elektrotankstellen.net. At the moment there are 3,297 charging points listed on the platform. These are mostly gas stations, hotels, community organizations and also private households. There exists one public and two non public hydrogen stations in Austria.The public station was opened in October 2012 in Vienna and is managed by the Austrian oil company OMV. 1 kg of hydrogen costs 9 EUR. Filling up a Mercedes B-Class Fuel Cell vehicle therefore amounts to 33 EUR and provides a maximum range of 385 km. It is planned to open a second public hydrogen filling station in Upper Austria in the near future. This would set the first “hydrogen corridor” leading from Vienna to Germany. At the moment there exists 1 hydrogen car in Austria (Kurier 2012).


The existing charging stations are defined according to the provided plug. Actually there are 1,177 charging stations listed. Meanwhile also Germany, Spain, France, the Netherlands, Poland and Slovenia join this platform. In total about 1,800 charging stations are listed.

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Model regions for electric mobility

Within the Austrian Climate and Energy Fund the introduction of e-mobility is promoted by R&D projects and the pilot regions for e-mobility. These regions focus on electric vehicles powered by renewable energy sources and the integration of “vehicle use schemes” in combination with the public transport system. Users within the pilot regions pay a monthly “mobility rate” which includes not only the electric vehicle, but also the use of public transport. To date, eight pilot regions have been established reaching about 3.5 million people or 40% of the population of Austria. These model regions are the major drivers for the establishment of charging infrastructure in Austria: (1) in 2009 the Vorarlberg/Rhine valley region (VLOTTE Project) with 360 e-cars/LDVs and 120 charging stations; mobility services contracts including leasing of e-cars, railway/public transport pass, car sharing and free charging; provision of 20m2 photovoltaic power for each e-car; (2) in 2010 the Greater Salzburg Area with 100 e-cars and 750 e-bikes; ElectroDrive „e-mobility with the public transport pass“: leasing/purchasing concept for e-bikes, e-scooters, Segways and e-cars; free charging with „green electricity“ (photovoltaic; hydro-power); (3) the urban agglomeration of Graz: e-mobility Graz; goal 500 e-cars, 1200 e-bikes, 140 public charging points; e-mobility services packages for large fleet operators (vehicles, public transport, charging stations); (4) Vienna metropolitan area; e-mobility on demand; goal of 500 cars, 100 charging points; multimodal mobility and public transport pass with focus on commuters and fleet operators; renewable energy for 2000 e-cars; (5) The City of Eisenstadt and rural surroundings e-mobilised; focus on e-busses and e-taxis for commuters, wind energy. (6) e-mobility in Lower Austria: 49 municipalities, use of electric vehicles by commuters, promising last mile solutions; (7) The Austrian Post e-mobility delivery services in Vienna metropolitan and 12 regional distribution centres: 200 electric utility vehicles for postal mail delivery


(8) e-log in the City of Klagenfurt; promising e-logistics solutions with 200 electric vehicles (goal) with focus on SMEs.

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As a next step, particular attention will be given to linking the different pilot regions by facilitating interoperability of electric vehicles and charging stations. For all the pilot regions particular attention is given to further integration of e-mobility and public transport, the facilitation of multi-modal solutions and interlinking the different pilot regions to facilitate interoperability of electric vehicles and the charging infrastructure.


Figure 11: Pilot regions for electric mobility in Austria, www.e-connected.at

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Plans for expansion of infrastructure in Austria

The European Commission has published a proposal for the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure in Member States (European Commission 2013). The proposal foresees: • •

Minimum number of recharging points for EVs reaches set values per Member States, with at least 10% publicly accessible Hydrogen refuelling points to connect those already existent in Member States, with maximum distances of 300 km

According for Austria the set value is 116,000 charging points, wherefrom 12,000 shall be publicly accessible.

8.2

Infrastructure in Denmark

Two major companies are pushing the build-up of a charging infrastructure in Denmark.

www.clever.dk


CLEVER is a Danish electric mobility operator (EMO) owned by the utilities SE and SEAS-NVE. Customers who buy an E-car get a charging station at home and access to other charging stations. CLEVER also sells charging stations to companies, shopping centres and municipalities. At the moment they provide about 60 charging stations around Denmark, 28 of them in Copenhagen. Next steps are to increase the number of normal charging stations to 300, and to build up a quick charging infrastructure (ChaDeMo) with 60 stations (DRD 2012).

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Shell is the first petrol company with fast Charging stations. The e-vehicle operator Clever is setting up fast charging stations at 15 Shell petrol stations in the bigger cities of Denmark. The project is made together with VW, which are putting VW e-Up! at the market.

Better Place Denmark

E.ON

The German energy utility company E.on has bought 770 recharging stations, from the bankrupted company Better Place in September 2013, due to a greater focus on green transport solutions in Denmark. Better Place invested heavily in the battery-swapping technology, but the German company has decided against continuing with that research and chose not to purchase Better Place’s 18 battery-swap stations.


In June 2011 the first 700 bar hydrogen station was opened in Holstebro. It enables refuelling of cars in only 3 minutes (IA-HEV 2011). 2 more stations of this kind are planned for the near future in the city of Copenhagen preparing for a market introduction of FCEV in 2015 (IEA-HEV 2012).

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8.3

Infrastructure in Norway

Electric vehicle recharging network

Publicly available electric vehicle charging stations in Norway In Norway the electric vehicle association has been in charge of establishing an online database of publicly available recharging stations for electric vehicles. The last years this work has been supported by the government body Transnova. The database is available free of charge to developers of applications, for instance information services and navigation systems. The database has been built up in the early days by the pioneers of electric vehicle driving, reporting charge station locations and characteristics directly in the database. Transnova has required everyone they have supported with funding for the establishment of charging stations, to register the funded stations in the database. As of November 2013 the database contains 4029 regular charge points in over 1000 locations as well as 127 fast charge points (mostly 1 in each location, some are under construction), serving a total of about 16,000 electric vehicles (including a few plug-in hybrid vehicles) in the vehicle fleet. The split between the provinces is shown in the table.


Province

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Akershus Aust-Agder Buskerud Finnmark Hedmark Hordaland Møre og Romsdal Nord-Trøndelag Nordland Oppland Oslo Rogaland Sogn og Fjordane Sør-Trøndelag Telemark Troms Vest-Agder Vestfold Østfold Total

Normal charge points 771 99 241 14 79 565 84 68 57 62 977 242 90 283 100 31 55 65 146 4029

Fast charge points – Chademo Existing and under-construction 32 1 11 0 6 13 3 4 2 5 13 18 1 5 0 2 3 8 127

Table 9: Charging points in Norwegian provinces. Source: www.gronnbil.no, stand 12.11.2013

The database is always up to date, and given the rapid development in Norway, the number of stations is increasing every week. Database: www.ladestasjoner.no/

Home charging Owners of electric cars normally have access to home charging facilities that could take the form of a household type socket in the garage, carport or on the building wall next to the parking place for the vehicle. In Norway 58% of households have a garage or a carport. Another 25% of the households have a dedicated parking place. So access to or the possibility to establish charging facilities for mode 2 and mode 1 charging in the home environment, should in general be good in Norway. Of course there could be challenges with establishing charging for some of these, for instance parking facilities in apartment houses and in housing cooperatives, also the dedicated parking could be away from the house/apartment. Workplace charging Workplace charging facilities may or may not be included in the database of charging stations, that the electric vehicle association keeps updated. It depends on whether the charging station has been reported to the database. In general, they want it to be available in the database. There is a filtering option that allows you to see only the charging stations that are open access. In 2005 79% of Norwegian employees had access to limitless free of charge parking, another 8% with space limitations and 4% with parking charges. It therefore should be no problem to establish a workplace charging infrastructure to support electric vehicles. In some places there are already power outlets for engine block heaters available. These can also be used for mode 1 and mode 2 charging of electric vehicles. Parking free of charge, always available places

79%

Parking free of charge, limited number of places

8%

Parking with fee owned by employer

4%

Public road, square, no parking charges

4%

Public road, square with parking charges

2%

No parking

1%


Table 10: Workplace parking facilities in Norway, Source: TØI, Norwegian travel survey 2005

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Charging stations in the Kongsberg region

In Kongsberg there are 24 normal charge points available at 6 different locations. There are 2 fast charge points available in 1 location.

Figure 12: Location of charging points in Kongsberg. Source: www.gronnbil.no

In the greater Kongsberg region extending towards the south western municipalities around Oslo (Nedre Eiker, Drammen, Lier, Røyken, Asker, Bærum) and including Oslo the total number of normal charge points in the region is 1481 and there are 25 fast charge points.

Figure 13: Location of charging points Greater Kongsberg-Oslo Region. Source: www.gronnbil.no


Municipality

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Normal charge points

Fast charge points

Kongsberg

24

2

Nedre Eiker

34

0

Drammen

89

0

Lier

17

3

Røyken

4

0

Asker

44

6

Bærum

292

1

977

13

Total greater region

Kongsberg

Table 11: Number of charging points Greater Kongsberg Region. Source: www.gronnbil.no

It makes sense to treat the area of Kongsberg to Bærum and Oslo as one region as there is a lot of cooperation between engineering companies in this Norwegian "engineering region". This generates transport along a southwestern axis. The distance between the Oslo centre and Kongsberg is84 km, within driving distance of modern electric vehicles.

Hydrogen infrastructure in Norway

In January 2013 a total of 5 hydrogen filling stations were in operation for passenger cars and 1 station for buses. These are located in the following areas: Herøya in Porsgrund municipality, Kjelstad outside Drammen City, Akershus EnergiPark in the municipality of Lillestrøm 20 km north of Oslo, and 2 stations in Oslo at Gaustad and Økern along the main ring road (Ring 3) around Oslo. The Bus station is at the bus depot at Rosenholm just outside of Oslo, serving a bus route to Oslo centre. 4 of the hydrogen stations were built up for serving the national research program "Hynor". The 5th station at Gaustad served the EU-project "H2-moves Oslo". The bus station is part of a EU project called "CHIC- Clean Hydrogen in European Cities". Most of the stations for passenger cars were built for demonstration purposes and have the capacity to dispense only about 25 kg Hydrogen/24 hour period. An exception is the station at Herøya which gets by-product hydrogen through a pipe from the industrial chloride production at Rafsnes. This pipe has a large spare capacity. The future of the filling stations for passenger cars is unsure, as the industrial partners in the projects that erected them, backed out of all hydrogen activities in 2012 and new partners have not been found.


All stations, apart from the one at Akershus EnergiPark, are now run and owned by a new company called HYOP. HYOP have received intermediate funding support from various funding agencies and municipalities to keep the filling stations operational. The bus station is part of a 5 year project.

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9

Costs of infrastructure

The cost data has been compiled in Norway. Norway is a high-cost country and in general lower installation costs would be expected in other European countries, but the cost of the charge station and other electrical equipment itself should not be much different.

9.1

Normal charge

Home charging

The cost of the infrastructure for mode 1 and mode 2 normal charging is zero in the cases where existing household sockets can be used. The cost of installing a new domestic outdoor/garage 16A Schuko socket for mode 2 charging could be around 270–4003 EUR excl. VAT, but also higher cost can occur, depending on the need for new circuits and fuses in the buildings electrical installation. Wallboxes for mode 3 charging cost 1,770 EUR excl. VAT in 2011 including standard installation costs (up to 5 meters distance from available fused 20A circuit)4. In fall 2012 a new supplier offers this standard installation for 1,060 EUR5. It should be noted that if a new fused electrical circuit from the fuse box is needed, then at least another 340 EUR is added bringing the total to 1,460–2,170 EUR. Public charge stations

In Norway a big government-financed program for the support of infrastructure build up for electric vehicles was undertaken in 2009–2011 as part of the 2009 financial crisis mitigation effort. The program was operated by the government body Transnova. The program had a total scope of 6.7 million EUR and resulted in the establishment of 1,900 charge points supporting mode 1 and 2 charging. The total cost of the charge stations was 100% reimbursed with a maximum limit of 4,000 Euro. In Denmark Better Place has spent private venture capital on the initial developments of their charging station and battery swap station network, but recently they received a loan from the European Investment Bank providing 30 million EUR for further expansion in Denmark6. Better Place Denmark also received some 4.95 million EUR of funding from the European Union infrastructure development Ten-T program for pilot projects in Denmark and the Netherlands7.

3

Average 2012 currency rate of 1 EUR = 7,47 NOK, source:_www.norges-bank.no Press release from Nissan and proXLL 23.08 2011. 5 Salto AS 6 Better Place sikrer lån på 300 millioner DKK fra den Europæiske Investeringsbank, Press release Better Place Denmark, 28.aug.2012 7 Greening European Transportation Infrastructure for Electric Vehicles, 2010-EU-91117-M, factsheet updated Feb 2011. 4


The cost summary of the program is shown in the diagram. Total average cost of 1,126 charge points, for which total cost data was available, was 2,680 EUR excl. VAT. The lowest cost charge stations could be lockable household outlets in a car park, whereas the most expensive ones would be curb side stands with the need to do excavation along the road to a nearby connection point for the grid. Note that the most expensive spots with costs above 4,000 EUR have been curbed at 4,000 EUR in the calculations, as the real cost is not known. Transnova in that case paid out the maximum cost of 4,000 EUR (in the documentation available, the total real cost is not shown when it exceeds 4,000 EUR), leaving the

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balance to the applicant to cover. This is a minor uncertainty in the average cost estimate of 2,680 EUR. Not many stations were above 4,000 EUR and those that were, were in general not far above. In general 2,680 EUR excl. VAT can be seen as an estimate of average charge station cost for a diversified infrastructure program where charge stations are being built in parking facilities indoors and outdoors as well as curbside along the public roads. The costs are probably on the high side as there was no incentive in the program to minimize the costs. With a lower maximum limit, there would have been more pressure on the applicants to find cheap locations so that a lower average cost could have been achieved, this can also be seen in the diagram below.

Figure 14: Norwegian cost data – Normal charge mode 1 and mode 2 charge stations 100% financed by the government body Transnova


There was no visible trend with regards to multiple charge station applications having a lower cost. Rather costs appear to be completely independent of number of stations as seen in the diagram. This may be because if you put up many stations in one location you reduce the construction costs but may end up having to re-enforce the electrical distribution network, thereby adding costs. Also the material cost would be the same.

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Figure 15: Cost of charge station vs. number of stations per application

9.2

Fast charge

The cost of building fast charge stations will vary depending on the location of the station. In locations where there is spare capacity in the grid, costs are limited to the charge station itself and the construction work. If there is no spare capacity in the grid in the proposed location, then the grid supplier can demand an investment contribution to pay for the cost of the added required installations in the grid, for example a new or upgraded transformer. In the case of no investment contribution, costs would be in the range of 67,000–134,000 EUR. In the case with investment contribution the cost would in general be at the level of 134,000 EUR excl. VAT but could also be even higher.

The owners of the fast chargers are using different business models. Some offer a monthly subscription with the addition of a small cost per minute of charging. In this case non-subscribers pay a high cost per minute of charging. Others only charge a set rate by the minute or per kWh or for a fixed time period. In the introduction period some fast chargers have been free of charge. In the table below some examples of user costs are given.

8

Meråker kommune, saksfremlegg 2012/60-5, Søknad fra Green Highway om tilskudd til bygging av hurtigladestasjon for el-biliMeråker. Cost estimated to be 33 000 NOK/year. 9 Alternative forretningsmodeller for etablering av hurtigladestasjoner - Del 2, Report R-2012-007, Pöyry


Little is known about the running costs and maintenance costs. It seems that early estimates for maintenance (not including electricity cost) are in the region of 4,400 EUR8 and 5,350 EUR/year9 excl. VAT, but no real numbers from day to day operations have been presented yet.

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Operator Nissan dealer Birgen N. Haug Eidsiva (Energy company) EV Power (EV infrastructure provider) Fortum (Energy company) Statoil ASA (fuel retail, filling station owner and operator)

Price per charge incl. VAT 5.75 EUR/15 minutes 5.9 EUR/15 minutes 13.4 EUR per charge for those that have a subscription of 6.6 EUR /month 4 EUR/charge

Comments Leaf owners pay 3.35 EUR

Also offers subscription of 40 EUR /month for unlimited access

5.9 EUR/15 minutes

Table 1: Cost of fast charging in Norway, the operators in general have fast chargers in different regions, explaining the big variation in pricing (Source: Figenbaum and Kolbenstvedt 2013.

9.3

Battery swap and charge stand access cost

Better Place Denmark, bankrupt 2013, offered an all-inclusive battery rental and access to battery swap and charge stations including cost of electricity monthly rental subscription. The cost depended on km driven per year and the rental period length. The fee for 20,000 km/30 months was 254 EUR per month. This could be compared with Renault lease cost for the battery of 117 EUR/month for 20,000 km/30 months. Renaults offer does not include electricity costs nor access to charge stations or battery swap stations. Typical electricity costs of 0.2 EUR/kWh and an electricity consumption of 200 Wh/km adds up to 67 EUR per month.


Then the rough estimate for Better Place Denmark, cost of access to charge stations and battery swap stations was: 70 EUR/month.

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9.4

Summary of charging station costs

Norway: Type of charge

Installation

Domestic socket in garage/on wall for mode 1 and 2 Normal charge

Wallbox for mode 3 Wallbox for mode 3 with new circuit

Investment cost excl. VAT

270–400 EUR 1,070–1,340 EUR 1,470–1,740 EUR

Maintenance cost per station

Electricity costs (incl. taxes)

0

0.13 EUR/kWh 0.13 EUR/kWh 0.13 EUR/kWh

0 0

Normal charge public area, mode 2, without payment system and no communication

Average costs of 1126 charging stations built in Norway 2009 for mode 1 and 2 charging

2,680 EUR

19 EUR

0.13 EUR/kWh

Normal charge public area, Mode 3 type 2 equipment

Robust EVSE unit, Wallbox or stand, mode 3 type 2 with communication and payment system

Estimated: 4000-7000 Euro

No data, estimated 100-600 EUR

0.13 EUR/kWh

Fast charging

Chademo DC 50 kW charger

67,000–134,000 EUR

Better Place Denmark battery exchange and charge stand access cost estimate

Battery swap station and charge stations networks as employed by Better Place in Denmark up to 2013

Part of the subscription cost

5,350 EUR

Special rates could apply

User costs including taxes 0.13 EUR/kWh

0.13 EUR/kWh 0.13 EUR/kWh Normally free of charge (covered by owner of facility) or included in parking fee Business model is not known yet.

4–13.4 EUR per charge, many limit charge time to 15 min. One operator offer unlimited access for 40 Euro/month. Rough estimate was 70 EUR month

Table 12: Charging station costs in Norway

Type of charge

Installation


private station semi public public

Mode 3, 3.7 – 11kw Mode 3, 3.7 – 11kw Mode 3, 3.7 – 22kw Chademo DC 50 kW charger

200-5,000 EUR 200-4,000 EUR 4,000-21,000 EUR

Maintenance cost per station 150-500 EUR 80-450 EUR 500-1400 EUR

20,000 – 40,000 EUR

n.a.

Fast charging

Table 13: Charging station costs in Austria (Technische Universität Wien 2012)


Austria:

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Denmark: Type of charge

Installation

Better Place Denmark battery exchange and charge stand access cost estimate

Battery swap station and charge stations networks as employed by Better Place in Denmark


Table 14: Costs of Better Place in Denmark

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Maintenance cost per station

Part of the subscription cost

Electricity costs (incl. taxes)

User costs including taxes Rough estimate is 70 EUR month

2WD 4WD AC AEA BEV BMS C CHAdeMO

CNG CO2 DC DKK DRD EHA EUR FC FCEV GH2 GHG H2 ICE kg km kWh LH2 LIB LNG Ni Mh NiCd NOK NOx OEM p.a. Pedelec PHEV PM TCO TOI V V2G VAT Wh ZEBRA 10

2-wheel-driving 4-wheel-driving Alternating Current Austrian Energy Agency Battery Electric Vehicle Battery management system Celsius This brand name for fast charging stations is an abbreviation for the Japanese expression “O cha demo ikaga desuka” translating to English as "How about some tea?", referring to the time it would take to charge a car as CHΛdeMO charging stations can charge a car in less than half an hour.10 Compressed Natural Gas Carbon Dioxide Direct Current Danish Krone Danish Road Directive European Hydrogen Association EURO Fuel Cell Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Gaseous Hydrogen Greenhouse Gas Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Kilogramme Kilometre Kilowatt -hour Liquefied Hydrogen Li-Ion batteries Liquefied Natural Gas Nickel Metal Hydride Nickel Cadmium Norwegian Krone Nitrogen Oxides Original Equipment Manufacturer Per annum PEDal-ELECtric-Vehicle Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Particulate Matter Total Cost of Ownership Transportøkonomisk institutt (Norway) Volt Vehicle-to-Grid Value-Added Tax Watt-hour Zero Emission Battery Research Activities

http://www.chademo.com/01_What_is_CHAdeMO.html

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Table of Literature Books & Reports: Austrian Energy Agency – AEA (2009a): Pre-Feasibility-Studie zu „Markteinführung Elektromobilität in Österreich“, Wien 2009 Austrian Energy Agency – AEA (2009b): Potenziale und Chancen der Elektromobilität im Land Salzburg, Wien 2009 Austrian Energy Agency – AEA (2011): Machbarkeitsstudie zur Förderung von elektrischen Nutzfahrzeugen in Wien, Wien 2011 BMLFUW – Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (2008): klimafreundlich mobil, Exhibition Catalogue, Vienna 2008 BMLFUW – Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management (2012): Klimafreundlich elektrisch unterwegs, Vienna 2012 BMLFUW, BMVIT, BMWJF (2012): Electromobility in and from Austria, Vienna 2012 Civitas Stavn (2012): Helhetlig utbyggingsplan for infrastruktur til ladbare biler i Fylkene Akershus, Hedmark, Oppland og Østfold, 15.05.2012. Deborah Gordon, Daniel Sperling, David Livingston (Gordon et. al. 2012): Policy Priorities for Advancing the U.S. Electric Vehicle Market, Washington D.C. 2012 Erik Figenbaum and Marika Kolbenstvedt (2013): Electromobility in Norway - experiences and opportunities with Electric vehicles. Institute of Transport Economics, TOI report 1281/2013. European Commission (2013): Proposal for a directive of the European Parliament and of the Council on the deployment of alternative fuels infrastructure, Brussels 2013 Fraunhofer-Institut (2012): Produkt-Roadmap – Lithium-Ionen-Batterien 2030, Karlsruhe 2012 Green Highway (2012): Elbil- och laddhybridguide, 2012 IA-HEV (2008): Hybrid and electric vehicles: The electric drive gains momentum; 2012 IA-HEV (2012): Hybrid and electric vehicles: The Electric Drive Captures The Imagination; 2012 Klima- und Energiefonds (2012a): Monitoring Modellregion VLOTTE, Summary Vienna 2012 Klima- und Energiefonds (2012b): Statusbericht der E-Mobilitätsmodellregion Eisenstadt e-mobilisiert, Vienna 2012

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McKinsey & Company (2011): A portfolio of power-trains for Europe: a fact-based analysis, 2011

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Ministerium für Wirtschaft und Energie Nordrhein-Westfalen (2010): Wasserstoff: Nachhaltige Energie – mobil, stationär, Nordrhein-Westfalen 2010 Norwegian travel survey (2005) Österreichischer Wirtschaftsverlag (2012): Fuhrparkhandbuch Kompendium 2012, Wien 2012

ÖVK – Österreichischer Verein für Kraftfahrzeugtechnik (2012): Batterieelektrische Fahrzeuge in der Praxis, Wien 2012 Peter Hofmann (2010): Hybridfahrzeuge – ein alternatives Antriebskonzept für die Zukunft, Wien 2010

Technische Universität Wien (2012): SOL - Studie für die Organisation der zukünftigen Ladeninfrastruktur für EFahrzeuge in Österreich, Wien 2012 Technische Universität Wien (2009): ELEKTRA: Entwicklung von Szenarien der Verbreitung von PKW mit teil- und vollelektrifiziertem Antriebsstrang unter verschiedenen politischen Rahmenbedingungen, Wien 2009 Technische Universität Wien (2008): ALTANKRA: Szenarien der (volks-) wirtschaftlichen Machbarkeit alternativer Antriebssysteme und Kraftstoffe im Bereich des individuellen Verkehrs bis 2050, Wien 2008 TOI (2012): Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles - Exhaust emissions and user barriers for a Plug-in Toyota Prius, Oslo 2012 Umweltbundesamt (2012): Elektromobilität in Österreich - Determinanten für die Kaufentscheidung von alternativ betriebenen Fahrzeugen, Wien 2012

Newspapers, Magazines and Press Relaeses Kurier (17.10.2012): 1. Wasserstoff-Tankstelle: "Künftig tanken wir Kilos", Wien 2012 ÖAMTC (2013): Auto Touring Jan/2013, Wien 2013 th

VCÖ (2012): Carsharing rechnet sich unter 12.000 Autokilometer pro Jahr, Press release from Sep 19 , 2012

Presentations: Danish Road Directive (2012): E-vehicles and transport in Denmark: An overview, Copenhagen 2012 Helmut Koch (2012): The Austrian Cycling Masterplan and E-Bike Boom, Moscow 2012

Webpages: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zebra_battery#ZEBRA http://www.chademo.com/01_What_is_CHAdeMO.html http://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html

http://www.ots.at/presseaussendung/OTS_20121017_OTS0143/omv-eroeffnet-erste-oeffentlichewasserstofftankstelle-oesterreichs-bild http://www.smartgridssalzburg.at/forschungsfelder/stromnetze/smart-low-voltage-grid/ www.autoverbrauch.at

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http://www.mitsubishi-motors.com/publish/pressrelease_en/motorshow/2012/news/detail0853.html

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www.ecodrive.org www.e-connected.at www.extraenergy.org www.h2euro.org

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www.topprodukte.at

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