Youth Participation in the Eastern Caribbean

Journal of Education and Development in the Caribbean Vol. 11, No.2, 2009

60

Corin Bailey

Youth Participation in the Eastern Caribbean Corin Bailey The University of the West Indies, Barbados

ABSTRACT The participation of high school students in extra-curricular activities is an issue of increasing interest in much of the developed world. There is a growing consensus that youth participation in such activities has beneficial effects on many facets of development. Using data collected from four countries in the Eastern Caribbean, this paper, based on a UNICEF sponsored project, seeks to fill this gap. The study found that student involvement in extra-curricular activities was relatively high in most of the countries, but male participation overwhelmingly took the form of sports. Despite the benefits of sporting involvement, it is argued that attention must also be paid to those activities that mirror adult civic involvement. Participation among male students in particular, in Student Councils was low. School administrations must therefore raise the profile of these councils as they represent the most viable option for effective, practical citizenship education in the Caribbean.

Introduction Throughout the Caribbean, as in the rest of the world, there is growing concern about the disillusionment of the youth, the alienation of boys from the education process, and their increasing involvement in deviant

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behaviour. Schools are gradually becoming fortified spaces and not the safe places that are essential if students are to develop healthy relationships. Several models have been developed to meet these problems with the emphasis determined by the perception of the problems facing the young. Two models are frequently emphasized. The informal education model covers a range of activities which have in common meaningful interaction between young people and adults. In the school setting, extra curricular activities belong to this model. More recently, governments have been placing an emphasis on the citizenship model which stresses the rights and obligations of citizens and provides opportunities for the young to become active citizens within their societies. Governments have turned to the education system to assist in citizenship education. In England, citizenship education is defined as education which combines community involvement with social and moral responsibilities and political literacy (Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1998) and it is a statutory part of the National Curriculum for secondary schools. In the Caribbean, Social Studies is seen to have a vital role to play in formal citizenship education. However, in a study undertaken for UNESCO (Howe and Marshall, 1999) the authors opine that for Social Studies in the Caribbean to meet this challenge, fundamental changes would be necessary to the manner in which the subject is conceptualized, supported and taught. There should be less emphasis on knowledge intake and more on the acquisition of skills and the development of values that are consistent with democracy. However, these, by themselves would not be enough to achieve the goal of citizenship education. Students must actively participate in social tasks and activities, and out-of class activities sanctioned as a vehicle for the teaching of Social Studies (Howe and Marshall, 1999). This paper focuses on the informal learning model and the extent to which students participate in extra curricular activities in the Caribbean. The term ‘extra-curricular’ is defined as a school activity, outside the normal course of study, in which students can participate. This can take the form of sports, drama, music or any other club or activity.

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Youth Participation Despite early, inconsistent results on the effect of extra-curricular activities on students’ performance there is general agreement today that students derive many and varied benefits from their involvement in them, and that such activities should be regarded as an integral part of a well-structured educational programme (Guest and Schneider, 2003). Programmes such as sports, music, the arts and Student Councils are particularly beneficial when they are monitored by adults, and students have the opportunity to develop supportive relationships with their teachers, and interact with them in situations outside the formal classroom setting. These activities are increasingly being seen as a solution to some of the problems that assail youths, especially those living under stressful social and economic conditions (Fredericks and Eccles, 2006). Student Councils developed from the belief that since students are not legal members of the society — in the sense that they cannot vote and cannot be taxed — the most schools could do is provide the training for the roles they would have to assume in their adult lives. They offer opportunities for practising habits of citizenship. As an extra-curricular activity, they have a special role to play and have become established in schools in most developed countries as well as in the Caribbean. As a result, the role of this organization will receive special attention in the present study. A number of researchers have documented a variety of positive outcomes with student involvement in school-based activities. Vandell, Resiner and Pierce (2007) followed 3,000 students from low-income families in eight states in the United States of America for two years. They reported that regular participation in after school programmes was associated not only with significant gains in standardized test scores and work habits but also with reductions in behavioural problems. Intermittent participation was associated with developmental risk for disadvantaged youths. Cooper, Valentine and Lindsay (1999) saw a positive relationship between the amount of time spent in extra-curricular activities and scores on tests of academic achievement although at the very highest levels of engagement, scores dropped. The relationship is therefore curvilinear (Mahoney and Cairns, 1997). Cooper et al. also reported an association

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between lower levels of involvement and risky behavior and felt that a high level of involvement was especially beneficial to high risk students. Similar results were reported by Fredricks and Eccles (2006) as well as Dotterer, McHale and Crouter (2007). However, Vandell et al. (2007), linked the positive outcomes to well-structured, high quality, after school programmes in which staff were well trained, there was low youth-tostaff ratios and strong connection with parents. Several reasons have been advanced for the beneficial effects of after school activities. The context, Fredricks and Eccles (2006) argued, shares features that are linked positively to development. It involves adult leadership, regular participation schedules, opportunities for participation, sustained attention, skills development and clear feedback. Some students may not have learned how to persevere, to negotiate differences, to handle criticism from adults or teasing from peers. When students choose to participate, the activity is likely to be one that they are good at or one which holds their interest. They therefore have the opportunity to demonstrate effort, persistence, develop confidence and self esteem and these attributes and social skills help them in the classroom (Mahoney & Cairns, 1997; Fredericks & Eccles, 2006). They see teachers in a different light and develop a meaningful relationship with them. Extremely important also is the fact these activities become the gateway to conventional social networks and facilitate membership in prosocial peer groups which share norms and values (Mahoney and Cairns, 1997; Fredericks and Eccles, 2006). The more time the student spends in these activities, the less time he has to engage in problematic behaviours. In recent years, there has been considerable research attention on the benefits of participation in school sports (Stern, Bradley, Prince and Stroh 1990; Harrison and Naraya, 2003; Pyle, McQuivery, Brassington and Steiner, 2003; Yan and Mccullagh, 2004). A study of 508 independent schools in Britain revealed a strong link between activities such as cricket and chess and examination performance, this was particularly marked in boys-only schools (Garner, 2009). Boys appear to be motivated more by sports than academic work and having achieved success in this area, they do better in others. Team sports, it is argued, afford boys and girls the opportunity to appreciate the friendly aspects of competition and to cope with competition

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in other areas of their lives (Yan and Mccullagh, 2004). An increase in self-worth has been found in situations in which recognition is given to the success resulting from working as a team rather than as an individual. Health benefits (nutrition consciousness displayed in food choices) have also been cited (Stern et al., 1990). However, research has shown that these activities are not related to later civic involvement (McFarland and Thomas, 2006). One of the earliest writers on the subject of Student Councils was Harry McKown (1944). McKown advanced a number of criteria for effective participation in schools. Among these were:

•

a continuous need for the Student Council

•

complete school representation

•

effective representation of the teaching staff

•

effective representation from the point of view of the average student

•

continuous publicity of the activities of the Council

He argued that the main objective of a Student Council is to educate. Contrary to popular belief, he said, it is not an administrative tool, as school administrations can expedite many of the responsibilities of the council more efficiently than students could. It is important however that members of the student council profit educationally from their activities. Education of the student body should be geared towards good citizenship. McKown identified seven facets of good citizenship. These are: (1) a knowledge of the theory of democracy, (2) sentiments of law and order, (3) intelligent respect for authority, (4) increasing self-direction, (5) leadership and followership, (6) cooperation and (7) morale. Cubberly (1925) also argued that good governance depends on the participation of all. As a result, students are prepared for future political life by developing their ability to meet responsibilities, develop initiative, awaken social insight and take on a significant portion of the governance of the school. The Student Council, he felt, was an effective medium to fulfill these objectives.

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Today, Student Councils take a variety of forms and are legislated by governments around the world. The Department of Education and Science in the United Kingdom (2002) defines a Student Council as: a representative structure through which students in a post-primary school can become involved in the affairs of the school, working in partnership with school management and staff and parents for the benefit of the school and its students (p. 8).

The main role of a student council as set out in the Education Act is ‘To promote the interests of the school and the involvement of students in the affairs of the school, in co-operation with the board, parents and teachers’ (Department of Education and Science, 2002, p. 13).

Theoretical Underpinnings Governing Participation Rowe (2003) argued that theoretical perspectives which justify the implementation of youth participation mechanisms fell into three categories. Normative justifications can be linked to the idea of child and human rights, specifically the right to freedom of expression. Article 12 of the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of the Child maintained that the child who is capable of forming a view has the right to express that view in matters affecting the child. Article 13 maintains that a child has the right to seek, receive and impart information subject to restrictions of law and Article 15 protects freedom of assembly and association. These articles envisage a changed relationship between adults and children in which adults would consult and create the conditions that would empower children to express themselves. However, Hart (1992) is concerned that the conventions are stronger on rights than on responsibilities. In order to learn responsibilities students must become engaged in collaborative activities with adults. Participation can also be justified on the basis of respect. Allowing children to become involved in decision making demonstrates the esteem with which they are held. Instrumental justifications place the emphasis on entities such as the school and wider society. Student participation benefits these entities in a variety of ways. For example, improved discipline, better teacher-

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student relations, positive attitudes towards the school are all benefits which the school can enjoy as a result of effective student participation. Finally, educational justifications are rooted in the belief that effective participation will improve individual school performance. Self-esteem, general attainment and an increased sense of self-efficacy and personal collective responsibility are all believed to improve with greater involvement. Some writers have identified several steps or levels of participation in school governance. Hart (1992), for example presents a typology of partnership as a ladder consisting of 8 rungs. Rungs 1 to 3 — manipulation, decoration and tokenism — represent situations in which there is no participation. Students may bear placards, wear decorated T-shirts or may be given a voice but no choice. Rungs four to eight represent increasing levels of participation. These ideas do not as yet have universal acceptance within the teaching profession (Rowe, 2003) and certainly not within the authoritative structure of Caribbean classrooms (Evans, 2001). However, in this critical period for Caribbean education it may be instructive to consider the benefits which children could derive from meaningful interaction with teachers outside the classroom and exposure to the skills and responsibilities that are essential if they are to become participating adults. There is, however a dearth of information on the level of student involvement and participation in extra-curricular activities in the Caribbean. A UNICEF sponsored project was designed to fill this gap and this paper reports on the results. Based on research in a sample of islands in the Eastern Caribbean, the paper seeks to answer the following questions: 1. What is the level of involvement of secondary school students in extra-curricular activities (particularly the Student Council)? 2. What is level of involvement in those activities thought to be associated with future civic engagement? 3. Are there any gender differences in the level of participation among secondary school students? 4. Are there any gender differences in the nature of participation among secondary school students? 5. How does student participation vary across the sample of islands?

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6. What are the factors which affect participation among secondary school students?

The Education System As in most of the former British colonies, the education system in the islands of the Eastern Caribbean was modelled after the British system, providing education at three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary. At the primary and secondary levels, education is provided in both public and private schools with many of the latter being faith based. Education is compulsory and free in public schools for ten years, beginning at the age of five — the entrance age for primary schools — and ending at 16. The entrance age for secondary schools is 12. In most of the countries, standardized examinations are given in the final year of primary school for admission to the secondary level. The countries have either achieved, as in the case of Barbados, or are making efforts to achieve universal access to secondary education. Performance in examinations at the end of secondary schooling is critical to progress either to higher levels of education or to meaningful job opportunities.

Method Participants The study involved a questionnaire survey administered to a sample of students, in-depth interviews with student leaders or executives of the Student Council in each school and interviews with the school principals or nominees. The sample comprised male and female students attending public secondary schools in four islands in the Eastern Caribbean — Barbados, Antigua and Barbuda, Saint Lucia and Grenada. There were 68 public secondary schools in the four islands (table 1) and a 30 per cent sample was taken.

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Table 1. Number of Secondary Schools in Selected Countries Country

Number of Secondary Schools

Barbados

20

Antigua & Barbuda

9

Grenada

16

Saint Lucia

23

The selection of schools was made on the basis of three criteria:

•

Geographical region: both rural and urban schools in each of the islands were selected.

•

Educational achievement: an attempt was made to include the highest and lowest achieving schools in the island. This was based on Caribbean Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC) results of previous years.

•

Sex of school population: both single sex schools (male and female) as well as co-educational schools were included in the sample.

The survey was administered to 946 school children randomly selected from forms two to five in 19 schools. The exclusion of form one was due to the belief that new students would have limited knowledge of the Student Council. The ages of the respondents ranged from 11 to 17 and with the help of the school, an attempt was made to ensure that the sex composition of the respondents reflected that of the school. The distribution is shown in table 2.

Table 2. Distribution of the Sample of Schools in Four Islands (#) Country

Schools

Female

Total

Barbados

5

143

107

250

Antigua

4

87

111

198

Grenada

5

93

157

250

Saint Lucia

5

105

143

248

19

428

518

946

Total

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Instruments A questionnaire was designed to collect data for this study. There were three main sections in the questionnaire: demographics, participation in extra-curricular activities (excluding Student Councils), and participation in Student Councils. The demographic section asked questions relating to age, sex and school level. School-based activities for the purpose of this study referred to any club or organization in which the student was involved which was organized by the school they attended. Both sections referring to participation in extra-curricular activities and the Student Council requested information related to the extent to which students participated, reasons for their participation or failure to participate, and their views on participation or non- participation. Although the study was concerned with participation in all extra-curricular activities, the Student Council was seen as the main form of student governance in secondary schools in the Caribbean and as such has a special role to play in future civic participation. Therefore, it was decided that involvement in this organization should be analysed separately. The in-depth interviews were designed to ascertain the barriers to student participation as perceived by student leaders and executive members of the Student Council. To this end, the interviewees were asked to comment on the sex composition of student participants, the reasons they believed that some students did not participate, the barriers to the participation of students in general as well as based on sex. Student leaders were also asked their opinion on what they felt could to be done to increase participation. Principals/nominees were asked to describe the difficulties they faced in sustaining organizations such as the Student Council within their school. Procedure The study began with a desktop/telephone review of existing data on Student Councils in the four islands. The review began with an audit of government documentation to ascertain a) the number of schools currently in operation. b) whether or not there was legislation governing the establishment of Student Councils in the four islands.

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Each school was then contacted to determine the various activities that they offered as well as the existence of an active Student Council. In keeping with the guidelines for research in schools, consent to approach the students and to secure their voluntary participation was obtained from the school administrations. Research was carried out during the first few weeks of the new school year (September 2008) during school hours. Questionnaires were administered simultaneously and took an average of 35 minutes to be completed. Two trained interviewers (one male and one female) collected and entered the data on the entire sample. Interviews with principals/nominees took an average of 10 minutes while those held with the student leaders took an average of 30 minutes to be completed. They were recorded with the aid of a tape recorder and analysed using NVivo.

Results The Questionnaire Survey Extra-curricular Activities Respondents were asked to indicate the extra-curricular activities in which they were currently involved. In addition to sports, which are offered by all the schools, a variety of after-school activities were listed. There was however considerable variety in the range of options which were available within and among the islands. For example, in Barbados, the number of activities offered ranged from five to nine. One school in Saint Lucia offered as many as 14. The organizations and clubs covered a number of specific interests. Some, such as Key Club, Interact, the Red Cross, and 4H were community service organizations. Others combined service with enrichment opportunities and dynamics for future high performance — Junior Achievers, Young Leaders. Some of the clubs were centred around academic and career interests such as foreign languages, science and geography; and yet others were special interest clubs such as gavel, craft, hiking, music, drama, health and the environment. Unlike findings elsewhere (Garner, 2009), there was no relationship between the schools’ academic standing and the number of non-sport activities offered. However, at the top, there seemed to be a relationship

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between the academic standing of the school and the number of students who were involved in one or more after-school activity; in all the countries surveyed, the best performing schools academically also had the highest percentage of students involved in non-sport after-school activities. The situation was affected by the fact that in three countries — Saint Lucia, Grenada and Antigua/Barbuda, these top performing schools were allgirls’ schools and girls tended to be more committed to after-school nonsport activities. In Barbados, however, the school occupying this position was co-educational. Student participation in one or more activity was relatively high. Participation was highest in Grenada and lowest in Antigua and Barbuda (table 3). A Pearson’s chi square test was done to test the statistical significance. The differences were found to be statistically significant (phi coefficient significant at p < .001).

Table 3. Student Participation in One or More Activity (%) Country

%

Barbados

84

Antigua & Barbuda

55

Grenada

91

Saint Lucia

80

Girls tended to be involved in a wider range of activities than boys. In the main, they were also attracted to different types of organizations. In Barbados, for example, girls formed 75 percent of the members of the Key Club. The other organizations which captured the interest of girls were Girl Guides and the Student Council. Boys were attracted to the empowering Cadets and Key Club. In Grenada, the organizations most often named by boys were Junior Achievers, Cadets and Young Leaders. Girls were attracted to Junior Achievers, 4H clubs and Girl Guides. Girls therefore appeared to be more service oriented in their choices than boys. In all the islands participation in sports was greater than in nonsporting activities. For example, 67 per cent of all students in the sample claimed participation in an extra-curricular sporting activity and the sex disparity was great — 82 per cent male and 41 per cent female. A Pearson’s

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chi square test was done to test the statistical significance. In each of the four islands sex differences in participation were statistically significant (phi coefficient significant at p< 0.001). Boys are less involved in serviceoriented activities and more in sports. They are less likely, therefore, to be exposed to the skills that allow them to become engaged in decisionmaking processes that affect their lives and the lives of people in their communities. Table 4 shows the reasons given by the students for their participation in after school activities and the broad similarities in their responses — the desire to become involved in the activities of the school, encouragement by parents and friends. There were no marked sex differences except that boys were more likely than girls to be influenced by friends. The majority of those who did not participate claimed that they were too busy or not interested, with the level of disinterest highest in Saint Lucia (68 per cent). Some 20 per cent of the respondents in Barbados claimed that after-school activities ended too late.

Table 4. Reasons for Participation in After-school Activities (%) Country

Become involved

Encouraged by parents

Look good on report

Encouraged by friends

Other

Barbados

46

16

16

11

11

Saint Lucia

65

20

0

14

1

Grenada

65

20

0

14

1

Antigua/ Barbuda

61

0

12

27

0

There were 109 students, or 11.5 per cent of the sample in the four countries, who took no part in any extra-curricular activities. Table 5 shows the distribution. Just over 41 per cent of these students attended schools in Antigua/Barbuda and the pattern was the same for boys and girls. It is possible that more encouragement from parents (table 4) may increase the participation of students from Antigua and Barbuda. Parents are in a powerful position to help to shape civic commitment. A Pearson’s chi square test was done to test the statistical significance of male and female non-participation. In none of the islands was the difference in

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non-participation between boys and girls statistically significant. The participation of boys in non-sport activities was low relative to that of girls but their participation in sports exceeded that of girls.

Table 5. Percentage Taking no part in any Extra-curricular Activity Country Barbados

Boys

Girls

Average

7.7

8.4

8.0

Saint Lucia

13.3

6.3

9.3

Grenada

12.9

5.7

8.4

Antigua/ Barbuda

21.8

23.4

22.7

Average

13.1

10.2

11.5

The Student Council As stated earlier, particular attention was paid to involvement in the Student Council because of the important role it can play in the preparation for future citizenship. Governments of several countries including Wales (School Council Regulations, 2005) and Norway (B´rhaug, 2007) have recognized the important role that the Student Council plays and as such have legislated for its inclusion in school programmes. In the four Caribbean islands sampled, only Barbados had made legislative provisions for this. In 2007, the Ministry of Education in Barbados mandated that every public secondary institution should have a Student Council which should consist of student representatives and at least one staff adviser elected by the students. Students should be given the right to elect representatives to the council democratically; have meetings with the secondary school board; meet the principal and staff, or both, on any matter affecting the students’ welfare and interest and hold regular meetings to conduct business on their behalf with due regard to the smooth functioning of the institution (Minsitry of Education, Barbados, 2007). In an official document circulated to all public secondary schools in the island, the Ministry stated that the Student Council was the most important of all youth organizations, the medium by which students are able to have their say in all matters related to the operation of the institution

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of learning and the means of preparing them for life outside of the school environment. It is through the council, the document stated, that students would be able to make administrators aware of the issues facing them in schools. The council therefore, was presented as an avenue for addressing issues, as well as for students’ participation in the education system (Ministry of Education, 2007). At the time of the interviews, three of the secondary schools in the island did not have a functioning Students’ Council. The situation in the other islands however was somewhat different. There is no legislation governing the implementation of Student Councils in Antigua and Barbuda and none of the schools have functioning councils. The Ministry of Education in Saint Lucia, though in the process of preparing a revised school governance document, is making no provision for the regulation of Student Councils. The decision to establish councils is to be left to the schools’ administration. Grenada is in the process of finalizing guidelines but the establishment will not be mandatory. The vast majority of secondary schools in the island already have Student Councils and while the majority was established recently, in one of the schools a Student Council has been in existence for more than 20 years. The percentage of schools with an active Student Council in each island is shown in table 6.

Table 6. Distribution of Student Councils

Country

% of schools with a Student Council

Barbados

86

Saint Lucia

61

Grenada

94

Antigua/ Barbuda

0

The students were asked whether they knew of the existence of the Student Council in their schools and overall, knowledge was high. In a few schools in Barbados and Saint Lucia, knowledge of the existence of the organization fell below 50 per cent of the sample; and while in some cases poor knowledge was more likely to be found in the lowest forms, in others it was spread throughout the school.

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In all the islands, students were elected to the Council by their classmates and the percentage of the sample that comprised elected members ranged from 10 in Barbados and Saint Lucia to 13 in Grenada. Participation in the meetings and activities of the councils among the respondents was extremely low, ranging from 7 per cent in Barbados to 9 and 10 per cent in Saint Lucia and Grenada, respectively. Girls were more likely to participate than boys although differences were not statistically significant. The responses to a question designed to assess the extent to which the students saw the organization as being important revealed that as far as they were concerned the role of the council was to improve the quality of their school experience. In the three islands where councils existed, they were primarily an avenue for expression — to give students a role in the decision-making process and to place on the agenda, issues which teachers might not see as being important. Despite the recognition of the role that councils could play, few gave their time to the organization. Some students were not involved because they were unaware of the existence of the organization. However, almost 20 per cent of the sample in Barbados, the largest single group, and 15 per cent in Saint Lucia, second to those who claimed ignorance, held that student councils were a waste of their time. The percentage giving this as a reason in Grenada was much smaller as more claimed that they were too busy with other extra-curricular activities (27 per cent). In Barbados and Saint Lucia, boys were more likely to claim that it was a waste of their time than girls. Interestingly, girls in those two islands appeared to be discouraged by the low profile of the council within the schools and the fact that despite having signified their willingness to serve, they had not been elected as class representatives. Responses by a few students in Saint Lucia pointed to the importance of clarity and openness in the attitude of the school administration to the council. Students preferred to ‘stand on the sidelines’. They did not want to appear to be ‘troublemakers to the school administrators’. A few students (9 per cent) in Grenada cited difficulties in ‘dealing with’ the school administration. Obviously, if students fear that they may be victimized because of their involvement, there is no clear and shared understanding of the role of the Student Councils.

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To encourage greater involvement the largest single group of students in Barbados (24 per cent) and Saint Lucia (43 per cent) felt that there should be more ‘fun activities’. The majority of the students in the three countries however saw the need for improvement in the management of the councils — meetings to explain the function, better organization, greater involvement and encouragement from the staff. The Interviews Semi-structured interviews were held with executive members of the Student Council in each school and this confirmed the low level of participation of the student body. Significantly, perhaps the greatest level of involvement in the three islands was reported from three academically high performing schools. Two reasons were advanced for the apathy displayed. The first was the low profile of the councils within the schools. With the exception of a few schools in Grenada where the Councils were a very recent phenomenon, and one school in Saint Lucia, members attributed this situation to a lack of support by the schools’ administration. The establishment of Student Councils is a major project to which the entire school should be committed. For the council to function effectively the school community should be made aware of its existence, be educated about what a council is and its role should be clarified. Poor administrative support, members said, explained why so many students did not know of the existence of the council or its functions. If, as one Barbadian student said, there was an attempt to educate the school community at the beginning of the school year — for example mentioning the Council at assembly — not only would there be an increase in the level of awareness but, significantly, students would not be ‘intimidated’ by the prospect of becoming involved. The indifference of the staff, said a Grenadian student ‘seeped down to the students’. However, Grenadian students also blamed student members of the council who were not serious and who approached the task with a lack of conviction. They made promises which they knew that they could not fulfil — air conditioning for every classroom – and so undermined the credibility of the organization. The second reason given for the low level of involvement was the unwillingness of male students to participate. Except in one high

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performing school in Barbados, girls dominated membership of the Student Council. Boys do not participate, the students said, because it is seen as a ‘nerdish’ activity. A young man from Barbados explained that if a male student had already made a good reputation for himself before joining, then participation was easier. If not, then his friends would see him as a ‘nerd’: If you were not already popular then you are a nerd … throughout the school. Nobody cares if you feel bad. You are a nerd and that is how they classify you. So guys shy away from organizations like this.

Similar sentiments were expressed by a male student in Grenada: ‘Those who join are called ‘nerds’ or told that they are a part of an organization that is for girls.’ Peer pressure was seen as the most important factor affecting male participation. Female students in Saint Lucia and Grenada stated: People who they call their friends will criticize them . . . guys are very affected by peer pressure. Boys want to be accepted by their group. They will stay away from these groups just to be accepted. If one friend does not want to do it, none of them will do it.

Sporting activities (kicking ball), one female student said, were more in keeping with the profile of the dominant male. In addition, a female participant from Barbados argued that the domination of this activity by girls often left boys feeling that they could not compete. Boys became more aware of their deficiencies, their inability to communicate as well as girls: I think that some boys feel that to be in these kinds of organizations makes them less powerful. I think they see girls speaking well and feel that if they speak so well they must be smarter, and then they just sit back and don’t participate.

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Though the respondents did acknowledge that there are many girls who did not participate, the general consensus was that it was effectively a male problem. It was felt that girls possessed the qualities necessary to succeed in organizations such as this. One girl disclosed, ‘Girls don’t tend to shy away from things like this. They step up to the plate. They don’t care what others say.’ Because girls had higher self esteem than boys, they said, they are not as easily influenced by peer pressure as boys because girls tend to ‘set their own goals and standards’. As a result, a Saint Lucian student said that boys who participate in Student Councils are forced to do so by their teachers. In effect, boys, in the opinion of one of the discussants, avoided organizations that could assist them in overcoming deficiencies and develop their potential to fill leadership roles. A successful Student Council requires the dedication of not only the student body, but also school administrators. This was recognized by the students. The liaison teachers, in particular, have a critical role to play. O’Gorman (1998) cautions that teachers must be able to steer without taking over — they must know when to advise caution and when to encourage. They must be able to help the councils to develop cohesion and evaluate their performance, and must avoid the attitude that it is entirely up to the students to make the councils successful. In effect, the teacher has to be carefully chosen and has to be trained to bridge the gap between students and teachers — often two conflicting bodies. In this context, the teacher is no longer a taskmaster. Both work toward a common goal, with students benefitting from teachers’ experience, managerial contacts and organizational skill. There was a need to determine how seriously school administrations in the four islands took the issue of extra-curricular activities, and in particular, the Student Council. To this end, interviews were held with school Principals or elected nominees. Principals recognized the important role that students could play and the need for greater student democracy. However, they admitted that the lack of teacher guidance was a critical factor affecting the operation of the councils in their schools. Teachers were either ‘not interested’ or not in place.

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The principals commented: ‘There is a lack of guidance for the students.’ ‘We can’t find the right teachers to inspire and motivate the students’ “[There are] not sufficient teachers motivating the students. “Teachers are not interested in it.” ‘It should resume once the teacher is back from her studies.’

In addition, the absence of teacher guidance is implicit in the statement, ‘The council members focus on insignificant things such as Dress Down Day. They do not advocate for empowerment or address serious school or other issues.’ Durr (2004) cites this as a common problem which may be attributed to the possibility that teachers may be uncomfortable with the idea of students taking an active role in the decision making process, an attitude that may be explained by their experiences in authoritarian education systems. In addition, there may be pressures of other responsibilities (O’Gorman, 1998) or the problem of the low status of the council within the school.

Conclusion Participation in extra-curricular activities has been linked through welldesigned longitudinal studies to later civic involvement (Beck and Jennings 1982; McNeal 1995; Eccles and Barber 1999). The role of extra-curricular activities is important in the developmental process with a number of scholars pointing to participation as a form of social learning and a practical way of fostering the characteristics necessary for adult involvement especially in the political sphere (Verba, Schlozman and Brady, 1995; Putnam 2000). Well-designed programmes foster skills that are necessary, not only for leadership positions — communication, decision making, problem-solving – but for success in adult life. The study revealed a fairly high level of involvement of girls and boys in extra-curricular activities in the four islands in the survey. The

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level of involvement in Antigua and Barbuda was, however, relatively low. There were important gender differences in participation levels as boys were more likely to be involved in sports and less likely to participate in service-oriented activities than girls. Certain extra-curricular activities have been found to be more effective in promoting future civic engagement than others. These include service organizations, vocational groups and in particular, the Student Council. It is argued that such activities more effectively mirror adult participation than activities such as sports, which, though important in increasing self-worth and represent a constructive use of time, are less related to the type of interaction characteristic of adult civic involvement (McFarland and Thomas, 2006). In view of these findings, and in view of the gender dimension to the at-risk youth, targeted interventions aimed at increasing the level of participation among male Caribbean students in non-sporting extra-curricular activities may be appropriate. This could minimize the risk of further marginalization of young males and an alienation from democratic processes. If participation protects students from risky behavior; if it fosters commitment to community service, then it should be seen as a policy issue and efforts made to ensure the participation of the more disaffected young boys Miller (2000) argued that citizenship is not simply a question of entitlement to certain rights and privileges, but also of active engagement in the workings of the community. The educational sphere is the prime location for the development of the ‘active citizen’, that is, the citizen who is committed to the improvement of community life through participation in public service. It is during the period of youth that the groundwork is laid for future community involvement. The apparent apathy with which the young view the political process has been cited as evidence of the development of the so-called ‘deficient citizens’ (Lister, Smith, Middleton and Cox, 2005). Indeed, research on political participation has demonstrated that the period of youth is a critical juncture and has major implications for future political activation (Nie, Junn and Stehlik-Barry 1996; Putnam 2000). There are few formal mechanisms in Caribbean schools for allowing students to participate in governance issues. Student Councils offer them the opportunity to practise democracy in their daily lives and to experience

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how democracy works in practice. The Councils provide active citizenship experience in three areas that are important in citizenship education. There is a social and moral component in that it teaches responsible behaviour; the involvement in the affairs of the school adds a community aspect. Finally, the political component relates to the acquisition of confidence and the skills that will make students effective in public life. The Student Council provides a viable option for effective, practical citizenship education. Studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects on the student body (McFarland and Thomas, 2006); the associated development of communication and negotiating skills and its potential for building stronger communities. Caribbean territories would benefit greatly from the promotion of Student Councils and citizenship education. At the time of the interviews, there were no functioning Student Councils in the Antiguan school sample. There was also a low level of involvement of Antiguan students in extra curricular activities. Although provisions are being made for the establishment of Student Councils in the other islands, there are no plans to make the establishment compulsory. Seeing that participation in extra-curricular activities is not compulsory there is a strong case for making legislative provisions, as Barbados has, for the establishment of Student Councils. However, the study has shown that where they have been established, they are not operating in an optimal manner and that mechanisms are needed to ensure that they exist not only for the purpose of accountability, but that they function. School administrators admit that support structures are weak and this may help to explain the indifference of the majority of students. School administrators and students need a clear understanding of why the introduction of provisions for student democracy is important. In addition, the council and its activities must have a high profile in the schools. The teacher serving in the role as liaison is key and must be trained and supported in the role. Members of the council also, must be trained to manage meetings and the expectations of their peers, to listen to and interpret the arguments of others, to settle conflicts, to build consensus, to represent the views of their members in negotiating with administrators. These are the competences that they are expected to acquire through active participation in the democratic management of their schools, and

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that will prepare them to live harmoniously in a democratic society. Both boys and girls need these competences.

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